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Malfunction Diagnosis:
Misalignment

By

Charles T. Hatch

Bently Nevada Training Development Group

Bently Nevada Corporation

and

Dave Fahy

Bently Nevada Service

Bently Nevada Corporation
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Table of Contents

Introduction To Misalignment................................................................. 1
What Is Misalignment?.................................................................... 1
Causes Of Misalignment .................................................................. 2
Effects On The Rotor System Due To Misalignment ................................... 3
Load Shifting Among Bearings ......................................................... 3
Vibration Changes .......................................................................... 4
Stresses And Wear ......................................................................... 4
Symptoms Of Misalignment ................................................................... 5
High Bearing Temperature ............................................................... 5
Average Shaft Centerline Position ..................................................... 6
Orbits........................................................................................... 7
Vibration ...................................................................................... 8
Rub ............................................................................................. 9
Fluid-Induced Instability.................................................................. 9
Other Problems That Can Produce Similar Symptoms ............................... 10
Process Loads .............................................................................. 10
Foundation And Grouting Problems ................................................. 10
Piping Strain ............................................................................... 10
Soft Foot .................................................................................... 11
Shaft And Coupling Runout ........................................................... 11
Locked Gear Coupling .................................................................. 11
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Introduction to Misalignment

What Is Misalignment?
To understand the concept of
misalignment, first we have to define
alignment. Perfect internal alignment
exists when the centers of all of a
machine’s bearings, interstage
diaphragms, and seals are located on the
same line and that line is the centerline of
the machine (Figure 1). Two machines
would be in perfect external alignment if
the centerlines of their shafts were on the
same line (Figure 2, top). In practice,
some degree of internal and external Figure 1. Perfect internal alignment exists in a
misalignment always exists. Flexible machine when the centers of all of the internal
couplings are designed to accommodate a parts are collinear.
certain amount of misalignment, and that
amount will depend on the type of
coupling being used. When the
misalignment exceeds the allowable
tolerances for the coupling in use, the Aligned
machines are said to be misaligned.
There are two basic types of external
misalignment. Parallel misalignment
occurs when the centerlines of two
machines have the same angular
Parallel Misalignment
orientation, but are separated from each
other (Figure 2, middle). Angular Angular Misalignment
misalignment occurs when the centerlines
of two machines have different angular
orientations (Figure 2, bottom). The most
common situation is a combination of
parallel and angular misalignment.
Figure 2. Two machines are in perfect external
An additional type of “misalignment” alignment (top) when their shaft centerlines are
involves the correct axial position of two collinear within an allowable tolerance zone
machines that are coupled together. The (red). With parallel misalignment (middle) the
tolerance for axial position for two shaft centerlines are offset, but parallel. With
angular misalignment (bottom), the shafts are
machines will depend on the type of oriented at different angular orientations in space.
coupling that is used. Rigid couplings Misalignment usually involves a combination of
have a very low tolerance for axial parallel and angular misalignment. In the figure,
position errors, while disk pack and the shafts are shown centered in the bearings. In
diaphragm couplings have somewhat reality, gravity loaded shafts would rest in the
bottom of the bearings with the machines off.
more, but still small tolerance for error.

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Gear couplings have a higher tolerance for

Top View
axial position errors.
Misalignment is a three-dimensional
problem. Each machine has a centerline
that exists at some orientation and position
in space, and the centerline of an adjacent
machine will have a different orientation
and position. To make external alignment
problems easier to solve, the three-
dimensional centerlines of the machines are
Side View
projected on two perpendicular planes
(Figure 3). Then, the alignment problem Figure 3. The 3-dimensional misalignment
can be treated as two, separate, two- problem is usually broken down into two 2-
dimensional problems. dimensional problems.

Causes of Misalignment
While a machine is operating, the
temperature can be very different from one
part of the machine to another, and the
Cold Misaligned
temperature can vary with load. Thermal
growth causes changes in the linear
dimensions of a machine compared to the
“cold” or off condition.
Note that machines that handle cold
fluids may actually get colder in the Hot Aligned
operating condition. For the purposes of Figure 4. Machines are deliberately misaligned
this discussion, the term “hot” will indicate cold so that, when they reach hot operating
the loaded, running condition at temperature, thermal growth will align the
equilibrium temperature, and “cold” will machines.
represent the off condition where the
machine has been off long enough to reach thermal equilibrium with the environment.
Note that a large, massive machine may take one to two days to reach thermal
equilibrium after startup or shutdown.
As the temperature changes during a startup, the linear dimensions of a machine can
change in complicated ways, with the hot parts growing more than the cooler parts.
Dimensional changes in the machine supports and casing can cause the machine to rise or
fall and/or change angular orientation as it heats up. Any adjacent machine will also
change, and that change will most likely follow a different pattern. Thus, if the two
machines were aligned in a cold condition, they would become misaligned in a hot
condition. For this reason, machines are deliberately misaligned in the cold condition,
and the cold misalignment is carefully calculated to produce correct alignment in the hot
condition (Figure 4).
Because the temperature of a machine can vary with load, alignment can also change
with load, and it may be difficult to set a cold alignment that produces acceptable hot
alignment for all anticipated operating load conditions.

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Misalignment symptoms can also be caused by factors external to the machine itself.
Foundation problems can cause a shift in machine position over time. Foundation
problems can include cracked grouting, a loose soleplate, and loose anchor bolts. Oil
soaked concrete can lead to deterioration of the concrete foundation and a loss of support
strength.
Piping strain can warp a machine casing and cause misalignment by moving the
bearing supports. Pipe strain can result from loose piping hangers or bent, broken, or
missing piping supports. Poor piping fit can put tremendous loads on the machine casing.
Piping should never be forced to mate with the machine through the use of force.
Soft foot is a condition where one or more machine feet are not coplanar after
tightening hold down bolts. When one foot is not properly supported (the soft foot),
tightening down the soft foot will warp the machine casing. Soft foot can be caused by
inadequate shimming or by an excessive number of shims, which can produce a springy
support. There should be no more than 3 to 4 shims under a foot. Soft foot can also be
caused by a warped or bowed soleplate, an improperly installed soleplate, improper
machining of feet or the soleplate, or a foot not parallel to the soleplate. A warped or
bowed machine casing can also cause soft foot.
These external effects produce misalignment symptoms, but they are not the same as
misalignment. Often, when an external effect is corrected, the alignment state of the
machine will revert to an acceptable level. A true misalignment condition exists only
when all of the external factors are accounted for and corrected and the misalignment
persists.

Effects on the Rotor System Due

To Misalignment 1 Aligned 2 3 4

Load Shifting Among Bearings

Flexible couplings can accommodate a
certain amount of misalignment; rigid
couplings can tolerate very little. When the
misalignment exceeds the capability of the
coupling, the excess misalignment must be
taken up by bending of the rotor. The
misalignment will transfer loads from one
bearing to one or more others where it will
produce excessive radial loads in the
bearing (Figure 5).
Normally loaded fluid-film bearings
have a babbitt temperature of 160°F to
180°F (70°C to 80°C). Overloading of a
fluid-film bearing will produce higher
shear forces in the oil, resulting in higher
oil and babbitt temperatures. Bearing
babbitt will start to creep at 240°F (115°C)
and melt at 260°F (125°C), leading to
Misaligned
Normal
Very
High
Low
Normal
Figure 5. Comparison of average shaft position in
an aligned machine versus a typical misaligned
machine. The coupled shaft is vertically loaded
by gravity. The misalignment shifts the load
among bearings. In this example, Bearing 2
experiences a very high load and will run
abnormally hot. Bearing 3 is essentially unloaded
and will run cooler than normal. The two
outboard bearings are approximately normally
loaded. Note that the shaft centerline position in
Bearing 3 is slightly in the upper left quadrant, an
abnormal position for a horizontal machine that is
rotating X to Y (CCW) in a fluid-film bearing.

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bearing failure. Extreme

misalignment can result in metal to
metal contact and wiping of the
bearing babbitt (Figure 6).
Similarly, if the radial load is
transferred away from a bearing,
the lightly loaded bearing will have
below normal oil drain and babbitt
temperatures.

Vibration Changes
Rotor vibration amplitude is
related to the stiffness in a fluid- Figure 6. A tilt-pad bearing that was damaged by electro-
static discharge. The wiping at the edge of the pad (circle)
film bearing, and that stiffness is a was caused by misalignment.
function of the operating
eccentricity ratio. A rotor operating in a lightly loaded bearing will operate at a lower
than normal eccentricity ratio. Such a rotor might experience higher vibration because of
the reduced rotor support stiffness. Also, if the eccentricity ratio becomes low enough
(the rotor operates nearer to the center of the bearing), the bearing can suddenly transition
to a fully lubricated (360° lubricated) condition, making the rotor system vulnerable to
fluid-induced instability. There have been cases of machines that were reassembled after
an overhaul in a misaligned condition that resulted in fluid-induced instability appearing
after startup, even though the machines had no prior history of instability problems.
At the other extreme, a rotor operating in an overloaded bearing will operate at a
higher than normal eccentricity ratio. In this situation, rotor vibration might decrease
while casing vibration might increase. Although not technically a misalignment
condition, looseness in the machine support can also cause increased casing vibration.
Often, tightening hold down bolts will reduce excessive casing vibration.
Extreme misalignment can produce abnormal orbit behavior. Highly flattened orbits
will produce significant reverse frequency components in a full spectrum plot. A rotor
that is highly loaded into a bearing may follow a path that partially follows the curvature
of the bearing, producing a banana-shaped orbit. This type of behavior can produce 2X
vibration components.
Misaligned disk and diaphragm couplings can produce an axial “pumping” action that
results in axial vibration. This axial forcing is available to excite any rotor system axial
resonant frequencies. It is also possible for the axial vibration to couple into lateral
vibration, showing up in radial vibration measurements. Properly functioning gear
couplings are much more axially compliant and less likely produce axial vibration from
misalignment.

Stresses and Wear

A misaligned rotor is forced to operate in a position for which it was not designed,
and it may come into contact with seals, causing wear or damage and a loss of efficiency.
Misalignment can also cause wear, damage, or fatigue failure of flexible couplings,
greatly shortening their useful life.

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The high bearing loads associated with misalignment can cause overheating, wear, or
fatigue of bearing babbitt in fluid-films bearings.
Rolling element bearings have finite lifetimes that are a strong function of radial load.
The L10 life (the time that 90% of similar bearings will survive) for a point contact ball
bearing goes down as the third power of the applied load. Thus, load shifting due to
misalignment can, by increasing the load, drastically reduce the useful life of a rolling
element bearing.

Symptoms of Misalignment

High Bearing Temperature

High fluid-film bearing temperature is often the first warning of a possible
misalignment condition. The high radial loads that result from misalignment-related load
shifting cause high shearing stresses in the lubricating fluid of an overloaded bearing. The
extra work done in overcoming these higher than normal fluid stresses produces extra
heating of the fluid. The fluid, usually oil, transfers this excess heat to the bearing babbitt.
Oil drain temperature is not a very useful indicator of the temperature in the bearing.
It is limited because, at that point, the oil exiting the bearing is a mixture of oil that has
passed through the load zone of the bearing and oil that has bypassed the load zone. It is
best used for plant heat load calculations or oil temperature regulation, but it only
provides a vague picture of the machine condition.
Resistive Temperature Devices (RTDs) or thermocouples that are imbedded in the
bearing babbitt can provide better warning. Ideally, the RTDs should be installed at
several different circumferential positions in the bearing. The are two reasons for this.
First, in some machines, the direction of the radial load on a bearing can vary with
operating conditions, and it can be difficult to predict where the maximum load occurs in
a bearing. Second, if a machine becomes misaligned, load shifting can produce radial
loads that act in unpredictable and unexpected directions.
As stated above, typical operating bearing babbitt temperatures are in the range of
160°F to 180°F (70°C to 80°C). For a typical babbitt material, temperatures as low as
220°F (105°C) may cause eventual failure of the babbitt. Typical babbitt will start to
creep at 240°F (115°C) and melt at 260°F (125°C).
While high bearing temperatures indicate overloading, an abnormally low bearing
temperature indicates that the load in that bearing may be below normal. Given the load
shifting that takes place with misalignment, one bearing may show an unusually high
temperature, while another, adjacent bearing may show an unusually low temperature.
For this reason, bearing temperatures should be monitored and compared along the
machine train.
Extreme misalignment can lead to polishing or wiping of bearing babbitt material.
When a machine is disassembled, bearings should be carefully examined for evidence of
any damage (Figure 6).
As mentioned above, rolling element bearing life is a function of the inverse third
power of the applied radial load. High radial loads will cause premature failure of rolling
element bearings. Chronic premature failure of one or more rolling element bearings in a
machine could be due to a misalignment problem.

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Assumed
Radial Load

Abnormal 1 2
Normal 3 4
Running Running
Position Position

Figure 8. The misaligned machine train from

Slow Figure 5 is shown with the operating average
Misalignment Load Roll shaft centerline positions for each bearing. Note
that, for this example, the rotor positions in
Figure 7. Comparison of normal and abnormal shaft bearings 1 and 4 are approximately normal, while
centerline behavior during a startup of a typical, the rotor positions in bearings 2 and 3 are in
horizontal, gravity loaded machine with plain, opposite quadrants, indicating a possible
cylindrical, fluid-film bearings. Here, the radial misalignment condition.
load is assumed to be vertically downward. The
machine is rotating X to Y (CCW). The dashed
circle defines the bearing clearance. As speed Average Shaft Centerline Position
increases, the hydrodynamic oil wedge becomes
stronger, and the normal rotor moves up and For a horizontal, fluid-film bearing
slightly away from the bearing wall (green). Whenmachine train which is perfectly aligned,
misalignment forces are present, the behavior canand in which gravity is the primary radial
be quite different (red), and the rotor can end up
load, the average shaft centerline position
operating in an unusual quadrant in the bearing.
(Note that rotors operating in tilt-pad bearings will change during a startup or shutdown
in a typical way (Figure 7, green).
normally tend to move straight up toward the radial
load with increasing speed.) Normally, the shaft position angle will be
somewhere between 0° and 45° from the
direction of the applied load. If the machine train becomes misaligned, then load shifting
will cause changes in the behavior of shaft centerline plots (Figure 7, red). The radial
load due to misalignment can be in a different direction, and the direction and amount of
the misalignment load can change as the machines heat up. Heavily loaded bearings will
have operating eccentricity ratios that are higher than normal, while lightly loaded
bearings will have operating eccentricity ratios that are lower than normal. If the
misalignment becomes severe enough, shaft operating positions may move to unusual
locations, such as near the top of a bearing (Figure 7).
Differences in operating position can be most apparent across a coupling between two
machines, where the rotor may operate in opposite quadrants of the bearings (Figure 8).
Average shaft centerline plots should be examined at every axial position and
compared for signs of abnormality. Average shaft centerline plots are most useful when
clearance circles are known and included on the plot. That way, operation in an abnormal
quadrant can be more easily detected. Shaft centerline plots should be compared to
previously archived data and examined for changes.

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A B C D

Figure 9. Unfiltered orbits. Each orbit shows eight shaft revolutions. Orbit A is a normal orbit from
a generator bearing on a small steam turbine generator set. The orbit is mildly elliptical and
predominately 1X. Orbit B is from a Frame 6 gas turbine bearing. The orbit shows evidence of
constraint along the lower edge, suggesting a misalignment problem. Orbit C is from the exciter
bearing on a 500 MW steam turbine generator set. Note the highly elliptical, banana shape. The
banana shape will produce a 2X vibration component which would be strongest in the horizontal
direction. Note the curvature of the right side of the orbit, which suggests that the shaft may be
following the geometry of the bearing boundary. Orbit D is from a HP steam turbine bearing. The
orbit is highly flattened, suggesting a high, misalignment-induced radial load. (Note that line orbits
can occur for other reasons.)

Orbits
Orbits can be very helpful for diagnosis of misalignment. Normally-loaded, healthy
rotors that operating in plain, cylindrical fluid-film bearings tend to produce direct, or
unfiltered, orbits that are elliptical in shape and where the frequency is predominately 1X
(Figure 9). The ellipticity of such orbits can fall into a wide range and still be considered
normal.
Elliptical and lemon-bore bearings tend to normally produce orbits that are more
elliptical than those produced by plain cylindrical or tilt-pad bearings. Also, the major
axis of the ellipse in elliptical and lemon-bore bearings tends to be aligned with the
bearing geometry.
Because radial loads can change magnitude and direction with load, orbits can vary in
size and shape with load. Also, any resonances will affect the size and appearance of the
orbit.
Because of the many possibilities, a database of normal operating orbits for a
particular machine should be archived for later reference.
The shape of a direct orbit is sensitive to the amount of the radial load that acts on the
rotor). As the radial load is increased, the orbit will become more flattened, and part of
the orbit path may partially follow the curvature of the bearing. (Note that elliptical and
lemon bore bearings tend to normally produce more elliptical orbits than would occur
with plain cylindrical bearings. For these bearings, the orientation of these elliptical orbits
tends to be more aligned with the bearing geometry.) The orbit may also become banana
shaped, containing a 2X vibration component that is visible on spectrum plots (Figure 9
C). 2X components can be amplified if the rotor operates at half of a resonance speed. In
extreme cases of misalignment, the rotor may become so constrained that the orbit
follows a line that matches the curvature of the bearing (Figure 9 D) or, if unbalance is
small, may shrink to nearly a point. Assuming that unbalance is the primary source of

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rotor vibration, the details of the orbit

behavior will depend on the degree of
misalignment-induced radial load, the
amount of unbalance forcing in the rotor,
and the attitude angle and eccentricity
ratio in the bearing.
1 2
A rotor that is unloaded in a bearing 3 4

because of misalignment may operate at a

low eccentricity ratio and have an orbit
that is nearly circular. Because elliptical
orbits are the norm, a circular orbit
suggests an unusually low radial load that Figure 10. The misaligned rotor of Figure 5 is
could be due to misalignment. shown with possible orbits. All orbits correspond
Multiple orbits should be displayed to the same operating speed. The orbit size
(vibration amplitude) is partially controlled by the
for every axial position in the machine bearing stiffness, which is a function of
train and compared with each other eccentricity ratio. Thus, the heavily loaded
(Figure 10). If startup or shutdown data is bearing 2 orbit is small, while the lightly loaded
available, these multiple orbits should be bearing 3 orbit is relatively large. The bearing 2
examined over the entire speed range of orbit partially follows the contour of the bearing.
Bearings 1 and 4 are approximately normally
the machine for evidence of high radial loaded.
loads. The orbits (which contain dynamic
position information) should be correlated with average shaft centerline plots (which
contain average position information) over the length of the machine train.

Vibration
Assuming that the source of vibration originates in the rotor (for example, due to
unbalance), the amount of casing vibration will depend on the transmissibility of rotor
vibration through the bearings and into the casing. (Casing vibration will also depend
upon how well the machine is mounted to the foundation.) The very high fluid-film
bearing stiffness that exists at high eccentricity ratios acts to more effectively couple the
rotor to the casing. Thus, in a misaligned machine, the rotor may transmit more vibration
to the casing, and the machine may experience higher than normal casing vibration. Rotor
shaft relative vibration, because of the increased constraint on the rotor (increased
Dynamic Stiffness), may decrease as more of the vibration energy is transmitted to the
casing.
If, because of misalignment, a particular bearing is unloaded, the rotor may become
more decoupled from the casing (transmissibility will decrease) at that location, and the
casing vibration there may decrease. Under this circumstance, shaft relative rotor
vibration may increase as the rotor support Dynamic Stiffness decreases.
Thus, either increases or decreases in casing vibration could be an indication of a
misalignment condition. An increase in casing vibration coupled with a decrease in rotor
shaft relative vibration (and vice versa) suggests misalignment.
Remember that casing vibration can increase if the machine support structure
weakens or loosens, or if the machine develops a soft foot. The reduced stiffness of the
machine support allows vibration to increase. Sometimes, tightening loose foundation
bolts will reduce casing vibration back to normal levels.

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Parallel misalignment at the coupling can produce “cranking” of the rotor shafts. This
will usually produce a 1X and 2X shaft relative vibration component that exists over the
entire speed range of the machine. The vibration may transmit to the casing, but only
shaft relative measurements will reveal the cranking action at slow roll speeds. The 2X
component occurs because of opposed high spots reacting in different bearings. The
effect is similar to the 2X generated in a bicycle crank.
Misaligned disk and diaphragm couplings can produce an axial “pumping” action that
results in axial vibration. This axial forcing is available to excite any rotor system axial
resonant frequencies. It is also possible for the axial vibration to couple into lateral
vibration, showing up in radial vibration measurements. Properly functioning gear
couplings are much more axially compliant and less likely produce axial vibration.

Rub
Rub on seals may occur if the rotor is misaligned. The rub can occur during startup or
shutdown, or the rub could occur during steady state operation. Rub symptoms may
include changes in 1X vibration behavior through resonances or changes in steady state
vibration behavior.
A rub on interstage seals may
open up clearances, resulting in
higher leakage flows and a loss of
efficiency. Any machine that shows
a loss of efficiency over time should
be carefully evaluated as to the root
cause, and misalignment should be
considered as a possibility.

Fluid-Induced Instability Fluid Instability

Normally loaded rotors will
operate in typical, partially
lubricated fluid-film bearings at a
moderately high eccentricity ratio
(0.5 to 0.6 or so). (Tilt-pad bearings
normally operate at very low Figure 11. Fluid-induced instability in a rotor system.
The vibration is predominately forward at a
eccentricity ratios of from 0.1 to subsynchronous frequency. The orbit shows multiple
0.2.) If a bearing becomes under Keyphasor dots scattered around the nearly circular,
loaded because of misalignment, the forward orbit. The full spectrum shows the forward 1X
operating eccentricity ratio may line at right and a strong forward subsynchronous line
drop to low values as the rotor slightly below 1/2X paired with a weak reverse
subsynchronous line. Fluid-induced instability can be
operates nearer the center of the triggered when misalignment unloads a bearing, causing
bearing. If the bearing becomes full lubrication (flooding) of the bearing.
fully flooded, the high tangential
forces from the fluid may be sufficient to produce fluid-induced instability.
Fluid-induced instability usually manifests itself as a predominately forward,
subsynchronous vibration at a non-integer ratio frequency. Usually, the frequency of
subsynchronous vibration is in the range 0.3X to a little below 0.5X, although it can
occur outside this range (Figure 11).

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There have been several cases where a machine had run for years without any
problems, was overhauled, and encountered fluid-induced instability when started up.
Misalignment during reassembly was the culprit. When the machine was shut down and
realigned, the fluid-induced instability disappeared. Proper alignment properly loaded the
bearings and placed the rotor at the proper operating eccentricity ratio.

Other Problems That Can Produce Similar Symptoms

Misalignment symptoms can also be caused by factors external to the machine itself.
These factors can produce misalignment symptoms but can only be partially eliminated
by alignment of the machine train. Many of these have already been discussed above and
are repeated here. When misalignment symptoms are present, it is important to first
eliminate all external factors before performing an alignment.

Process Loads
While horizontal machines tend to be gravity loaded into the lower part of fluid-film
bearings, process loads can occur in directions that can push the rotor into unexpected
quadrants. For example, partial steam admission in steam turbines can produce radial
loads large enough to cause the rotor to operate in the upper part of a bearing. The loads
associated with radial loads in gearboxes can also position shafts in unexpected locations,
even across couplings.

Foundation and Grouting Problems

Foundation problems can cause a shift in machine position over time. Foundation
problems can include a loose soleplate, and loose anchor bolts. Oil soaked concrete can
lead to deterioration of the concrete foundation and a loss of support strength.
Grouting serves to provide a high stiffness interface between the soleplate and the
surface of the underlying foundation. Grout is very strong under compressive loads, and
it is relatively weak in tension. Cracked grout indicates that the grout has been subjected
to tension and that the foundation system of the machine has failed.

Piping Strain
Poor piping fit can put tremendous loads on the machine casing. Piping strain can
misalign a machine by warping the machine casing. The warped casing causes
misalignment by shifting the position and/or orientation of the bearing supports. Pipe
strain can result from loose piping hangers or bent, broken, or missing piping supports.
Always check the piping system of a machine with misalignment symptoms for signs of
pipe hanger or support problems.
During installation, piping should never be forced to mate with the machine through
the use of force. Instead, the piping and support system must be designed to produce a
nearly perfect mate at the attachment flanges. This mating must be correct in position (in
3 dimensions) and angle (3 more dimensions).

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Soft Foot
Soft foot is a condition where the machine feet are no longer coplanar after tightening
hold down bolts. Because three points determine a plane, four or more feet on a machine
must be precisely positioned to ensure they are located in the same plane after tightening.
When one foot is not properly supported (the soft foot), tightening down the soft foot will
warp the machine casing. Soft foot can be caused by inadequate shimming or by an
excessive number of shims, which can produce a springy support. There should be no
more than 3 to 4 shims under a foot. Soft foot can also be caused by a warped or bowed
soleplate, an improperly installed soleplate, improper machining of feet or the soleplate,
or a foot not parallel to the soleplate. A warped or bowed machine casing can also cause
soft foot.

Shaft and Coupling Runout

Parallel misalignment of the coupling,
perhaps due to an off center coupling
bore, can produce “cranking” of the rotor 2300
shafts. This will usually produce 1X and
3100
2X shaft relative vibration components
that exists over the entire speed range of
the machine. The vibration may transmit
to the casing, but only shaft relative
measurements will reveal the cranking
150
action at slow roll speeds.
5300
1X vibration can also be produced by
a bent shaft or a skewed coupling bore (an
angular misalignment). An out of round
coupling can produce a runout indication
that looks like shaft displacement, but is
not. Figure 12. Average shaft centerline plot during
shutdown of gas turbine driven pipeline
Locked Gear Coupling compressor. The plot shown is for the inboard low
pressure gas turbine bearing. The turbine drives the
Most couplings are designed to compressor through a gear coupling. The coupling
accommodate the residual misalignment has locked up at high speed, and the shaft centerline
that exists in all machine trains. A position is abnormal. At about 2300 rpm, the
properly operating coupling isolates the coupling unlocks, and the shaft behaves normally
for the remainder of the shutdown.
rotors from the loads that would occur
due to this residual misalignment. Gear
couplings operate by the relative sliding action of geared elements similar to a spline.
If, for any reason, a gear coupling becomes locked in position and is unable to freely
move, then large loads can suddenly appear in the rotors of the coupled machines. Often,
this will cause sudden changes in the average shaft centerline position of the rotors in
their bearings (Figure 12). This situation can also produce large changes in 1X vibration
behavior.

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