ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Since workers within the electrical sector have higher exposure to electrical systems, the risks of
electrical hazards to these workers are higher than that of the average person. It is therefore critical for
these workers to be aware of the risks and to abide by the safety procedures specified by the
appropriate regulatory bodies.

In this chapter we will be looking at the effect that electrical current has on the human body and the
methods (system protection and work procedures) that are utilized to minimize the risk of electrical and
other hazards within the electrical environment.

Electrical Shock

Refer to the discussion in the NIOSH “Electrical Safety Student Manual”, sections 1 and 2. A summary of
the effect of different currents on the human body is shown below.

Effects of Electrical Current in the Human Body3,4

Current Reaction
Below 1 milliampere Generally not perceptible.
1 milliampere Faint tingle.
5 milliamperes Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average individual
can let go. Strong involuntary reactions can lead to other
6–25 milliamperes injuries.
Painful shock, loss of muscular control. The freezing current or "let-
(women) go" range. Individual cannot let go, but can be thrown away from
9–30 milliamperes (men) the circuit if extensor muscles are stimulated.*
50–150 milliamperes Extreme pain, respiratory arrest (breathing stops), severe
muscular contrac- tions. Death is possible.
1,000–4,300 Rhythmic pumping action of the heart ceases. Muscular contraction
milliamperes and nerve damage occur; death likely.
10,000 milliamperes Cardiac arrest and severe burns occur. Death is probable.
15,000 milliamperes Lowest overcurrent at which a typical fuse or circuit breaker opens a
circuit!

*If the extensor muscles are excited by the shock, the person may be thrown away from the
power source. The lowest overcurrent at which a typical fuse or circuit breaker will open is
15,000 milliamps (15 amps).

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Mitigation Strategies to reduce the risk of an electrical shock

From the perspective of the safety model, the key factors in mitigating risks are;

 Recognition of hazards,
 Evaluation of hazards, and,
 Control of hazards.

Refer to the NIOSH “Electrical Safety Student Manual”, sections 5 to 8.

Electrical Earthing within the South African context.

Introduction

From the perspective of the safety model discussed above, earthing is a controlling measure to increase
the safety of the work environment. Electrical earthing is a protective scheme used to protect the user
against the risk of an electrical shock. Many electrical appliances have metallic and therefore conductive
enclosures. If, as a result of insulation failure or where one of the conductors were to come into contact
with the enclosure, the entire enclosure would be at mains potential. This is an extremely dangerous
scenario. The earthing system is so designed that it (a) shunts the dangerous potential to earth and (b)
detects the fault and shuts down the supply to the installation. To ensure that the system functions
accordingly and provides the necessary protection, the installation has to comply with the relevant
standards and recommendations. These standards are provided for in SANS 10142-1:2017 and SANS
10292.

SANS 10142-1:2017 – South African National Standard – The Wiring of Premises, Part 1: Low-voltage
installations.

SANS 10292 - South African National Standard – Earthing of low-voltage (LV) distribution systems

Definition of terms

The following terms are used when discussing electrical earthing and are as per definitions listed in the
SANS 10142, SANS 10292 and other relevant standards.

earth - conducting mass of the earth of which the electrical potential at any point is conventionally
taken as zero.

earthed - so connected to earth as to ensure, at all times, an immediate discharge of all electrical energy
without danger.

earth electrode - one or more conductive parts that are embedded in the earth for the purpose of
making effective electrical contact with the earth.

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earth fault current - fault current that flows to earth, limited in magnitude only by the impedance of the
conductive path.

earth leakage current - current that flows to earth in an electrically undamaged circuit.

fault - circuit condition in which current flows through an abnormal or unintended conductive path.

fault current - current that results from an insulation failure or from the bridging of insulation, limited in
magnitude only by the impedance of the conductive path.

earth continuity conductor – conductor, including any clamp or terminal, that connects the consumer's
earth terminal to the exposed conductive parts of an installation for the purpose of earthing such parts
and carrying fault currents

consumer earth terminal - terminal that is effectively and permanently earthed and to which the earth
continuity conductor of an installation is permanently connected

Elements and functions of the earthing system

Before discussing the elements of the earth system, figure 1 below provides an overview of one of the
two earthing systems used in South Africa. Although we will be discussing more of this later in the
section, the figure gives an indication how the earth connection is conveyed to the user installation.

L1 L1
s o u rc e L 2 L2
L3 L3
PEN
L PEN

s o u rc e
e a rth
PE
s u p p lie r’s c irc u it
b re a k e rs a n d s u p p lie r’s e a rth
m e te rin g te rm in a l
L N
p o in t o f s u p p ly

p o in t o f c o n tro l

c o n s u m e r’s
e a rth te rm in a l

c o n s u m e r’s
in s ta lla tio n

Figure 1: The TN-C-S earthing system

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An earth is established on the supplier’s end and is combined with the neutral line in what is known as a
Protective Earth and Neutral (PEN) conductor. One of the phases constitutes the live conductor for a
single-phase installation and goes via the supplier (circuit breakers and metering) kiosk to the consumer
installation. Another earth is established at the supplier kiosk and an additional conductor (protective
earth) is connected from the supply earth to the consumer’s earth terminal. The earth connections are
all physical electrodes placed at the respective points within the system. You will find an earth electrode
at your home where the supplier connections come onto your premises.

Earth Electrodes

The earth electrode is a conductive spike that is sunk into the ground so as to make an effective
electrical connection with the earth. The length of the spike depends on the quality of the soil at the
location, with typical lengths around 1,2 metres and up, and thickness around 15 mm.

The following materials are acceptable for use as earth electrodes;

 Bare copper; in strip, stranded or rod form is considered to be the most suitable material for
earth electrodes. Due to the relatively high value of copper, the cost and risk of theft are
disadvantages of copper electrodes.
 Galvanized iron or steel; in strip, stranded or rod form is considered satisfactory for use in non-
aggressive soils. Aggressive soils have high levels of acidity, chlorides and sulphates that can
result in corrosion of the electrode, thus reducing its efficacy. The advantage of this material is
its lower cost when compared to copper. Copper plated steel (in compliance with SANS 1063)
can be used if strength and low resistance is required.
 Stainless steel; used where soils can be considered to be aggressive.

Bare aluminium is an unsuitable material for use as an earth electrode.

Galvanized iron and steel electrodes should not be buried near bare copper.

Types of source earth electrodes

The source earth electrode is placed at the supplier’s end and the following types are commonly used;

 Trench earth. A trench is a rectangular hole dug into the ground and having a width less than the
length. A trench allows for greater contact between the earthing electrodes and the soil and is
used where there is the need to improve the contact between the electrodes and earth. The
standard requires that the trench be at least 500 mm below ground level. Copper or galvanized
steel are laid out in the trench.
 Earth rods. These are forced into the ground by hammering or by first drilling a suitably sized
hole. Bare copper, galvanized or stainless steel, or copper-plated steel are used. The rods are
commonly supplied in lengths of 1,2m and are threaded to allow for terminal connections of
electrode extension. In some earthing scenarios, multiple rods are used; in these cases the
standard requires that the distance between the electrodes be larger than the rod length.

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  Foundation earth. In this case, the installation’s earth is connected to the reinforcing steel used
within the foundation. This ensures a constant low-resistant path to earth, particularly in large
structures. This arrangement is often found at substations. Special attention has to be taken at
the connection points to reduce corrosion.

Earthing of electrical appliances and domestic installations

An electrical appliance is an electrical machine designed to perform a certain function. In the context of
domestic scenarios (households), examples of such appliances include; electric stoves, kettles, irons,
refrigerators, deep freezes, microwave ovens, toasters, etc. Some of these appliances are portable (they
are not intended to remain in one fixed position) while others are designed to remain in a fixed
positioned. Many of these appliances have electrically conductive (metallic) enclosures that can easily
pass an electrical current. Electrical appliances or equipment with exposed conductive parts are
required to be earth in accordance with the relevant standards.

Appliances are categorized according to their type of protection against electrical shock. The various
classes of protection for domestic appliances are shown in table 1. Other classes exist but these fall
outside the scope of our discussion.

Table 1: Domestic appliance protection classes

Class Level of protection

0 Relies on basic insulation only, no earth terminal and means to connect earth conductor
0I Basic insulation, has earth terminal but no earth conductor in supply cable and plug
I Basic insulation and accessible conductive parts are connected to installation earth via conductor
and plug
II Relies on double or reinforced insulation, no provision for earthing

Most of our domestic appliances fall in the class I category. Class II appliances are required to have a
double insulation symbol indicated on the body of the appliance, as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Double insulation symbol

Figure 3 below shows the internal wiring of a domestic electric iron. The flexible earth conductor is part
of the cable that connects the appliance the switched socket outlet. The standard requires that the
earth conductor that forms part of a combined conductor should be of the same material and have a
cross-sectional area equal to or greater than that of the largest phase conductor. In this case all three
conductors (live, neutral and earth) are of the same material (insulated stranded copper) and same
cross-sectional area.

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 Anchorage
point (clamp)

Neutral

Live

Earth
Figure 3: Conductor connections of a domestic electric iron

Note that the clamping mechanism of the earthing (and current carrying conductor) terminals are so
designed to prevent accidental loosening of the conductor. The standard requires that the terminal can
only be loosened with the aid of an appropriate tool. In this case, a medium-sized Phillips head
screwdriver would be needed to disconnect the conductor from the terminal.

This appliance also has a conductor anchorage point before the terminals. This prevents accidental
disconnection of the conductors and terminals if the cable is pulled.

The standard also requires that the earthing conductor be of sufficient length that in the event of a
failure of the anchorage point, the current carrying conductors become taut before the earth conductor.
So if the anchorage point fails and the cable is pulled, the current carrying conductors will disconnect
first, thus ensuring that the appliance remains earthed. Note in figure 3 how the earth conductor is
looped around edge of the plastic housing resulting in a slightly longer length when compared to the live
and neutral conductors.

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This arrangement is also required in the standard plug, as shown in figure 4

Figure 4: Wiring of mains plug

The connections between the earth terminal and the conductive parts of the appliance must have low
resistance.

The material used for the earthing terminals within appliances must be such that there is no risk of
corrosion between the conductor (usually copper) and the terminal. In addition, the parts of the
appliance providing earthing continuity (bonding), must be adequately protected against corrosion.

As mentioned previously, the earthing system is designed to ensure that any fault or leakage currents
are shunted to earth, thus removing the risk of an electric shock. To ensure the integrity of the system, it
is critical that the connections within the system are secure and always provide a low resistance path to
earth.

Appliances are connected to the domestic electrical installation via a switched-socket outlet (SSO), so
the earthing conductor is an integral part of the electrical installation.

To show how the earthing system is integrated into the electrical network, a simplified schematic of a
typical domestic installation is shown in figure 5.

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 F ro m S u p p lie r

E N L

C o n s u m e r’s D is trib u tio n

B o a rd

C o n s u m e r’s E a rth M a in B re a k e r
E le c tro d e

E a rth L e a k a g e
U n it

C irc u it B re a k e rs

N e u tra l B u s

E a rth B u s

S in g le S o c k e t O u tle t

Figure 5: Simplified schematic of a typical domestic installation

The earth conductor is made available from the supplier as per the TN-C-S system shown in figure 1. This
is connected to the consumer’s earth electrode and continues to the main distribution board of the
installation. The earth conductor is wired to the central pin of the standard socket outlet from where it
eventually connected to the conductive part of the appliance. So there is a direct connection from the
appliance to the earth electrode, thus providing protection against fault or leakage currents.

In addition to the connection to earth, every installation is required to have an earth leakage unit
installed at the premises. This device, located at the distribution board, monitors the live and neutral
conductors and interrupts (disconnects) the supply in the event of a fault current. So there are
essentially 2 levels of earth fault protection at the premises – one shunting the currents to earth and the
other removing supply in the event of a fault.

Electrical bonding and the requirements for a bonding conductor

In the context of an electrical network, bonding refers to the connection of two electrically conductive
parts via a suitable conductor. The aim for the bonding of different conductive parts is to bring them to
the same electrical potential. In this way we can reduce the risk of an electrical shock due to potential
differences. In addition, many electronic devices, audio amplifiers for example, require common
potential points for effective operation. These common points, or equipotential points, are usually
connected to the earth. So the earth is both protective and functional.

According to the SANS 10142-1, a bonding conductor shall;

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 a) have a nominal cross-sectional area of at least 2,5 mm2 copper or equivalent, and
b) be so arranged that it cannot be tampered with.

Bonding requirements in a domestic installation

SANS 10142-1 requires the following to be bonded;

a) The hot and cold water plumbing system. This should also be bonded to the earth continuity
conductor.
b) Antennas, which includes a satellite dish, is required to be bonded to the earth system by
means of a conductor of 2,5 mm2 copper or similar.
c) If a building is connected to an electrical supply, the roofs, gutters, down pipes and waste pipes
should be bonded and earthed, with the continuity of the earth path not exceeding a resistance
of 0,2 , unless
i. the supply voltage does not exceed 50 V,
ii. the supply uses an underground service connection,
iii. the roof is made of, or covered with, non-conductive material,
iv. the gutters, down pipes and waste pipes are of non-conductive material,
v. the gutters and down pipes are attached to a metal roof that is covered with non-
conductive material.
d) All accessible extraneous conductive parts associated with a water pump motor shall be bonded
to the earth continuity conductor. This includes the suction pipe, delivery pipe and pump casing.

Reasons for earthing the neutral of a low-voltage (LV) system.

 Neutral earthing ties the entire electrical system to the potential of the mass of the earth and
prevents floating of the neutral point.
 It provides a low impedance path for earth fault currents and leakage currents thus protecting
personnel and allowing the protective devices to be activated, thereby disconnecting the supply.
 It ensures the operation of the medium voltage (MV) protection system in the event of a fault
between the MV and LV transformer windings.
 It reduces the prospective touch voltage as much as is reasonably practical.

The TN-C-S and TN-S earthing systems

Different earthing systems are in use throughout the world and these have been standardized to allow
for the interoperability of equipment etc. The two systems prescribed for use in SA are the TN-C-S and
TN-S earthing schemes. The supplier is responsible for the type of system employed.

The code used to identify these schemes convey information about how the earthing is achieved.

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The first letter T indicates that the one or more parts of the system is directly connected to earth.

The second letter N indicates that the exposed conductive parts of the consumer’s installation are
directly connected to earth, independent on the earthing of any point of the source.

The third letter and fourth letters are subdivisions of the first two, and indicate the arrangement of the
neutral and the protective conductors, where

C indicates that the protective and neutral functions on the LV distribution network and in the
consumer’s installation are combined in a single conductor,

S indicates that the neutral and protective functions on both the LV distribution network and in
the consumer’s installation are provided by separate conductors, and

C-S indicates that the neutral and protective functions on the LV distribution network are
combined in a single conductor and provided by separate conductors in the consumer’s
installation.

The TN-C-S earthing system

A schematic of the TN-C-S system is shown in figure 6.

L1 L1
s o u rc e L 2 L2
L3 L3
PEN
L PEN

s o u rc e
e a rth
PE
s u p p lie r’s c irc u it
b re a k e rs a n d s u p p lie r’s e a rth
m e te rin g te rm in a l
L N
p o in t o f s u p p ly

p o in t o f c o n tro l

c o n s u m e r’s
e a rth te rm in a l

c o n s u m e r’s
in s ta lla tio n

Figure 6: The TN-C-S earthing system

As mentioned above, in this system, the distribution side has the neutral and protective earth functions
combined in the protective earth and neutral line (PEN). On the consumer’s side, the neutral and
protective earth conductors are split, resulting in a TN-C-S arrangement.

It is important that the PEN conductor be connected at all times. Dangerous voltages can appear at the
supply earth terminal if the PEN conductor were to go open circuit.

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The TN-S earthing system

A schematic of the TN-S system is shown in figure 7. The protective earth (PE) conductor can be either a
separate conductor or the metallic covering (armour) of the conductor.

All exposed conductive parts of the consumer’s installation are connected to the PE conductor via the
earth supply terminal.

L1 L1
s o u rc e L2 L2
L3 L3
N

PE
s o u rc e L N PE
e a rth

s u p p lie r’s c irc u it

b re a k e rs a n d
m e te rin g
s u p p lie r’s e a rth
te rm in a l
p o in t o f s u p p ly L N

p o in t o f c o n tro l

c o n s u m e r’s
e a rth te rm in a l

c o n s u m e r’s
in s ta lla tio n

Figure 7: The TN-S earthing system

Residual Current Circuit Breakers (Earth Leakage Unit)

All installations are required to have an earth leakage protection device, also known as an earth leakage
circuit breaker (ELCB). The older types of ELCB operated on a voltage basis and have been superseded by
devices that operate on a current basis. To distinguish between the two, the current-based devices are
known as residual current circuit breakers (RCCB) or residual current device (RCD). The objective of
these devices is to interrupt (disconnect) the supply if the fault currents were to exceed a
predetermined amount.

A schematic of the residual current-type circuit breaker for a single-phase circuit is shown in figure 8.

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 TEST PUSH BUTTON

LIVE

SUPPLY SIDE LOAD SIDE

NEUTRAL

RELAY

SENSE WINDING

Figure 8: Schematic of an RCD

Both live and neutral lines are passed through a transformer core, and constitute the primary of a
differential CT transformer. Under normal conditions, the currents in the two conductors are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction and the resultant magnetic field in the core will be zero. The
secondary winding (sense winding) will have no voltage induced in it. If an earth fault were to take place,
the current in the two conductors would be unequal, resulting in a net magnetic field in the core and a
current will be induced in the secondary winding circuit. An electronic / electromechanical relay will
sense this current and disconnect the contacts, thereby interrupting the supply. A test option is
provided by connecting a resistor between the lines, creating an imbalance in the core and thereby
activating the device.

A three-phase residual current circuit breaker works on exactly the same principle, except that all 3 lines
and the neutral are connected through the core

The testing of earth leakage units

Earth leakage units are designed to disconnect (trip) at a preset current. For domestic and personal
protection this level must not exceed 30 mA.

The critical performance requirement of the earth leakage device is the time that is takes to interrupt
the supply. The compulsory specification for earth leakage units (VC 8035) in South Africa requires units
having a tripping current of 30 mA to disconnect according to the times in table 3.

Table 2: Maximum operating times for domestic earth leakage unit

Fault Current Maximum operating time in seconds

30 mA 0,5
60 mA 0,2
250 mA 0,04

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In addition to the test button on the unit itself, the earth leakage unit can also be tested by dedicated
test equipment. Usually these types of installation testers combine multiple functions into a single unit –
insulation tests, loop impedance tests, polarity tests, etc.

In the case of the test for on a 3-phase earth leakage unit, it is important to test each phase to ensure
that adequate protection is being made.

Safety at High Voltage Substations

Substations are an integral part of the electrical transmission and distribution system. They perform
functions of voltage step-up or down, switching, monitoring and protection. Substations can occupy
areas roughly similar to half the area of a football field, to many football fields.

Figure 9: Eskom substation on Erica Drive, Belhar

Because of the extremely high risks within the area of the substation, as a result of the high voltage and
currents within the substation equipment, personnel working in these areas would require specialist
training to allow them to safely perform the required work functions.

The earthing at these substations are well designed and constructed to ensure minimal risk of failure,
and because of the high voltages and currents, it is possible to receive an electric shock without having
to touch a live wire. This arises when an earth fault current flows through the ground, giving rise to an
earth grid potential rise (GPR). This potential rise is due to the small resistance of the ground and the
electrode connections. The earthing within the substation is designed so as to keep these potential rises
to below the safe limits for electrical shock.

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Definition of Terms

Ground Potential Rise (GPR): The maximum electrical potential that a substation grounding grid may
attain relative to a distant grounding point assumed to be at the potential of remote earth. This voltage,
GPR, is equal to the maximum grid current times the grid resistance.

Touch Voltage: The potential difference between the ground potential rise (GPR) and the surface
potential at the point where a person is standing while at the same time having a hand in contact with a
grounded structure.

Step Voltage: The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1 m
with the feet without contacting any other grounded object. When a fault occurs at a substation or
transmission tower, the fault current will enter the earth. Depending on the conductivity of the soil in
the area, a voltage gradient will be present – the magnitude of which is dependent on the magnitude of
the fault current, the conductivity of the soil and the flow pattern of the current. This can pose hazards
to personnel stepping in the direction of the voltage gradient since current will flow through the legs
and abdomen of the person. During fault conditions the protection systems will activate and remove the
hazardous condition.

Metal-to-metal touch voltage: The difference in potential between metallic objects or structures
within the substation site that may be bridged by direct hand-to-hand or hand-to-feet contact.

Grounding grid: A system of horizontal ground electrodes that consists of a number of interconnected,
bare conductors buried in the earth, providing a common ground for electrical devices or metallic
structures, usually in one specific location.

Ground mat: A solid metallic plate or a system of closely spaced bare conductors that are connected to
and often placed in shallow depths above a ground grid or elsewhere at the earth’s surface, in order to
obtain an extra protective measure minimizing the danger of the exposure to high step or touch
voltages in a critical operating area or places that are frequently used by people. Grounded metal
gratings, placed on or above the soil surface, or wire mesh placed directly under the surface material,
are common forms of a ground mat.

Mesh voltage: The maximum touch voltage within a mesh of a ground grid.

Transferred voltage: A special case of the touch voltage where a voltage is transferred into or out of
the substation from or to a remote point external to the substation site.

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 Figure 10: Summary of substation electrical hazards

Mitigating strategies in the minimization of hazards at substations

A complete discussion on substation safety is beyond the scope of this course, and for students that
might find themselves within this work sector, your employer will provide you with the necessary
training to ensure overall an understanding and protocols to be followed whilst working within these
potentially hazardous environments.

The general approach in reducing electrical hazards within substations is in the effective design and
installation of the grounding system so as to limit the effect of ground potential gradients (GPR). The
grounding system will be designed to such voltage and current levels that will not endanger the safety of
people or equipment under normal or fault conditions, whilst at the same time ensuring reliability of
service.

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Controlling Hazards (Stage 3 of the Safety Model)

Refer to Section 7 (p. 38) of the Electrical Student Safety Manual on how to create a safe work
environment and the procedures involved in Lock Out / Tag Out (p. 39,40)

 Treat all conductors—even “de-energized” ones—as if they are energized until they are locked
out and tagged.
 Verify circuits are de-energized before starting work.
 Lock out and tag out circuits and machines.
 Prevent overloaded wiring by using the right size and type of wire.
 Prevent exposure to live electrical parts by isolating them.
 Prevent exposure to live wires and parts by using insulation.
 Prevent shocking currents from electrical systems and tools by grounding them.
 Prevent shocking currents by using GFCIs.
 Prevent too much current in circuits by using overcurrent protection devices.

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