Section of Solid

Conic Sections: Curves appear on the surface of a

cone when it is cut by some typical cutting planes

θ <α
ELLIPSE θ >α ; θ < 90
o PARABOLA θ =α HYPERBOLA
θ ≥0

Section Plane Section Plane

Through Generators Parallel to Axis.
Section Plane
Parallel
Plane ⊥ axis. to end generator.
Circles ??? Open/
unbounded
 How do I identify ELLIPSE, PARABOLA, HYPERBOLA:
Locus of point moving in a plane such that the ratio of it’s distances
from a fixed point (focus) and a fixed line (directrix) always

α
remains constant. Ratio is called ECCENTRICITY (E)
A) For Ellipse E<1
B) For Parabola E=1
C) For Hyperbola E>1
θ
Assume
A moving point
Line F Fixed point
Line Fixed line
B
AF
E=
AB
V
PROBLEM:- Point F is 50 mm from a line AB. A point P is HYPERBOLA
moving in a plane such that the ratio of it’s distances from F and DIRECTRIX
line AB remains constant and equals to 3/2. Draw locus of point P. FOCUS METHOD

STEPS:
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F A
50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts.
30mm
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from line AB and point F resp.
It is first point giving ratio of it’s
distances from AB and F 2/3 i.e 20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio such
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc. (vertex)
V
F ( focus)
5.Taking distances 30, 40 and 50mm from
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 45, 60 and 75mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P. It is an Hyberbola.
B
PROBLEM: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB. PARABOLA
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that it always remains DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD
equidistant from point F and line AB.

SOLUTION STEPS: A
1.Locate center of line (CF),
perpendicular to AB. Bisect CF and
find vertex V.
2.Mark 5 mm distance to right side
of V, name those points 1,2,3,4 and
from those draw lines parallel to AB.
(VERTEX) V
4.Take C-1 distance as radius and F C
as center draw an arc cutting first 1 2 3 4
F
parallel line to AB. Name upper ( focus)
point P1 and lower point P2.
5.Similarly repeat this process by
taking again 5mm to right and
locate P3P4.
6.Join all these points in smooth
curve. It will be the locus of P B
equidistance from line AB and
fixed point F.
 Ellipse
PROBLEM:- POINT F is 50 mm from a LINE AB. A POINT P is MOVING in a PLANE SUCH THAT
RATIO of IT’S DISTANCES (E) FROM F and LINE AB REMAINS CONSTANT and EQUALS TO 2/3.
DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P.
A
STEPS:
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point F
50 mm from it.
45mm
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts.
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.
It is first point giving ratio of it’s
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30
(vertex)
4 Form more points giving same ratio such F ( focus)
V
as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc.
5.Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from
line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in P
compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in smooth
curve.
This is required locus of P. B
Portion of
Ellipse
Complete ELLIPSE:- Locus of a point (A) moving in
a plane such that the SUM of it’s distances from TWO
fixed points (FOCUS 1 & FOCUS 2) always remains
constant. This sum equals to the length of major
axis.

A3 + A4 = Length of major axis.

T1

Drawing a perpendicular to a line at a given point

• Draw the line AB

• With P as center and any Q
convenient radius, draw an arc
cutting AB at C (shown blue)
• With the same radius cut 2 equal
divisions CD and DE (shown D E
red)
• With same radius and centers D
and E, draw arcs (green and
brown) intersecting at Q A C P B
• PQ is the required perpendicular

8
T2

To draw a normal and a tangent to an

arc or circle at a point P on it
ƒWith centre P and any convenient radius, mark off two arcs cutting the arc/circle
at C and D.
ƒObtain QR, the perpendicular bisector of arc CD. QR is the required normal.
ƒDraw the perpendicular ST to QR for the required tangent.

9
T3

Tangent to a given arc AB (or a circle) from

a point P outside it.
ƒJoin the centre O with P and locate the midpoint M of OP.
ƒWith M as a centre and radius = MO, mark an arc cutting the circle at Q.
ƒJoin P with Q. PQ is the required tangent.
ƒAnother tangent PQ’ can be drawn in a similar way.
T4

Tangent to two circles

Draw tangent
N
from center A
G to circle (red
C N1 colored circle)

F
A M B
R1 M
R2 External tangent
A1 Internal tangent

Radius of red filled circle is R2 - R1

Arc 1

Drawing Arc between two

straight lines

Arc radius R = 10 mm
Drawing Arc (R1) between Line
& Arc (R2)
Arc 3

Drawing Arc (R) between two Arc (RA & RB)

Arc 4

Drawing Arc (R) between two Arc (RA & RB)

A
Arc/Circle passing through 3 points
Section of Solids

Orthographic Projections
Projection of solids
Section (Hatching)
True Shape /
Auxiliary view
Example: For TV

SECTION
PLANE

TRUE SHAPE
Of SECTION

Apparent Shape
of section
SECTION LINES
(450 to XY)

SECTIONAL T.V.
Section more than one component in the
same drawing
(e.g. concentric cylinders)

Section lines of adjacent components are

drawn in different directions
Section lines for alternate components can
be drawn in the same direction but with
different spacing between section lines
 A cube of 65 mm long edges has its vertical faces equally inclined to the FP. It is cut by a section
plane, perpendicular to the FP so that the true shape of the section is a regular hexagon. Determine
the inclination of the cutting plane with the HP and draw the sectional top view and true shape of
the section
eT
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VIEW
dT cT (True shape of the section)
Angle to be d1
measured 45o
45o
e1
a1
aT bT
T

fT
F
c1
aF, dF f1

Section plane b1
cuts the Mid
points of 65 fF, eF
edges of cube
Section plane and
reference line are
bF, cF parallel
 Location of Section Planes
Horizontal Plane Inclined Plane to H.P. (A.I.P.)

T T
F F

P.P.
Vertical Plane Auxiliary V. P. cutting
plane ??

Oblique
cutting
plane
T T
F F
 A cone, base 75 mm diameter and height 100 mm , has its base on the HP. A section plane
parallel to one of the end generators and perpendicular to the FP cuts the cone intersecting the
axis at a point 75 mm from the base. Draw the sectional Top View and the true shape of the section

T
F
T

100
75

75
Axis
 A cone base 75 mm diameter and axis 100 m long, has its base on the HP. A section plane parallel
to one of the end generators and perpendicular to the FP cuts the cone intersecting the axis at a
point 75 mm from the base. Draw the sectional Top View and the true shape of the section

gT iT
eT
cT
aT

bT
dT True shape of section (parabola)
T fT h
T

100
75

75
PRIMARY
Axis AUXILIARY VIEW
 A sphere of 75 mm diameter is cut by a section plane, perpendicular to the FP and
inclined at 30o to the HP in such a way that the True Shape of the section is a circle of
50 mm dia. Draw its front view and sectional top view.

T
F

30o
F

Sphere φ75
 T

30o
F

Sphere φ75
 T

30o
F

Sphere φ75
 Section of Pyramid

Pentagonal pyramid base 30 mm

and height 65mm.
 A pentagonal pyramid (side of base = 50
mm and height = 100 mm) is resting on its
d base on the ground with axis parallel to
Section
r plane frontal plane and perpendicular to the top
e p c plane. One of the sides of the base is closer
o
n and parallel to the frontal plane. A vertical
m section plane cuts the pyramid at a distance
T a b
50o of 15 mm from the axis with section plane
F o’ making an angle of 50o with FP. Draw the
remaining part of the pyramid and the true
shape of the cut section
n’

100 p’

T
m’ F
e’ a’ c’
d’ b’ r’
50
 d
Section
r plane
e True shape of the
p c
o section Æ Auxiliary
n view to the top view
m
T a b
with the reference line
50o
F o’
parallel to the section
plane

n’

100 p’

m’
e’ a’ d’ b’ r’ c’
50
Given pyramid is cut by plane, ⊥
to the frontal plane and inclined at
70o to the top plane. The cutting d
plane cuts the axis of the pyramid
at 15mm from the apex. Draw the e c
projections of the remaining part
of the pyramid and the true shape Parallel
b T
of the cut section a 70o
o’ F
k’
15
j’

Since the section plane is l’

perpendicular to the frontal plane, h’
the section line is drawn in the 100
front view

e’ a’ d’ b’ c’
Axis of pyramid
Section plane
 d
How to locate the point “l”
l
Draw an imaginary horizontal line from the
axis to the edge oc intersecting at z o c
z
Project the point z into the Top view (oz is y
TL here)
With o as center and oz as radius draw an
arc cutting od at I b
This can also be done by projecting onto ob o
at y and rotating.
Basically the imaginary line with length oz =
oy is rotating inside the pyramid from one
edge to another l
y z

This can also be obtained by drawing a line

from z in the Top view parallel to dc (as dc is
TL here)

c
d b
 d

i True length
e l c
g
k
h j
b T
a 70o
k1 o’ F
l1 j1 k’
15
How to locate the point “l” j’
l’
h1 h’
100

i1
g1 g’, i’
e’ a’ d’ b’ c’
Axis of pyramid
Section plane
 Section of Cylinder
• Cylinder dia = 40
mm.
• Height = 60mm.
• Axis is vertical.
• Section plane
perpendicular to VP,
but inclined to 45
degree to the HP and
intersecting the axis
32 mm above the
base.
 y

A cylinder, diameter of base 30 mm is standing on A

its base on ground and positioned in third quadrant.
The position of center of upper base is O1 (25, 30,
C
25) and the center of the lower base is O2 (25, 30, 30
85). 20

10
Points A (0,60,45), B(15, 5, 80) and C(65, 35, 35) B x
lie on a plane that cuts the cylinder in two parts. 10 10 20 30

Draw the two orthographic views of the cut portion 20 O1

of the cylinder. 30 C
A

Oblique cutting plane z O2

B

30
 When cutting plane is obliqueÆ
y
Generator lines
A

C
30

20

10 T
B x
10 10 20 30
O1 F
20
30
C
A

B
O2
z
Problem: A square (side 40 mm) pyramid (height 70mm) stands on
its base on H.P. and all the base sides are equally inclined to the
V.P. A section plane (⊥ to V.P. and inclined at 45° to H.P.) bisects
the axis of pyramid. Draw sectional top and sectional side views.
Problem: A sphere of 60 mm diameter is cut by a section plane
perpendicular to the V.P., inclined at 45° to H.P. and at a distance
of 12 mm from its center. Draw sectional top view.
 Ex: A square pyramid of 50 mm side of base and 80 mm length of axis is
resting on its base on the H.P., having a side of base ⊥ to V.P. It is cut by 2-
cutting planes. One plane is parallel to its extreme right face and 10 mm
away from it, while other is parallel to the extreme left face and intersects
first cutting plane on the axis of pyramid. Draw FV and sectional TV.

T
F
Ex: A cylinder is cut by an auxiliary plane such that
true shape of section is an ellipse of major and minor
axes of length 100 mm and 60 mm respectively. The
smallest generator of the truncated cylinder is 20
mm. Find inclination (with axis) of the section plane.

Ex: A cone, having base dia of 60 mm and height of

80 mm is resting on its base on HP. It is cut by a
section plane such that the true shape of the section
in front view is a rectangular hyperbola with a base
of 40mm. Find front and top views.

40
Cylinder is cut by plane such that true section shape of section is
an ellipse (100 mm by 60 mm). Smallest generator of the
truncated cylinder is 20 mm.

1 7

2 6
T 3 5
4
F

41
Ex: A cone, having base dia of 60 mm and height of 80 mm is
resting on its base on HP. It is cut by a section plane such that the
true shape of the section in front view is a rectangular hyperbola with
a base of 40mm. Find front and top views.

1 7

2 6
T 3 5
4
F

42
 Section plane ⊥ to HP & VP
Section will not be visible either in TV or FV Î Side view

T
 ENGINEERING CURVES
Point undergoing two types of displacements
INVOLUTE: Locus of a free end of a string when it is
wound round a (circular) pole

CYCLOID: Locus of a point on the periphery of a

circle which rolls on a straight line path.

SPIRAL: Locus of a point which revolves around a

fixed point and at the same time moves towards it.

HELIX: Locus of a point which moves around the

surface of a right circular cylinder / cone and at the
same time advances in axial direction at a speed
bearing a constant ratio to the speed of rotation.
 INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE

• Problem: P3
P1
Draw Involute of
a circle. String
length is equal to
the P4 4 to p
4
circumference of 3
5
circle. 2
6
1
7 A 8
P5 P
P8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P7
P6 πD
Problem: Draw Involute of a circle. String length is MORE
than the circumference of circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
String length MORE than πD

P2

P3 P1

4 to p
P4 4
3
5
2
6
1
P5 7
8
p8 P
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P7
165 mm
P6 (more than πD)
πD
Problem: Draw Involute of a circle.
String length is LESS than the circumference of circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
String length LESS than πD

P2

P3
P1

4 to p
P4 4
3
5
2
6
1
P5 7 P
8
P7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P6
150 mm
(Less than πD)

πD
INVOLUTE OF A PENTAGON

5l

Thread should be taut

48
Problem : A pole is of a shape of INVOLUTE OF
half hexagon (side 30 mm) and COMPOSIT SHAPED POLE
semicircle (diameter 60 mm). A
string is to be wound having
length equal to the pole perimeter Calculate perimeter length
draw path of free end P of string P1
when wound completely. P
P2

1 to P
P3
3 to P 3
4
2
5 1

6 A
1 2 3 4 5 6 P
P4 πD/2
P6
P5
 DEFINITIONS
CYCLOID:
LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE
PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE WHICH
ROLLS ON A STRAIGHT LINE PATH.
SUPERIOR TROCHOID:
If the point in the definition of
cycloid is outside the circle
INFERIOR TROCHOID.:
If it is inside the circle
EPI-CYCLOID
If the circle is rolling on another
circle from outside
HYPO-CYCLOID.
If the circle is rolling from inside the
other circle,
PROBLEM: Draw locus (one cycle) of a point (P) on the periphery of a
CYCLOID
circle (diameter=50 mm) which rolls on straight line path.

p4
4
p3 p5
3 5

C p2 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 p6 C
8
2 6

p1
1 p7
7
P p8

πD

Point C (zero radius) will not rotate and it will traverse on straight line.
PROBLEM: Draw locus of a point (P), 5 mm away from the
periphery of a Circle (diameter=50 mm) which rolls on straight SUPERIOR TROCHOID
line path.

Using 2H
Using H

4 p4

p3 p5
3 5

p2 C C1 C C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 p6
2 6 2

p7
1 p1 7
P πD p8
PROBLEM: Draw locus of a point , 5 mm inside the periphery of a
INFERIOR
Circle which rolls on straight line path. Take circle diameter as 50 TROCHOID
mm

p4
4
p p5
3 5
p2 3
C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7p6 C8
2 6
p1 p7
1 7
P p8

πD
 CYCLOID

SUPERIOR TROCHOID

INFERIOR
TROCHOID

54
 EPI CYCLOID :

PROBLEM: Drawlocus of a point on the periphery of a circle

(dia=50mm) which rolls on a curved path (radius 75 mm).
Distance by smaller circle = Distance on larger circle

Solution Steps:
1. When smaller circle rolls on larger circle for one revolution it
covers Π D distance on arc and it will be decided by included arc
angle θ.
2. Calculate θ by formula θ = (r/R) x 360°.
3. Construct a sector with angle θ and radius R.
4. Divide this sector into 8 number of equal angular parts.
 EPI CYCLOID

Generating/
Rolling Circle
4 5
C2
3 6

EPI-CYCLOID 7
If the circle is rolling on 2
another circle from outside 1 P
r = CP

Directing Circle

= r 3600
R
O
PROBLEM : Draw locus of a point on the periphery of a circle which
rolls from the inside of a curved path. Take diameter of Rolling circle
HYPO CYCLOID
50 mm and radius of directing circle (curved path) 75 mm.

P 7

P1
6

1 P2

P3 5
2

4 P4
3
P8
P5
P6 P7

r
= 3600
R
O

OC = R ( Radius of Directing Circle)

CP = r (Radius of Generating Circle)
 CYCLOID

SUPERIOR TROCHOID

INFERIOR
TROCHOID

58
 Interpenetration of Solids /
Intersection of Surfaces /
Lines & Curves of Intersection

More points common to both the solids

Basic required knowledge:

~ Projections of Solid

~ Section of Solid
59
Section of Solid For TV

SECTION
PLANE

x y Lines & Curves

Interpenetration of Solids
of Intersection
Intersection of Surfaces
Apparent Shape
of section
SECTION LINES
(450 to XY)

SECTIONAL T.V.
61
 Minimum Surface Contact.
( Point Contact) (Maximum Surface Contact)
Lines of Intersections. Curves of Intersections.

Square Pipes. Circular Pipes. Square Pipes. Circular Pipes.

MAXIMUM SURFACE CONTACT A BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR

STRONGEST & LEAK-PROOF JOINT.

Two plane surfaces (e-g. faces of prisms and pyramids)

intersect in a straight line.

The line of intersection between two curved surfaces (e-g.

of cylinders and cones) or between a plane surface and a
curved surface is a curve.

More points common to both the solids

62
 How to find Lines/Curves of Intersection

Generator line Method Cutting Plane Method

T
T
F
F

75

63
75
 Guidelines
• Interpenetration of solids produce closed loops
which may be made straight lines or curves.
– Two lines intersect at a point common to both the lines.
– Two surfaces intersect along a line/curve common to both
surfaces.
• Interpenetration of solids containing plane surfaces
(prism with prism, pyramid with pyramid, prism
with pyramid) results in a polygon.
• Solids having curved surfaces results in closed
curve.
64
 What is expected?
• Projection of solid 1.
• Projection of solid 2 with given position w.r.t.
solid.
• Finding common points on solid 1 and solid 2.
• Joining common points in proper sequence to get
desired line/curve of intersection.
• Correcting/finalizing the orthographic projections.

65
 Problem: Find intersection curve .

Draw convenient number of lines on the surface of one of the solids.

Transfer point of intersection to their corresponding positions in other
views. When one solid completely penetrates another, there
will be two curves of intersection. 66
 Problem: CYLINDER (50mm dia.and 70mm axis ) STANDING & SQ.PRISM (25 mm
sides and 70 mm axis) PENETRATING. Both axes Intersect & bisect each other. All faces of
prism are equally inclined to Hp. Draw projections showing curves of intersections. (I-angle)
1’ 2’ 4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a”

d” b”

Projections
Find lines ofof
of
Solid 1. critical
Solid2.
Missing
intersection
c”
points at which
X Y curve changes
direction.
4

1 3

67
2
 Problem. SQ.PRISM (30 mm base sides and 70mm axis ) STANDING & SQ.PRISM (25
mm sides and 70 mm axis) PENETRATING. Both axes intersects & bisect each other. All
faces of prisms are equally inclined to Vp. Draw projections showing curves of
intersections.

1’ 2’4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a’ a’ a”

b’ b’ d” b”
d’ d’

c’ c’
c”
X Y
4

1 3

2 68
Problem: A vertical cone, base diameter 75 mm and axis 100 mm long, is completely
penetrated by a cylinder of 45 mm diameter and axis 100 mm long. The axis of the cylinder is
parallel to Hp and Vp and intersects axis of the cone at a point 28 mm above the base. Draw
projections showing curves of intersection in FV & TV. in I angle projection system
o’ o”

1 1
2 8,2 8 1
2
7 3
3 3
7,
64 6 4
4
5
28
5 5
X a’ b’h’ c’g’ d’f’ e’ g” f”h” a”e” b”d” c” Y
g

h f
Mistakes !!
a e

b d 69

c
Problem: Vertical cylinder (80 mm diameter & 100 mm height) is completely penetrated by a
horizontal cone (80 mm diameter and 120 mm height). Both axes intersect & bisect each other.
Draw FV & TV projections showing curve of intersections in I angle projection system.

7’

6’ 8’

1’ 5’

2’ 4’
3’
X Y

28 Intersection of a
curve with
37 another !!!!
Generator lines..

46
5 70
Problem. SQ.PRISM (30 mm base sides and 70mm axis; faces equally inclined to VP )
STANDING & SQ.PRISM (25 mm sides and 70 mm axis) PENETRATING. Both axes
Intersect & bisect each other. Two faces of penetrating prism are 300 inclined to Hp. Draw
projections showing curves of intersections in I angle projection system.

1’ 2’4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a’
f’ f”

e’

b’
c’
c”
d’
X 300 Y
4

1 3

d" o
2

Other possible arrangements ???? b"

71
Problem: A vertical cylinder 50mm dia. and 70mm axis is completely penetrated by
a horizontal triangular prism of 45 mm sides and 70 mm axis. One flat face of
prism is parallel to Vp and Contains axis of cylinder. Draw projections showing
curves of intersections in I angle projection system.

1’ 2’4’ 3’ 4” 1”3” 2”

a a a

b b
b c
c
d
e e d
e
f f f
X Y
4

1 3

2
72
Problem: CONE (cone70 mm base diameter and 90 mm axis ) STANDING & SQ.PRISM PENETRATING
(BOTH AXES VERTICAL)

2’

1’

3’

5’

4’
6’
X a’ b’h’ c’g’ d’f’ e’ Y
g

h 8
f
9 7
10 Axis of prism is // to cone’s axis and 5 mm away from it.
6
a 1
e A vertical plane containing both axes is parallel to Vp.
2
Take all faces of sq.prism equally inclined to Vp.
3 5 Base Side of prism is 30 mm and axis is 100 mm long.
4
Draw projections showing curves of intersections.
b d

c
73
5 mm OFF-SET
 Intersection of two cylinders
oblique to each other –Use PAV
III angle
projection

74
 Intersection of two cylinders
oblique to each other –Use PAV

75
 Intersection of two cylinders
oblique to each other –Use AV

76
Intersection of Cone and Oblique
cylinder using PAV

77
 Intersection of irregular Prism &
offset Cylinder
III angle
projection

78
Intersection of irregular Prism &
offset Cylinder

Invisible
Visible

79
Intersection of irregular Prism &
offset Cylinder

Invisible
Visible

80
Intersection of irregular Prism &
offset Cylinder

81
 DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES OF SOLIDS

Solids are bounded by geometric surfaces:

LATERLAL SURFACE IS SURFACE EXCLUDING SOLID’S TOP & BASE.

Development ~ obtaining the area of the surfaces of a solid.

- Plane Æ Prism, Pyramid
- Single curved Æ Cone, Cylinder
- Double curved Æ sphere
82
 Surface Development of Hollow Solids
• Negligible thickness.
• Cutting hollow solid along any of its edge/generator
and spreading it as sheet of paper.
– All dimensions of the developed surface MUST be of TRUE
LENGTH.
This image cannot currently be display ed.

Front view
may be
utilized for
A1 B1 =20= C1 D1 = E1 F1 development

83
 φ50
j
Cylinder cut by
k

l
i
h
three planes
a g

b f
T c e
d
F G
g' F H
45o
f' E I
e'
d' D J
c’ C K I
b' A B A
15o
a'
100

1 71 6 7 8
51 6 5 9
41 3 4 10
31 11 12
21 2
11 1 1 84
πx50
 Methods to Develop Surfaces
1. Parallel-line development: Used for prisms (full or truncated),
cylinders (full or truncated). Parallel lines are drawn along the
surface and transferred to the development

Cylinder: A Rectangle

πD
D
H= Height D= base diameter

Prisms: No.of Rectangles

S S H= Height S = Edge of base 85

 Ex:
Development by Faces:
Front (Rear)
Right (Left..Symmetry)
Top (Bottom..
Symmetry)

Complete development.
DOTTED LINES are never
shown on development

86
 Methods to Develop Surfaces
1. Parallel-line development

2. Radial-line development: Used for pyramids, cones etc. in which the

true length of the slant edge or generator is used as radius

Cone: (Sector of circle) Pyramids: (No.of triangles)

θ
R=Base circle radius. L= Slant edge.
L=Slant height. S = Edge of base
θ = R 3600
L

87
Parallel vs Radial line method

Parallel line method

Radial line method 88

 FRUSTUMS
DEVELOPMENT OF DEVELOPMENT OF
FRUSTUM OF CONE FRUSTUM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
Base side

Top side

θ = R 3600
L
L= Slant edge of pyramid
R= Base circle radius of cone L1 = Slant edge of cut part.
L= Slant height of cone
L1 = Slant height of cut part. Important points.
1. Development is a shape showing AREA, means it’s a 2-D plain drawing.
2. All dimensions of it must be TRUE dimensions.
3. As it is representing shape of an un-folded sheet, no edges can remain hidden
and hence DOTTED LINES are never shown on development.
Development by Radial MethodÆ
Pyramids (full or Truncated) &
Cones (full or Truncated).

If the slant height of a cone is equal to its diameter of base then its development is
a semicircle of radius equal to the slant height.
90
Ex:

91
 4, d

2, b

Complete development of cube cut by cutting plane (inclined to HP at

30 degrees and perpendicular to VP)
92
 4, d

2, b

93
 Intersection of
Plane & Pyramid. 4 1

D
Development of C Develop
BT 0 D 1-D-A-2-1
resulting lateral 1T
2-A-B-3-2
B 3-B-C-4-3
A
truncated Pyramid2’ 3
1-D-C-4-1
2
1’ T
F 0

B’B
4’

A D’

o 1’
3 2
3’

94
2’
Development of Oblique Objects
• Right regular objects – Axis of object
perpendicular to base.
• Axis of any regular object (prism,
pyramid, cylinder, cone, etc.) inclined at
angle other than right angle – Oblique
OBJECT. Use ARC method.

95
 Oblique prism
e d

g f j c

h a i b Parallel

f’ a' b’ c'
a b
f

g' h’ i' j'

g h i

96
 Draw the development of an oblique circular cylinder with base diameter 30 mm and
axis inclined at 75o with the base. Height of the cylinder is 50 mm

• Divide the surface of the cylinder into equal parts as shown, with
the generator lines parallel to the end generators

φ30
g G A • Draw projection lines from top edge of cylinder
a
F B such that they are perpendicular to end
generator
E D C
T • Mark distances AB, BC etc. from one projector
line to the next to complete the profile
F G’ A’ A • Do the similar process for the bottom edge
B
C

50 A
G
75o
g’ a' a
A1
A1
g a 97
A1
Oblique Cone

98
 Methods to Develop Surfaces
1. Parallel-line development: Prismatic objects (cylinder, prism)
2. Radial-line development: Non-prismatic objects (cone, pyramid)..
Apex as center and slant edge as radius.

3. Triangulation development: Complex shapes are divided into a

number of triangles and transferred into the development

EXAMPLES:-
Boiler Shells & chimneys,
Pressure Vessels, Shovels, Trays,
Boxes & Cartons, Feeding
Hoppers, Large Pipe sections,
Body & Parts of automotives,
Ships, Aero planes.

99
Connect two hollow objects having different base.

Transition
Pieces

Triangulation Method:
Dividing a surface into a
number of triangles and
transfer them to the
development.
100
Ex: In air conditioning system, a square duct of 50mm by 50mm is connected to
another square duct of 25mm by 25 mm by using a connector (transition piece) of
height 25mm. Draw development of lateral surface of the connector (Neglect
thickness of connector). Pyramids: (No.of triangles)

O’

a’ A
L= Slant edge.
S = Edge of base

F b’ B
T
b

101
c
 Development of Transition Piece for
Difference Shapes and Sizes
• Connect a Square pipe with circular pipe.
• Ex: Imagine a transition piece (height = 25)
to connect a chimney of square cross
section 50mm * 50 mm to circular pipe of
30mm diameter. Draw the projections and
develop lateral surface of the transition
piece.

102
 2’, 8’ 1’

a’, b’
1/8 of
c b circumference
3
4 1
2

1
5

6 8
A B
7

d a 8 1 I angle projection
103
 Development of Sphere using
Frustum of Cones: Zone Method
Zone 1: Cone

Zone 2: Frustum of cone

Zone 3: Frustum of cone

Zone 4: Frustum of cone

θ = R 3600
L

104
Development of
Sphere/Hemisphere
using Lune Method
25% circ-
umference

50% circumference
105