UNIT 4 SERIES

Structure Page No.

Introduction
Objectives
Convergence of Sequences and Series
Taylor Series
Laurent Series
Absolute and Uniform Convergence of Power Series
Singularities, Zeros and Poles of Complex Functions
Summary
Solutions/Answers

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall introduce you to series representation of a complex valued
function f (z) . We shall show that if f (z) is analyhc in some domain D then it can
be represented as a power series at any point z, E D in powers of (z - z,) which is
the Taylor series of f(z) . If f (z) fails to be analytic at a point z, , we cannot find
Taylor series expansion of f (z) at that point. However, it is often possible to expand
f (z) in an infinite series having both positive and negative powers of (z - z,) . This
series is called the Laurent series. In order to obtain and analyse these series, we
need to develop some concepts related to series. We shall start the unit by discussing
basic facts regarding the convergence of sequences and series of complex numbers in
Sec. 4.2. Taylor series representation of a complex valued function is discussed in
Sec. 4.3 and Laurent series is discussed in Sec. 4.4. In Sec. 4.5, we have introduced
the concept of absolute and uniform convergence of power series and defined its
radius of convergence. Finally in Sec. 4.6 we shall define zeros and singularities of
complex valued functions and use the Laurent series to classify these singularities.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to
obtain the Taylor series representation of a function, analytic in a domain, at any
point of the domain;
obtain a series representation of a complex valued function about a point of
singularity in terms of Laurent series;
obtain the radius of convergence of a power series;
define and obtain the zeros of analytic functions;
classify the singularities of complex valued functions as poles, essential or
removable singularities.

4.2 CONVERGENCE OF SEOUENCES AND SERIES

This section introduces you to some of the basic concepts about convergence of an
infinite series which will be used throughout the discussion in this unit. You can start
with reading the following.

Read Secs. 51,52 of Chapter 5 from pages 175-180 of the book. Go

through the examples given on page 177 and 180.
Complex Analyds Consider theorem on page 176 of the book. It shows that the convergence of a
complex sequence {z,), z, = x, + i y, , can be discussed by considering the
convergence of the real sequences {x,) and {y,) . Example on page 177 illustrates
this theorem. Here we are giving one more example for your reference.

Example 1: Show that the sequence z, = [&+ i (n + I)]/ n, (n = 1, 2, ..,) ,

converges to i .
J;; . ( n + l ) 1
Solution: Wewrite z, = x , + i y , =-+I-=-+i
n n &
1
Now limx, =lim-=O and limy, =lim
n+m J;; n+m n+m

It can be verified that for all n 2 1

2 2 4
Now lzn -il < E whenever, -< E or, &>- or, n > ~ .
& E E

Just as in the case of sequences, the theorem on page 178 illustrates that in the case of
series also the knowledge about convergence of series of real numbers is adequate to
understand the convergence of series of complex numbers. Example on page 180
illustrates how the sum of an infinite series of complex numbers can be obtained. We
are adding here one more example.

Example 2: Evaluate z(i)'.

m

n=3

solution: w e have, z(i)" 2[i)(i)

n=3
- =
n=3
n-3

3 m
1
[see example on page 1801
n=O

Alternatively way to find the above sum is to write

and then putting z = i / 2 the required result can be obtained.

You may now try the following exercises.

Do the exercises 1,2,8,9 on pages 181-182 of the book.

You have studied the Cauchy's theorem, the fundamental theorem of the complex Series
integral calculus in Unit 2, and the Cauchy integral formula in Unit 3. These results
now enable us to derive the two important results viz., the Taylor and Laurent series
expansions of functions of a complex variable which, we shall be studying now. We
first start with Taylor series. The terms regular and
holornorphic are also used
to denote analyticity.
4.3 TAYLOR SERIES
You may recall from your knowledge of real analysis that real valued functions are
characterised as differentiable, infinitely differentiable (having derivatives of all
orders), and analytic functions having a Taylor series expansion. You know that a
complex valued holomorphic function is infinitely differentiable. In fact, it also has a
Taylor series expansion. To be more precise if f(z) is analytic at z = z, then the
series
f "(2 1 f "(z 1
f ( z ) = f ( z , ) + f '(z,) ( z - z , )+- ( Z - Z , ) ~+- (Z-Z,)~
+ a * .

2! ; 3!
is called the Taylor series of f (z) about z, . When the centre z, = 0 , the series is
called the Maclaurin series for f (z) .

To develop the concept of the Taylor series of a function of a complex variable you
may now read the following sections. Before you start reading we advise you that
while reading the proofs of the theorems in this section and section to follow, it is
better that you workout each and every step yourself. (Go back whenever required to
previous theorems or lemmas.) One reading may not be enough. You may not be able
to learn it in one go. You may have to go through it twice or thrice for a better grasp
of the concept.

Read Sec. 53, Chapter 5, pages 182-185 of the book. Go through Examples
1-5 of Sec. 54, pages 185-188 carefully. Do the exercises 1,2, 4,1l(b), 13 on
pages 188-190 of the book.

Consider the function

1
f (2) =
(z - 1) (z - 2i)
which is analytic for all z except at the points z = 1 and z = 2i which are the isolated
singularities of f (2) . If we develop a Taylor expansion about z = 0 , that expansion
would be valid [that will converge to f (z) ] in the disc 1 z ( < 1. Thus, expanding about
z = 0 , the region ( z ( 2 1 ,is inaccessible to us. However, there exists a more general
representation known as Laurent series, which includes the Taylor series as a special Fig. 1
case. Thus, for the f given above, there would be three possible Laurent expansions
about z=O;onein 2 < (zI <oo,onein 1 < ( z ( < 2andonein ( z ( < 1(whichworld
simply be the Taylor series) (see Fig. 1).

4.4 LALTRENT SERIES

To have an understanding of the theory of Laurent series representations you can read
the following.

Read See. 55, chapter 5, pages 190-195 of the book. Go through the proof
of the theorem in Sec. 55, page 190 thoroughly. Read Examples 1-3 of
Sec. 56, pages 195-197 carefully.
Complex Analysis Examples 1-3 of Sec. 56, pages 195-197 of the book illustrate the Laurent series
representation of a complex valued function. To give you enough practice about it we
are adding here some more examples for your reference.

Example 3: Find Laurent series expansions in powers of z for the function

L
f (z) = and specify the region in which those expansions are valid.
z2 - 4 z + 3
L
Solution: The function f(z) = which has isolated singularity at z = 1
z2 -4z+3
and z = 3 , is analytic in the domains.
0 < lzl e l , 1 < 121 < 3 and 3 < (21.
In each of those domains, denoted by D,, D2 and D, respectively and shaded
different in Fig. 2, f(z) has series representation in powers of z .

9
Fig. 2

We write

In D,,for z with O< J z ( < 1wecanwrite

Thus, we have

The Laurent series in this case is the power series representation of f(z) at the origin.
In D2,for J z (>I,thereholds

andfor ( z (< 3

Thus putting them together we get for 1< 1 z 1 < 3

 In D, ,for 1 z ( > 3 there holds Series

1 - 1
and -=CG.
Z-1 ,,=I Z
m
Thus, f(z) = C (3"-' - 1)- 1
n=l z"

Example 4: Find Laurent series expansions for the function

Z
f (z) = - (O< ) z - i ) <2).
z2 + 1
Solution: Consider Fig. 3. To represent f (z) as a Laurent series we write

Now
--1 - 1 -= 1 1 " z-i
z + i z-i+2i
.c
Fig. 3
Thus,

Alternatively, we can also write

f (z) = I [ l ]
z-i z + i ['
z-i 2i+z-i I
--
- - 1 z-i+i 2 '(-1)" (z-i)"
z:i[ii[ I+-~ i l ]- ] = ~ ~ n = o (2i)"

1 1 z-i
n=O

I
We make here the following remarks with reference to Eqn. (1) on page 191 and
Figure 75 on page 192 of the book.

Remarks
!

1. In the Laurent series expansion the coefficients of the positive powers of

i
- -

Complex Analysis f (") (z,)

(z - z,) cannot be replaced by the derivative expressions . ,as they are
n!
in Taylor's series. This is because f (z) is not analytic throughout the region
inside C, and the Cauchy integral formula for derivatives cannot be used.

2. In the Laurent series if R, + 0 then, f(z) is analytic in I z - z, I < R, except at

the point z = z, . In this case the Laurent series converges in the region
0 < 1 z - z, I < R, . If f(z) is analytic at z, also, then the Laurent series is same
as the Taylor's series.

3. In the Laurent series if R, +a,then the region of convergence of the Laurent

seriesis ) z - z , I > R , .

4. A function f(z) may have different Laurent series valid in different annuli
about the same centre. The number of singular points of f (z) determine the
number of Laurent series that a h c t i o n f(z) can have. However, in the
annulus R, < 1 z - z, 1 < R, ,Laurent series expansion of a h c t i o n f(z) is
unique.
***
You may now try the following exercises.

Do the exercises 1,2,6,10 on pages 198-199 of the book.

The next section introduces you to absolute and uniform convergence of power series.
We do not expect you to learn the proofs given in this section. However, you should
have a clear understanding of the concepts.

4.5 ABSOLUTE AND UNIFORM CONVERGENCE OF

POWER SERIES
You can start with reading the following:

Read Sec. 57, chapter 5, pages 200-204 of the book.

Let us once again look at para 2 on page 202 of the book which introduces you to the
circle of convergence. Another term which is used frequently in connection with the
convergence of power series is the radius of convergence. We now discuss it in brief
00

Radius of convergence: Consider the power series f(z) = a, (z - z,)"- as given by

n=O
Eqn.(l) on page 201 of the book.

Then the set of points z for which this series converges are one of the following:
(i) The single point z = z,

(ii) The disc D = {z :)z - z, I < R) ,along with part (either none, some or all) of the
circle I z - z, I = R where R is a positive real number.
(iii) The entire complex plane.
In other words, the series f (z) = x
Q

a-0
a n(z - z0)n is convergent for all z for which
Series

I z - z, 1 < R and divergent for all z for which 1 z - z0 ] > R ,i.e. it converges inside
the disc D and diverges outside the disc D (see Fig. 4). This number R is called the
radius of convergence of the power series f (z) . In fact, it is the radius of a largest
circle so that power series converges in the interior of the circle and diverges in the
't qz) diverges

exterior. Above in the case of (i) R = 0 and in (iii) R = a .

There are many methods to compute the radius of convergence of a series. We list
here some of the formulas for computing R for the series xm

n=O
an(z - 2,)" ,where
1
each a n 2 0 . You are already familiar with these formulas from your knowledge of 01
b
X
real analysis.
1
(1) R= (if limit exist) [Cauchy's root test]
lim 1 a, 1''" Fig. 4
n+m

1
(2) R=
limsupla.
n+m
('" (this limit always exists) [Cauchy-Hadamard formula]

(3) R = l i m l d (provided limit exists) [d'Alembertls ratio test]

n+m a

We shall now illustrate these formulas through some examples.

Example 5: Find the radius of convergence of the series

Solution: By Cauchy's n" root test

lim 1 a n f i n = lim
n+m
[(-ln]
n+2
3n+1
lln

=1/3.
Therefore, R = 3 .

Example 6: Find the radius of convergence of the series f (z) = x -.

n=O
zn
n!
Solution: By the ratio test, the radius of convergence R is given by

Thus, the series converges for all values of z .

Example 7: Find the radius of convergence of the series

e
Complex Analysis Solution: Using Cauchy-Hadamard formula, the radius of convergence of the given
series is
1 =-
1
R=
limsupla, 1" 5'
n+a,

Example 8: Find the radius of convergence of the series f(z) = x00

n=l
n n z n.

Solution: By Cauchy's n"' root test

lim ( a n1" = lim(nn)'/"'=oo , i.e. R =0 .
n+a, n+a,

Thus, R = 0 . The given series converges only at point z = 0 at all other points it
diverges.
-X-

Example 9: Give an examples of a power series with finite radius of convergence

R # 0 in the disc D(0, 1) = {z : ( z I I 11, which has respectively, one of the following
properties:
(a) the power series converges on the full boundary of the convergence disk.
(b) the power series diverges on the full boundary of the convergence disk.
(c) there are at least two convergence points and at least two divergence points on
the boundary of the convergence disk.

Solution: (a) Series x, n

1
zn with R = 1

(b) Series 1zn with R = 1

(c) Series x 1
-zZh with R = 1, converges at z = fi , diverges at z = f1
n
-X-

You may now test your knowledge by trying the following exercises.

E l ) Find the radius of convergence of each of the following series

00

(b) X P z "
n=l n

E2) Let x
00

k=O
akzk has the radius of convergence R and let m be a positive integex.

Show that the series xm

k=O
kma,zk and
00

k=O
k(k - 1). ..(k - m) akzk both have the

radius of convergence R .

In the next section, we discuss the zeros of analytic functions. We shall also classify
singularities of a complex function based on their Laurent's series representation.
 Series
4.6 SINGULA~TIES,ZEROS AND POLES OF
COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
You know that, a point z = z, is called a singular point or singularity of the complex
function f(z) if f(z) is not analytic at z = z,, but every neighbourhood of z,
't
contains a point where f is analytic. Function f(z) = 1/ z is an example of a function
analytic everywhere except at z = 0 . Another example is function f(z) = Log z ,
which is analytic everywhere except at negative real axis including the point z = 0
(see Fig. 5).

Further, a point z = z, is called an isolated singularity of complex function f(z) if f Fig. 5

is not analytic at z = z, and 3 a real number R > 0 so that f is analytic everywhere
in the deleted neighbourhood 0 < I z - z, 1 < R (see Fig. 6).

If you look at the above examples f (z) = 1/ z and g(z) = Log z ,then you will notice
't
that z = 0 is an isolated singularity of 1/ z ,but z = 0 (in fact any point of negative
real axis) is not an isolated singularity of Log z .

In the case of isolated singularity of f(z) at z = z,, the function f(z) can be
expanded as a Laurent series in the deleted neighbourhood 0 < I z - z, I < R of the r(z)analytic

point z, . Thus, we have * 0" +

x

Here the sum Fig. 6

m

a n(z - z,)" = a, + a, (z - z,) +.-.+ an(z - z,)" + (2)

n=O

is called the analytic part of the Laurent series, whereas the sum

is called the principal part of the Laurent series.. In this section we have used Laurent
series expansion of f (z) to classify the isolated singularities of f(z) .

Read the following sections carefully as the knowledge of these concepts will be
useful when you study theory of residues in Unit 5.

Read from Chapter 6, See. 65, pages 231-233, Sec. 68, pages 239-242 and
Sec. 69, pages 242-243 of the book. Go through all the examples of these
sections carefully.

Let us consider Sec. 65, page 231 of the book. Whatever you have learnt here can be
summed up as follows.

Removable Singularity: If the function f (z) is not defined at z = z, ,but lim f(z)
z+zo

exists, then the point z = z, is called a removable singular point. In this case, the
principal part of the Laurent series (1) is zero and lim f (z) = a, . Thus if we define
2-+z,,

f (z, ) = a,, the function f (z) becomes an analytic function at z = z, (see Example 3
~

on page 232 of the book).

I
Complex Analysis Note that removable singularity may be defined for a function f which has isolated
singularity at z, but f (z,) # lim f (z) .
Z-+zo

Pole: If the principal part of the Laurent series expansion of the function f (z) has
only a finite number of terms i.e., it is of the form

where m is a finite integer and b ,+, , b ,+,, ... are all zero, then z = z, is called a
pole of order m . If m = 1 ,then z = z, is a simple pole. Thus a point z = zo is a pole
if
lim f (z) + m and lim [(z - z , ) ~f (z)] exists for some k > 1.
z-+zo z-+zo

The smallest value of k for which the second limit exists defines the order of the pole
(see Example 1,2 on page 131-132 of the book).

Essential Singularity: If the principal part of the Laurent series expansion of the
function f (z) has infinite number of terms then the point z = z, is an essential
singular point (see Example 4 page 233 of the book).

Note: In case of non-isolated singularities any neighbourhood of a non-isolated

singular point of f contains other singularities and hence a non-isolated singular point
1
of f is a limit point of its singular points. For example, the function f (z) = ,
sin(l/ z)
1
is singular at z = - (k = *I, k 2, ...) because sin (I / z) = 0 at those points. The limit
kn
point of these singularities is the point z = 0. Hence z = 0 is non-isolated singularity
1
of f (z) . Each of the singularity z = - is isolated, but the singular point z = 0 is not
kn
because however small E we may choose, every annulus 0 < 1 z 1 < E ,contains at least
one singular point (in fact, an infinite number of them). Thus z = 0 is non-isolated
essential singularity.
***
Pictorially the above classification can be shown as given in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

In Sec. 68 on pages 239-241 of the book, you need not learn the proofs of
Theorem 1-3. However, you should have clear understanding of the underlying
 concepts as they are important from application point of view. Theorem 1, Sec. 68, Series
page 239 can be rephrased as follows:

Theorem: A function f that is analytic at a point z, has a zero of order m there if

and only if its Taylor series given by
m
f ( z ) = C an(z-2,)" has a, = a , =...=a,-, = O and a, +O.
n=O
***
Before we ask you to try some exercises, we give here few more examples for your
reference.

Example 10: Show that the function f(z) = z3 cos2 z has a zero of order m = 3 at
the point z = 0 .
Solution: Clearly zeros are given by z = 0, z = (2n + 1)n / 2 (n E Z) . It can be easily
verified that f (0) = 0, f '(0) = 0, f "(0) = 0 but f "(0) # 0 . [f "(2) = 6 cos 2 z + z]
Thus, z = 0 is zero of order 3.
I -x-

k Example 11 : If f (z) be analytic and have a zero of order k at z = z, then

f '(z) 1f (z) has a simple pole at z = z, .
Solution: Since f (z) has zero of order k at z = z,, we get
4 = (z - zo Ik &I
f( [using Theorem 1, Sec. 681
where g(z) is analytic and non-zero at z, .
Now f '(z) = k(z - z , ) ~ - ' ~ ( z+) (z - 2,) gl(z).

Thus, f '(z) / f (z) = (Z- ZO Ik-' F g(2) + ( 2 - zo )g'(z)) ,for 0 <, - z, ( < 8 and for
(Z- Z O g(z)
)~ some 6 > 0 .

Clearly, p(z) and q(z) are analytic at z = z, , p(z,) + 0 and q(z) has zero of order 1
b at z = z, . Then by Theorem 1, Sec. 69, page 242. f '(z) / f (z) has a pole of order 1 at
z, ,i.e. simple pole at z, .

Example-12: Locate the singularities of the function f (z) = z-' (z - sin z) .

m ZZn+l
Solution: f (z) = z-2 (z - sin z) = z-' , (O<Izl <a)
(2n + l)!

f (z) has a removable singularity at z = 0 .

Alternatively, we see that
z-sinz 1- cosz
lim = lim [Using Hospital rule]
z-bo z2 z-to 22
Complex Analysis sin z
=lim -=O
z-bo 2
Therefore, lim f (z) exists as a finite complex number. Hence, f (z) has a removable
z-bm
singularity at z = 0 .
-X-

You may now try the following exercises to check your understanding of the concept.

E3) Locate the zeros of the following functions and determine their order
(a) z3ez-I (b) z2 cosh z

E4) Locate the poles and determine their order for the following functions
(a) z-' cos ecz (b) (z2 sin 2)-'

E5) Locate the singularities of the following function and determine their type
(a) ze1IZ (ii) (cosz-cos2z)/z4

Try the following exercises fiom the book.

Do the exercises l(a), (c), (e), 4 on pages 233-234, of the book.

We now end this unit by giving a summary of what we have covered in it.

In this unit, we have covered the following.

1. An infinite series of the form x
00

n=O
a n(z - z , ) ~ in which the coefficients ails are
complex constants is called a power series.

2. Every complex valued function f(z) which is analytic throughout a disc

1 z - z0 1 < Ro has a power series representation
f (z) = x
00

n=O
a, (z - 2,)" (Iz-zo 1 <Ro)
f "')(zo)
where a n = (n=O,l, 2,...) .
n!

3. If a power series (4) converges in 1 z - zo ( < Ro ,then its sum function f (z) is
analytic there and, the power series is the Taylor series of f (2).

4. Besides the Taylor series representation of f(z) in the disc I z - z0 ( < Ro , we

can develop power series, called Laurent series, that represent f in an annuli
of analyticity. Laurent series differ fiom Taylor series in that they necessarily
include one or more negative powers of (z - 2,).

5. For a power series

there exists three possibilities regarding its region of convergence.

(i) the series converges only at the point 2,.
 - -

the series converges in the whole complex plane. Series

(ii)
(iii) there exists a real constant R > 0 , called the radius of convergence of (5),
such that series (5) converges in I z - z, I < R and diverges in
Iz-Z, I > R .
A point z, is called a singular point of a function f if f fails to be analytic at .
6.
z, but is analytic at some point in every neighbourhood of z, .

7. A singular point z = z, is isolated if, we can find a small real number E ,such
that there is no other singular point of f(z) in the neighbourhood of z,, that is,
in the domain 0 < I z - z, I < E . If no such E exists, then the singular point
z = z, is called a non-isolated singular point.

8. Laurent series can be used to classify the isolated singular points z = z, as

follows:
(i) If the function f (z) is not defined at z = z, but lim f (z) exists, then the
z+zo

point z = z, is called a removable singular point. In this case the

principal part of the Laurent series is zero.
(ii) If the principal part of the Laurent series expansion of the function f(z)
about a point has only a finite number of terms then the singularity is
called a pole.
(iii) If the principal part of the Laurent series expansion of the function f (z)
about a point has infinite number of terms then the singularity is called an
essential singularity.

Exercises on Pages 181-182 of the book.

= lim(-2) + i n+m (--on

lim -
n+m n2.

= -2 + i.0 = -2.
Again Iz, +21 = 12, -(-211

Now for given E > 0 we can find positive integer no so that

1
no & > l a - <& 3-1 < E
"0 n: ,

2. r, = J X and lim r, = 2
n+m
Complex Analysis

If n isoddthen @, =.-tan-' [-
( ~ ~ ~ l } .

andifn iseventhen@,=tan

Clearly @, does not converge.

8. Let zn = x n +iy,, S=X+iY, wn = a n +ib,, T = A + i B

Wehave, x zn = s o x xn = x , x yn = y
and x w n = T a x a n= A , x b , = B

Now x
a a
(z, + w n ) = x {(x, + a n ) + i ( y n+ b n ) )

9. (a) Izn I = Iz+(zn -z)( < ) z I + l

Let ( z I +1= R then by Archimeadian principle 3 a + ve integer M,.
s.t. M, > ( z I + l * ) z nI SM,,where n > n o
Now choose M=max {Iz, 1, lz2 I, ..., )znoI, MI)
Thus,J z , ( S M V n .

Exercises on Pages 188-190 of the book

Arcblmeadlan Principle
For every real number x e ~ le - ~ 2 +

there is a positive integer 1. ZCOS~(Z~)=Z (IzI <a)

m such that x S m 2
[ref. Eqn.(l), page 185 of the book]
n=O n!
 Series
2. (a) e Z is an entire function so analytic everywhere.
f (I)'"'
Now compute a, = -(n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...)
n!
We have, f (z) = ez 3 f (") (z) = e Z3 f (")(I)= e .
Then by Taylor's expansion we have

(b) eZ= eez-'

[using expansion of ez - '1

4. We have

1
Now f (2n+')(z)= sin (2n + 1)-
( +z = sin
(;-+ 1
nz + z = cos(nz + z)

and
(;1
f ('")(z) = sin 2n.- +z = sin(nz + z)

sin(z2)
11. (b) We observe that f (z) = -is not analytic at z = 0 .
z4
:. Maclaurin's series of f (z) can not be written but we know that for
121 <a.

sin (z2)= x
m

n=O
(-1)'
z4n+2

(2n + I)! '

Therefore, for 0 < 1 z 1 < a ,we have
Complex Analysis

13. We are given f (z) = - 1

42-2'
=
1
42(l-z/4)

1
We observe that f, (z) = -is analytic for 1 z ( < 4 and it has expansion:
1- 214

Exercises on pages 198-199 of the book.

1. For O< IzJ< a , f(z) hassingularityat z = 0 .

1
Series representation of sin 7 is
z

Now for O< Iz+lI <a,, we have

4. f (z) has two singular points z = 0 and z = 1.

Functionisanalyhcin O < J z J<1 and 1< J z J< a .

(a) ForO<(zl<l.

(b) For 1< ( z (< a

 Series

I 10. (a) f o r n = O , f l , f 2 ,...

Wehave(w=ei@,dw=ieiod+)
[ref. Eqn.(S), page 191 of the book]

--
- r
exp [i (w - i)] dw

exp 1; (eit - e ~ ) ]
=-
1
27ti i-, ,n+,,
ieio d+

=-
1
27t
I-" ,exp [i z sin +] e-"@ d+

= Jn(z) .
Therefore Laurent series is given by

(b) Wehavefrompart(a)forn=O,f1,*2, ...

1
J,(z)=-j exp[ -i(n+-zsin+)] d+.
27t -,
Now expanding using Euler's expression eie = cos 8 + i sin 8
1
Jn(z)=-f exp[ - i(n+ - z sin 4) ] d+
27t -,

( cos(n4 - z sin 4)
=-
1
27t
[f-,cos (n+ - z sin +)d+ - i jsin (n+ - zsin +) d+]
-X
is an even hnction)
Complex Analysis ( sin (n+ - z sin +)
cos(n4-zsin4)dQ-0
2n is an odd function)

d+.

Exercises on page 76 of the Unit.

1
El) (a) Here a, = - so by Cauchy's nth root test
en

Thus radius of convergence R = e .

n!
(b) Here a, = - so by d' Alembert's ration test
nn

nlo0
(c) Here a, = -,using d' Alembert's ratio test
n!

(d) It is simply a geometric series. It can be seen that series converges

absolutely if and only if I z - 2i ( < 1,therefore radius of convergence is
givenby R = 1 .

E2) Do it yourself.

Exercises on page 80 of the Unit.

E3) (a) Let f (z) = z3ez-' . Now f (z) = 0 3 z3 = 0 , thus z = 0 is zero of f (z) .
We write the Taylor expansion of f (z) as

Itcanbeseenthat a, = a , = a 2 = O and a, zO. Therefore z=O iszero

of order 3 .

(b) f (z) = z2 cosh z . Zeroes of f (z) are given by

c 1
z = 0, - + nn i (n = 0, f 1, f 2, ...) . Further, check that

f ({t+ nn} i) = 0, f('{: + nn} i) z o

Thus, z = 0 is a zero of order 2 and the remaining zeroes are simple
zeroes (that is, of order one).
 E4) (a) Let f (z) = z-' csc z = - 1
z sin z
. It can be seen that z = 0, + n, f 2n, ... are
isolated singularities of f(z) . Since
z
limf(z)=m (n E Z) and lim-=1
z+nz z+O zsin z
Z-nn w
lim -
z+nz zsin z
- lim
w+O (W+ nn) sin (w + nn)
+O (for n # 0 )

These points are poles. z = 0 is pole of order 2 and z = nn, n E Z \ (0)

are simple poles.

1
(b) Letf(z)=(z2sinz)-I=- . f(z) is analytic everywhere except at
z2 sin z
z = 0 and at the zeros of sin z , given by z = nn, n E Z . Lament's
expansion of f(z) at z = 0 is given by
-- 1 - 1
z2sinz z 2 ( z--+ --...
1

Thus z = 0 is a pole of order three. To check the nature of singularity at

points z = n, n E Z \ (0) we observe that
lim f (z) = m and
z+nz

if n is even
lim (z - nn) f (z) = lim w f (w + nn) =
z+n% w+O
ifn is odd
Ii
Therefore, z = n n, n E Z \ (0) are simple poles.
t
-1
E5) (a) f(z) = z e z is analytic everywhere except at point z = 0 . Lament's
expansion about z = 0 is given by

Thus at z = 0, f (z) has an isolated essential singularity.

(b) Obviously, z = 0 is the singularity of f (z) = (cos z - cos 22) / z4.

Further,

k
k
z z
z4 z6
z2 +---+...
2! 4! 6!
- 4z2 16z4 64z6
1
2! 4! 6!
t
Complex Analysls
--
'[';'
z
--- 5z4 + --...
8
Thus, z = 0 is pole of order 2.
7z6
80
.
I 3 5
=---+
2z2 8
--...
7z2
80

Exercises on pages 233-234 of the book.

1. (a) At z = 0, f (z) = z exp(1/ z) has an isolated singularity.

Now for O< ( z (< G O .

The principal part of z exp(1/ z) at z = 0 ,is expressed as

-1 -+-
1 1 -+...
1 =
2-
""
2!z 3! z2 n=l (n +I)! '
Since the principal part has an infinite number of terms, z = 0 is an
essential singularity.

sin z
(c) At z = 0 we have an isolated singularity. Since lim- = 1, it can be
z+o z
seen easily that it is a removable singular point. We have for 0 < 1 z 1 < a

3
sin z
-=I--+ z2 --......
z4
z 3! 5!
Clearly, the principal parts contains no terms, i.e., all coefficients in the
sin z
principal part are zero. At z = 0, -has a removable
z
singularity.

It is already Laurent's expansion of f (z) around isolated singular point

z = 2. Principal part contains exactly one non-zero tenn. The isolated
singular point z = 2 is pole of order 3.

8a3z2
4. Clearly +(z) = is analytic at z = ai and its Taylor series is given by
(z + ai)3
-
+(z) = +(ai) + +'(ail (z-ai)+0.0(Z-ai)2
l! 2!
+....
Now f (z) = (') -
- +'(ai) +"(ail
{+(ai)+--ii-(z-ai)+-(z-ai)2+.-.
(z - ai) (z - ai) ' 2!

3 f(z)= +(ail + O'(ai) ++'(ail + ..

(z-ai)' ( ~ - a i ) ~2!(z-ai)
Principal part of f (z) is given by:
 Series

2z(z + ai) - 32 (z + ai)

$'(z) = 8a (2ai - z).
(z + ai)6

8a (ai) 8a (ai) (ai) =--- 8a

Now $'(ai) = -
(2ai)4 (2ai - ai) = - --a
16a4 16a4 2 '

16a3
Similarly $"(z) = {-a +z - 4aiz)
(z + ai)

and
16a3
= -{-a - a
QW(ai)
, ,+4a , )=-=-=-I
32a5 1 .
32a5i 32a5i i
Thus the principal part of f (z) is

- a ,i - a / 2 -- i/2
(Z - ai)3 (z - ai), (z - ai) '