Burani 1

Mariela Burani

Tutor Rivero

Linguistics II

23 November 2009

5 The Construction of Humour in "On Love” by Woody Allen

1. Introduction

The present paper aims at showing how humour, as a rhetorical device, is achieved in

the short essay "On Love" by Woody Allen (See Appendix A). For this purpose, the

notion of Functions of Language together with the Features of the Context of Situation

10will be used in order to analyse the chosen text.

2. Theoretical framework

As the theoretical framework used in this paper is based on the assumption that

the way into understanding language lies in the study of texts, we will start by defining

15what we mean by ‘text’, together with the notion of ‘context of situation.’ Then, we will

establish a simple conceptual framework of three headings: Field, Tenor and Mode, that

will help establish the social context in which the meanings of the text are being

exchanged (Halliday & Hassan, 1991.) Finally, we will delineate the notion of

‘function’ and the ‘functions of language’ as proposed by Halliday (Halliday, 1994.)

20

A text is any stretch of language that is fulfilling some part in a context of

situation. The text is the place where language and its functions interact with the context

of situation. Moreover, the text has marks that signal this interaction, this

interrelationship between language and context.

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25 The notion of context of situation used in the functional approach, derives from

the one delineated by the anthropologist Malinowski. The context of situation is the

environment of the text: not only the immediate information where the linguistic

interaction is taken place, but also the culture where the text emerges (context of

culture.)

30 For a textual analysis, it is necessary to distinguish the three features that will

help to characterize a text in its relation to the context of situation.

The Field of Discourse refers to what is happening; the nature of the social

action taking place and what is that the participants are doing.

The Tenor of Discourse refers to who is taking part and what are the roles the

35participants are fulfilling.

The Mode of Discourse refers to what part the language is playing; the symbolic

organisation of the text and the function the text has in its context. This includes the

channel and the rhetorical mode.

40 Halliday’s perspective to language, places the notion of function as a

fundamental principle. Function is a property of language itself, which can also explain

the organisation of every natural language.

Language derives its meaning from the social and personal demands that is

required to fulfill. In order to do this, we choose from the options available by the

45system. This system is the ‘grammar’ of the language, its ‘meaning potential.’

In order to create meaning, language operates through the linguistic networks of

systems. Halliday distinguishes three main language functions.

The ideational function expresses cognitive meaning or propositional content;

this function draws on the systems and networks of Transitivity to create propositions
 5 Burani 3

50that convey the user’s experience of the real or external world of the senses and the

inner world of the mind.

The interpersonal function expresses speech functional meaning; this function

draws on the systems and networks of Mood and Modality to create sentences that carry

the cognitive and logical content of propositions and display the speaker’s relations with

55others. It is used for the expression of social roles and social relations.

The four primary speech functions (offer, command statement and questions) are

expressed grammatically by the system of mood. The principle options are declarative,

interrogative and imperative. According to the kind of utterance chosen by the speaker,

a difference in the communication role adopted by the speaker/writer will be conveyed.

60 Modality is expressed in the intermediate degrees we can find between the

polarity choice (yes-no). These degrees are manifested through modal verbs, but also

through other items which are closely related to the clause such as mood adjuncts and

comment adjuncts.

By resorting to these systems, the social roles are expressed in the text together

65with the attitude of the writer towards both, his interlocutor and the text. By analyzing

this function we can also infer how subjectivity is expressed.

The textual function expresses discoursal meaning; it draws from the systems

and networks of Theme to create and realize utterances (or texts) in actual

communicative events and to order content cohesively. The textual meaning is what

70makes it into a text, as distinct from a string of sentences.

According to Hasan, ‘texture’ is an important source for textual unity as it is a

matter of meaning relations which constitute it. She claims that ‘the texture of a text is

manifested by certain kinds of semantic relations between its individual messages.’ The
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property of texture is related to the listener’s (or reader’s) perception of coherence.

75(Halliday and Hasan 70)

3. Functional Analysis applied to “On Love”

3.1. The Functions of Language analysed in “On Love”

3.1.1. The Ideational Function

80 We shall consider each of the functions in turn as they are reflected in our text.

As stated in the theoretical background, the ideational function draws its

meaning from the system of Transitivity. The three main types of transitivity role are:

process, participant and circumstance. Broadly speaking, they correspond to the three

major word (or word group) classes found in most languages: verb, noun, and adverb.

85Typically, in English, processes are usually represented by verbal groups, participants

by nominal groups and circumstances by adverbial groups.

After conducting a data analysis of the types of processes present in the text it

was found that, out of forty-three: twenty are relational processes; ten are mental

processes; five are material processes; three are verbal processes; three are behavioural

90processes; and only two are existential processes. (See Appendix B)

Following these findings, the participants mostly associated with the processes

roles are: in the first place, attributer and identifier; then senser, actor, sayer, behavier

and finally, existent.

953.1.2. The Interpersonal Function

Let us examine how the interpersonal meaning is built up in “On Love.”

As it was said before, the interpersonal function draws upon the system of mood

and modality to encode meaning.

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10
In terms of mood, the presence of Subject plus Finite, realizes the feature

100'indicative.' In the text the majority of the clauses are expressed as declarative. Only two

clauses are expressed through interrogatives. Most of the finite verbs are expressed in

the present tense. (See Appendix C)

The only instance of ‘imperative’ is the clause “Bear in mind (…)” (l.10) in

which the absence of Mood element realizes this feature.

105 The modal verbs in the text express mainly obligation and possibility.

As regards modality there is a high frequency of Mood adjuncts. They express

the meanings of probability, usuality, obligation, obviousness, intensity and degree.

There is only one Comment adjunct. (See Appendix D)

When considering the text as a piece of interaction between locutor and

110interlocutor, we note that the speaker is represented by the "I" who identifies

him/herself immediately when the opening question is uttered, and then in the

expression 'I refer to romantic love ...' (l.2). Further in the text the locutor is also

identified in the clause ‘I suppose… '(l. 10.) This locutor establishes a relationship with

his/her interlocutor by the use of the general pronoun ‘one.’ This formal use instead of

115‘you’ also includes the locator himself/herself.

In the following instances we can trace how the locutor involves his/her

interlocutor: ‘(…) when one is in love (… )’ (l.4); ‘(…) as one can be admired (…)’

(l.6-8); 'To be a really good lover, then, one must be (…)’ (l.9)

We can also trace how the locutor establishes the person polarity towards the

120“he” and “she” references identified in the text. "He" is identified in: "the ardent male"

(l. 5); and in "the beholder" (l. 13). The reference given to "she" can be identified as

"the loved one” (l. 11).

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3.1.3. The Textual Function

125 After analysing the text in terms of its 'texture', we were able to identify the

grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used which give this piece of discourse unity

and continuity. These lexico-grammatical patterns, make the text coherent and cohesive.

(See Appendix E)

As regards grammatical cohesion, we could find instances of pronominal and

130demonstratives references as well as nominal, verbal and clausal substitution and

ellipsis.

Lexical cohesion, is achieved by the use of repetition .But it can also be noticed

two antithetical semantic fields to characterize “love”. The antithesis is usually achieved

by the clash of different types of associations. These can be play on words (literal vs.

135metaphoric meaning), cultural contradictions, etc.

Love is ... (clichés)  Love … (in this text)

 romantic love (between man and  not between two headwaiters
women) 
 singing   must be avoided at all costs
 admiration: from afar (courtly love)  be in the same room with the person;
 crouching behind the drapes (=having sex)
 strength (acceptance; patience) and  strength: being able to lift 50 pounds
tenderness 
 beauty is in the eye of the beholder.  if the beholder has poor eyesight
(proverb; metaphorical use) (literal meaning)
 the prettiest girls   the most boring
 troubadour song (courtly love)   I’m a Yankee doodle dandy (military
song; not romantic)

As regards the thematic organization of the clauses, we could see that the

Theme-Rheme pattern is followed throughout the whole text.

The majority of the clauses have as their Themes, the point of departure of their

140message, the topic of the essay, i.e., love or some lexical item associated with it:

To be the lover or the loved one (l.1); Neither (ellipsis: the lover or the loved one) (l.2);
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By love (l.2); the love between (l.2) is echoed through ellipsis between following

clauses: between mother and child, or a boy and his dog, or two headwaiters. (l.3)

“The marvelous thing” (l. 4); "This” (the impulse to sing) (l.4) “To be loved” (l.6) "to

145really love someone" (l.7); "to be a really good lover" (l.9) "Beauty" (12).

As regards to the Information structure, the findings were very interesting.

According to Halliday, an information unit does not correspond exactly to any unit in

the clause grammar: ‘information (...) is the tension between what is already known or

predictable and what is new or unpredictable.’ Although, ideally, each information unit

150comprises a Given element accompanied by a New element, there may be deviations to

this principle. For instance, when discourse starts, we can have discourse-initiating units

consisting of a New element only. Moreover, there may be information that the speaker

wants to present as Given for rhetorical purposes and not because it has been already

presented. This information will be treated as recoverable by the situation, probably

155based on the assumption that the participants in the interaction share common ground

knowledge.

In order to see how Given–New information was distributed in our text, we

divided it into different units and labeled them. The analysis showed that Given

information usually coincided with the topic of the essay, or with general assumptions

160towards the topic. Surprisingly, New information, presented statements which

constituted unexpected associations to the topic. (See Appendix F.)

3.2. Analysis of the Features of the Context of Situation in “On Love”

3.2.1. The Field of Discourse

165 As far as the field of discourse is concerned, we can say that the text is about

peculiar characteristics of love. As the title of the essay refers, the writer gives us
 15 Burani 8

insights, about love. He uses many clichés, but when he makes his own observations

they all have a twist which proves to be very humorous.

The concept of love and its characteristics is first reflected in the vocabulary, but

170it is also embodied in the transitivity structures in the grammar. The high frequency of

relational processes and its participants accounts for the need to identify or attribute

characteristics to love, the lover or the loved one. In addition, the presence of mental

processes reflect the thoughts of the writer. Finally, we can observe that whenever

material processes are used, they are mainly found when a humorous effect is desired.

175(eg.: crouching behind the drapes (l.8); being able to lift fifty pounds (l.10)

3.2.2. The Tenor of Discourse

The participants within this text are the locutor (“I”) and his/her audience. This

“I” is extended itself to the "you" by means of the use of the generic pronoun "one".

180Through this choice of pronoun, the locutor involves the interlocutor in the observations

in the essay.

The “I” in the text, is perceived as a source of authority and a specialist on the

topic. This is consistent with the generic framework of the text, namely that of an essay.

An essay is usually a piece of discourse that reflects the thoughts and opinions of the

185writer over a particular topic. It is worth adding that in the introduction to “The Early

Essays”, the author says that the essays are modeled on Bacon’s style.

The role of the locutor as a source of wisdom on the matter is perceived in the

assertive tone used in the statements. Most of these statements are encoded in

declarative clauses. Assertiveness is also achieved through the system of Modality. The

190use of the present tense also accounts for the characterization of "love” as a universal

truth.
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Another interesting feature worth noticing is how the locutor characterizes

traditional gender roles through the use of the pronouns “he” and “she”. The references

to “He” are: “the lover”, “the ardent male” and “the beholder”, all of these references, in

195gender terms, are perceived as active roles. On the contrary, the reference to "she" as

"the loved one", is perceives as a clear passive role.

3.2.3. The Mode of Discourse

The mode of discourse is a written essay. The essay is a genre associated with a

200composition which discusses a topic, and which is didactically in tone.

In this particular text, we have a series or rational arguments about the topic

followed by unexpected associations to the topic. These can be seen in the two semantic

fields which are antithetical in themselves. The antithesis adds to the humorous effect

intended.

205 The distribution of information is also another feature which makes the text a

highly successful example of humour. New information, located somewhere in the

Rheme, constitutes not only the climaxes in the text, but it also builts up for the overall

humorous effects of the essay.

2104. Conclusion

This paper has examined how humour as a rhetorical effect is achieved through

the choices available in the different systems of language in order to create meaning. It

has also explored how the functions of language are projected onto the features of the

context of situation in order to realise their semantic systems.

215
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20
APPENDIX A

On Love

220 Is it better to be the lover or the loved one? Neither, if your cholesterol is over

six hundred. By love, of course, I refer to romantic love—the love between man and

woman, rather than between mother and child, or a boy and his dog, or two headwaiters.

The marvelous thing is that when one is in love there is an impulse to sing. This

must be resisted at all costs, and care must also be taken to see that the ardent male

225doesn’t “talk” the lyrics of songs. To be loved, certainly, is different from being

admired, as one can be admired from afar but to really love someone it is essential to be

in the same room with the person, crouching behind the drapes.

To be a really good lover, then, one must be strong and yet tender. How strong?

I suppose being able to lift fifty pounds should do it. Bear in mind also that to the lover

230the loved one is always the most beautiful thing imaginable, even though to a stranger

she may be indistinguishable from an order of smelts. Beauty is in the eye of the

beholder. Should the beholder have poor eyesight, he can ask the nearest person which

girls look good. (Actually, the prettiest ones are almost always the most boring, and that

is why some people feel there is no God.)

235 “The joys of love are but a moment long,” sang the troubadour, “but the pain of

love endures forever.” This was almost a hit song, but the melody was too close to “I’m

a Yankee Doodle Dandy.”

(From “The Early Essays.” Complete Prose, Woody Allen. London: Picador, 1997.p.63)
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APPENDIX B

Types of Processes in “On Love”

Material Behavioral Mental Verbal Relational Existential
must be to sing (l.4) is in love (l.4) refer (l.2) is (l.1) is (l.4)
resisted (l.5)
be taken (l.5) to see (l.11) to be loved (not) talk (l.6) to be (l.1) is (l.15)
(l.6)
crouching (l.8) sang (l.16) being admired can ask (l.13) is (l.1)
(ll.6-7)
being able can be admired is (l.4)
(l.10) (l.7)
to lift (l.10) love (l.7) is (l.6)
suppose (l.10) is (l.7)
bear (l.10) to be (l.7)
look (l.14) to be (l.9)
feel (l.14) must be (l.9)
endure (l.17) do (l.10)
is (l.11)
may be (l.12)
is (l.12)
have (l-13)
are (l.14)
is (l.15)
are (l.16)
was (l.17)
was (l.17)
'm (l.17)
Total: 5 Total: 3 Total: 10 Total: 3 Total: 20 Total: 2
240

245

APPENDIX C

Analysis of selected clauses from the text in terms of mood

Is it better to be the lover or the loved one

Finite (present) Sub- ject
Res.
Mood
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Neither, if your cholesterol is over six hundred.

Subject Finite
Residue Mood Residue
250
The marvelous is that when one is in love there is an impulse to
thing sing.
Subject Finite (present)
Mood Residue

one is in love there is an impulse to sing.

Subject Finite (present)
Mood Residue

there is an impulse to sing.

Subject Finite (present)
Mood Residue

This must be resisted at all costs.

Subject Finite
Mood Residue

care must also be taken that the ardent male doesn’t “talk”
the lyrics of the song.
Subject Finite
Mood Residue
255

the ardent male doesn’t talk the lyrics of the song.

Subject Finite (present)
Residue

one can be admired from afar

Subject Finite
Mood Residue

I suppose being able to lift fifty pounds should do it.

Subject Finite (present)
Mood Residue

the loved one is always the most beautiful thing imaginable

Subject Finite (present)
Mood Residue
260 APPENDIX D

Mood Adjuncts
Polarity & Modality Temporality Mood
polarity not (l. 6) time obviousness of course (l.2)
probability certainly (l.6) typicality intensity really (l.7)
really (l.9)
usuality always (l.11) degree almost (l.14)
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always (l.14) almost (l.17)

readiness
obligation at all costs
(l.5)
Comment Adjuncts

actually (l. 14)

265

270

275

APPENDIX E

Summary of cohesive devices in “On Love”

Non- Structural Cohesion

Componential Relations
Grammatical Cohesive Devices
Realisations in the text
Reference
Pronominal: she the loved one (l. 12)
Pronominal: he the beholder (l. 13)
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Pronominal: one girls (l.14)

Demonstratives: this
Demonstratives: that
Demonstratives: this
Substitution & Ellipsis
Nominal: rather than ,… or, … , or …(l.3)
Verbal: yet tender (l. 9)
Clausal: Neither (l. 1)
an impulse to sing (l.4)
the prettiest ones are almost the most boring
(l.14)
“The joys of love are but a moment long, (...)
but the pain of love endures forever.” (ll. 16-
17)
the love
must be
to be the lover or the loved one

Lexical Cohesive Devices

General
Repetition: lover (l.1; 9, 10) loved one (l.1; 11) love (l.2;
2; 2;4; 16; 17)
Instantial equivalence man /woman (ll.2-3) mother/child(l.3) (boy
/dog (l.3)
the most beautiful thing imaginable – an
order of smelts (ll.11-12)
the prettiest ones – the most boring (l.14)
Organic Relations
Conjunctives:
Adjacency pairs: Question-–Answer Is it better to be (…) (l.1) Neither, if your
(Rhetorical Question) cholesterol (…) (ll. 1-2)
How strong? I suppose… (l. 9-10)

280
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APPENDIX F
Is it better to be the lover or the loved one? Neither, if your cholesterol is over six
New Given New
hundred.
285
By love, of course, I refer to romantic love—the love between man and woman, rather
Given New Given
than between mother and child, or a boy and his dog, or two headwaiters.
New
290
The marvelous thing is that when one is in love there is an impulse to sing. This
Given New Given
must be resisted at all costs, and care must also be taken to see that the ardent male
New New
295doesn’t “talk” the lyrics of songs.
New

To be loved, certainly, is different from being admired, as one can be admired from afar
Given New Given
300but to really love someone it is essential to be in the same room with the person,
Given New
crouching behind the drapes.
New
To be a really good lover, then, one must be strong and yet tender. How strong?
305 Given New Given
I suppose being able to lift fifty pounds should do it.
New
Bear in mind also that to the lover the loved one is always the most beautiful thing
Given
310imaginable, even though to a stranger she may be indistinguishable from an order of
New
smelts.

Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Should the beholder have poor eyesight, he can ask
315Given New
the nearest person which girls look good. (Actually, the prettiest ones are almost always
Given New
the most boring, and that is why some people feel there is no God.)
New
320 “The joys of love are but a moment long,” sang the troubadour, “but the pain of
New
love endures forever.” This was almost a hit song, but the melody was too close to “I’m
Given New
a Yankee Doodle Dandy.”
325New
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Bibliography

330Allen, Woody. Complete Prose. London: Picador. 1997

Cook, Guy. Discourse. London: OUP.1998

Halliday, M.A.K and Hasan, R. Language, context, and text: aspects of language in a

social-semiotic perspective. Hong Kong: OUP. 1991

Halliday, M.A.K. Functional Grammar. New York: Arnold. 1994.

335