Review Article

Grape Cultivation and Management Approaches

by Geospatial Tools - A Review
VE Nethaji Mariappan1, VS Pooja2, B Prabhu Dass Batvari3, R Indirani4

Abstract
Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS plays a vital component in monitoring vineyard cultivation in a near
real time manner for delivering appropriate management inputs. A crux of vineyard distribution
according to climatic conditions and consequence of adverse climatic conditions on production
of vine is dealt without ambiguity. Role of remote sensing (optical and hyperspectral) on
vineyard distribution, discrimination by various techniques, deriving both biophysical and
biochemical variables from satellite images and monitoring of vine at various growth stages has
been reviewed extensively. Field management of irrigation and nutrient on vine has been
detailed elaborately. Vine cultivation and its importance, rootstock development, vineyard
establishment, canopy management, pest and disease monitoring are deliberated both by field
approach and its assessment through remote sensing and Geographic Information System. Thus
remote sensing and GIS tools provide valuable information to vine growers and policy planners
to take appropriate measures for optimal growth and development of vine for sustainable
production.

Keywords: Vineyard Distribution, Remote Sensing, Hyperspectral, GIS, Vine phenology,

Nutrient, Irrigation, Pest & Disease

Introduction
Distribution of vine

Vine is probably the most broadly grown temperate fruit crop in the tropics and subtropics with a total world
production of above 3 million tonnes. India’s production of over one million tonnes is primary world producer and
Brazil productionseems lesser than one million tonnes Possingham (2004). Vine is grown under a variety of soil
and climatic conditions, namely, hot tropical, sub-tropical and mild tropical climatic regions (Iland et al.,
2009;Demir, 2014) in India.Among the countries with tropical climatic conditions, developing countries namely
Brazil, India, Thailand and Venezuela play an important roles in the tropical Vine production in the world (S.
Jogaiah, 2013).The main varieties cultivated are Thompson Seedless and itsvarieties include, Tas-A-Ganesh,
Sonaka and Perlette white vines. Among the coloured table Vines Sharad Seedless, Flame Seedless, Red Globe etc.
are mainly cultivated.

1,2
Centre for Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics, 3Centre for Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Sathyabama University,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
4
Assistant Professor (SS&AC), Madurai Agricultural College, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai District, Tamil Nadu,
India.
Correspondence: Dr. Nethaji Mariappan, Sathyabama University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail Id: nethajim@gmail.com
Orcid Id: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0906-9314

How to cite this article: Mariappan VEN, Pooja VS, Batvari BPD et al. Grape Cultivation and Management Approaches by
Geospatial Tools - A Review. J Adv Res GeoSci Rem Sens 2017; 4(1&2): 17-28.
ISSN: 2455-3190

© ADR Journals 2017. All Rights Reserved.

Mariappan VEN et al.
Raisins are made mainly from Thompson Seedless and
Tas-A-Ganesh.Many wine Vine varieties viz., Cabernet
Sauvignon, Merlot, Shiraz (for red wines); Sauvignon
Blanc, Chenin Blanc, Chardonnay (for white wines)
have been introduced and are undercultivation as well
as under evaluation (Adsule et al., 2012). Based on the
viticulture practices and the rainfall the Vine growing
regions are classified as follows (NRC Vines, Pune:
crop profile).
Vine is one of the commercial fruit crop grown on
diversified soils. Spain is the largest area coverage for
vines (12,00,000 ha) and Italy is the largest producer
of vines in the world (83,25,888 tons) respectively. In
India, it is grown on 60, 200 hectares with an annual
production of 15,46,300 tones and has the second
highest yield of 25.69 tons/ha (NRC Vines, Pune: crop
profile). Maharashtra stands first in area and
production, followed by Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh (Somkuwar and Adsule, 2004; Adsule.2013a).
Approximately 85 percent of the total productionis
consumed as table vine rather than used in wine
industry. About 1,20,000 tonnes of Thompson
Seedless, Sonaka, ManikChaman and Tas-A-Ganesh
are used as raisins. Around 20,000 tonnes of
Bangalore Blue are crushed to make juice, and 10,000
tonnes of Chenin Blanc, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay,
Bangalore Blue, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Uni
Blanc are crushed to process into wine.
The aim of present review is to understand the
distribution of grape, aspects of cultivation, pest and
disease management and assessment of grapes by
Remote Sensing and GIS for productivity
improvement.
Sub-tropical region
mostly cover the northwestern plains extending 23°
and 40° N latitude hot season duration is longer, cold
season is milder and rainy (Demor, 2014) including
Delhi; Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh; Haryana
including Hissar and Jind districts; Punjabcovering
Gurdaspur, Ferozpur, Bhatindaand Ludhiana districts.
Vines undergo dormancy and bud break stage usually
coinciding in the beginning of Marchmonth whereas
the rains arrive in the first week of June, and
therefore, approximately three months are available
from the initiation of growth to harvest. Early ripening
variety Perlette is more suitably grown in this region.
Vinedamage for Thompson Seedless varietydue to
rainfall is a serious concern in this region, single
pruning and a single harvestis being followed (Vairam
and Muniyandi, 2013).
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J. Adv. Res. GeoSci. Rem. Sens. 2017; 4(1&2)
Hot tropical region
High temperature during summermonths are
prevailing in Maharashtraexclusively in Satara, Latur,
Sangli, Nashik, Solapur, Puneand Osmabad districts.
Mahbubnagar, Anantapur, Hyderabad, Medak and
Ranga Reddy districtsof Andhra Pradesh; Gulberga,
Belgaum, Bijapur and Bagalkot, districts of Karnataka
are the viticulture region accounting for 70 percent of
the area under table vines in the country. Vines do not
undergo dormancy due to high temperature and
therefore double pruning is practicedfollowed by a
single harvest at the end of the crop period.These
region lie between 15° and 20° N latitude where
extreme variation diurnal vine growth and quality are
commonly characterized (Commins et al., 2012),
where maximum of 42°C and minimum temperature
8°C respectively.
This considerable increase in temperature will affect
very likely vine phenology, leading to high-
temperature ripening processes and to technological,
phenolic and aromatic ripeness differentiation
(Schultz & Jones, 2010), an thocyanin synthesis is
highly related to temperature, beyond 30 °C after
véraisondeter anthocyanin formation (Mori et al.,
2007). The major problems in this region are soil,
vinevigour, micro climate, water salinity, drought and
harvest date (Carbonneau, 2010). Berry growth is
reduced and a pink blush appears on green berries
due to lowtemperaturesof 8°C. Thompson Seedless,
Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka, Anab-e-Shahi, Sharad Seedless
and Flame Seedless are the varieties grown in this
region.
Mild tropical region
An area covered by 10° and 15° N latitude,
commercial Vinecultivationis limited to Bangalore and
Kolar districts of Karnataka, Chittoor district of Andhra
Pradesh and Coimbatore, Madurai, Dindigul,
Krishnagiriand Theni districts of Tamil Nadu fall in this
region (Census of India, 2011;Shikhamany, 2001)are
the important districts for vine cultivation. Theni
district was highest among the districts in vine
production (Sundaresan and Thanasekaran 1984) in
Tamil Nadu. This region is frequented for maximum
temperature of36°C and a minimum temperature of
12°C. Anab-e-Shahi, Bangalore Blue, Muscat Hamburg
and Bhokriare harvested as two crops in a year.
Vinifera varieties are susceptible to mildew suffer
losses due to unexpected rains at the time of
flowering and fruit set in mild tropical regions.
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J. Adv. Res. GeoSci. Rem. Sens. 2017; 4(1&2)
Remote sensing
Remote sensing has been used in agricultural sector
for many years, substantial development has been
taken place to work on horticultural sector with the
aid of global positioning systems (GPS) and
geographical information systems (GIS), promotes the
capacity for Vine and wine producers to acquire
detailed geo-referenced information about vineyard
performance and can help of both Vines and wine
according to expectations of vineyard performance,
and desired goals in terms of yield, quality and
theenvironment (Aho, 2002).Satellite remote sensing
images particularly SPOT 5 with adequate spectral and
spatial resolution provides meaningful information
about small size vineyard parcels, the differences in
the temporal evolution of the NDVI values for the
different parcels are required for site-specific
management decisions to improve the efficacy and
profitability of production (Marcal and Cunha 2007).
Spectral vegetation indices reduce the multiple-
waveband data of every image pixel correspond to a
single numerical value, and many have been
developed to highlight changes in vegetation
condition (Wiegand et al. 1991, Price and Bausch
1995). Vegetation indices utilise the significant
differences in reflectance of vegetation at visible
region namely green, red and near infrared
wavelengths include, Normalised Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Ratio Vegetation Index
(RVI) are used to identify healthy and vigorous vines a
string Near Infra red Reflectance (NIR) and a low Red
Reflectance (RR)(Rouse et al., 1973; Proffit et al.,
2006)isimplied byabsorbance ofleaf chlorophyll by red
wavelengths and by mesophyll tissuesby NIR
wavelengths respectively (Bonilla et al., 2015).Canopy
reflectanceis strongly dependent in the visible and
near-infrared bands on both leaf area index (LAI) and
biochemical properties (chlorophyll content) of the
canopy. (Tejada et al., 2001) Where, VI widely used to
estimate Kcis the Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI) (Cunha et al., 2009), the Soil Adjusted
Vegetation Index (SAVI), and the Weighted Difference
Vegetation Index (WDVI) (Vanino et al., (2016).
NDVI = NIR –R/NIR+R and RVI= NIR/R
The image analysis of vineyards involve the
discrimination of vineyards from neighbouring forests,
and farm land followed by the discrimination of
individual rows in the vineyardand finally, the
identification of individual vines in the rows (Smit et
al., 2010) can be adopted by employing the
thresholding techniques byRosin and Ioannidis (2003);
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Mariappan VEN et al.
region-growing methods (Chang and Li, 1994) and
Tian and Slaughter (2002); Da Costa et al.,
(2004);Pierre et al., 2007)by segmentation techniques
and Fourier analysis technique by Delenneet al.,
(2006), textural analysisWassenaaret al., (2002), edge
based technique Hall, 2003 and supervised
classification RodrIguez-Perez et al., (2008)and
hierarchical segmentation of aerial images (Smit et al.,
2010) for assessing vineyard blocks. Vine vigour is of
interest to the grower as differences in vigour are
often influenced by variable environmental conditions
and can produce variability in the quality and quantity
of production (Smart 1985; Johnson et al, 2001;
Bonilla et al., 2015).Time-series of NDVI data derived
from satellite imagery can provide a synoptic view of
vineyardvegetation vigour dynamics by measuring
surface reflectance at temporal time domain thatmay
be used for vineyard management strategies that
need off setting radiometric and geometric
disturbances for assessing appropriate phenological
stages of vine.
Hyperspectral remote sensingis utilized for detection
and identification ofvegetation indices tested for
evaluating vegetation growth in Mediterranean
vineyards (Hall et al., 2008).Theyare generally
composed of above 200 spectral bands of narrow
bandwidths (5-10 nm)provides significant
advancement in understanding the subtle changes in
biophysical and biochemical attributes of the
grapevine.The reflectance and absorption features in
narrow bands are pertaining to explicit crop
characteristics such as biochemical composition,
physical structure, water content and plant eco-
physicalstatus, biophysical (Hall et al., 2002) and
biochemical variables such as yield, chlorophyll
(Zarco-Tejadaet al. 2005), pH, acidity, sugar content or
phenoloic compounds(Martínez-Casasnovaset al.,
2012)content to map vegetation stress on crops
(Tejada et al., 2001), nitrogen content, carotenoid
pigment, plant biotic stress, plant moisture, nutrient
deficiencies, iron (Martin et al., 2007) and potential
productivity (Tagliavini and Rombola, 2001).A Non
Destructive characterization of Vine seeds with
regards to their variety and stage of maturation was
also possible to distinguish the variety of Vine and the
type of vineyard soil by NIR reflectance spectra
analysed using PLSand PCA methods for hyperspectral
images (Rodríguez et al., 2013).The advent of rapid
development of technologies in information,
communicationfield and geospatial science deliver
enormous potential for the development of optimized
solutions for distributed information for precision
viticulture (Matese and Genaro, 2015).New indexes
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Mariappan VEN et al.
namely TCARI (Transformed Chlorophyll Absorption in
Reflectance Index) based on 550, 670 and 800 nm
wavelength, OSAVI (Optimised Soil Adjusted
Vegetation Index) at 670 and 800 nm, or PRI
(Photochemical Reflectance Index) at 570 and 539
nmbased in other narrow wavelengths are explored to
detect chlorosis, water stress or nutrition deficiencies
in vine (Zarco-Tejadaet al., 2005).
Chen, 2011, developed a GIS-based solution for
identifying suitable area growing specific wine-Vine
cultivars in Nebraska. Geographic analysis showed a
distribution patterns of important climatic,
topographic and soil factors for a regional scale for
this study.Vine growers might understand the
importance of GIS tool for a careful site evaluation
prior to expending resources to initiate a vineyard
operation.(Acharya and Yang, 2015) employed GIS for
determining the suitable locations for vineyard
farming in Nepal based on the slope, aspect, soil, land
cover and physiographic factors. The results showed a
positive suitability relationship for middle hilly areas
for vine growing.
Vine Monitoring
Earth Observation (EO) imagery is utilized for a rapid
assessment of the vegetative characteristics of large
vineyard areas (Hall et al., 2002; Johnson et al.,
2003b). Usage of different satellite images having
different spatial resolutions like SPOT-5 (2.5 m pan-
sharpened), IKONOS (1 m pan-sharpened) and
Worldview-2 (50 cm pan-sharpened) for vineyard
mapping explores the potential impact of spatial
resolution on vineyard parcel identification and
proposed the most appropriate data for vineyard
applications (Sertel et al., 2012). Three pilot regions
Sarkoyhas an area of 555 km2 providing the highest
amount of Vine production in Tekirdagcity were
selected in Sarkoycounty of Tekirdag, Turkey.
Digitization technique providesuseful information on
deriving the boundaries from each imagesof vineyard
parcelsand vineyard maps. Boundaries obtained from
various satellite images were evaluated withoverlay
analysis to find out the impact of spatial resolution as
Worldview-2 data distinguished all parcels of three
different sites whatever the size and the texture of
the vineyard parcels on vineyard mapping.
Johnson, 2003a studied remotely sensed values from
Ikonos satellite images for normalized difference
vegetation index (NDVI) were derived regularly during
the 2001 growing season, and compared with
vineyard leaf area index (LAI) during that same period
as ground measurements. These two derived variables
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J. Adv. Res. GeoSci. Rem. Sens. 2017; 4(1&2)
were more closely related in vineyard blocks (R2= 0.91
to 0.98). Such temporal stability between the NDVI
and LAI valuesprovide a new insight of transforming
NDVI maps to LAI units, at least on a localized basis,
and periodically reduce subsequent ground
calibration. This reduction in fieldwork ultimately
benefit viticulturist economically by decreasing the
field observation and information cost for monitoring
LAI sequentially within season, or who wish to track
year-to-year changes in climax LAI with a single image
collected annually.
Vine phenology observations are essential for
ecological adaptability of vine varieties, crop
management and crop modelling. Remotely sensed
vegetation indices are used to estimate canopy
parameters (Glennet al., 2008). Time-series of satellite
imagery can rapidly provide a synoptic and objective
view of vine vegetation in a dynamic manner that may
suitablyutilized for vineyard management.Time-series
of satellite imagery can rapidly provide a synoptic and
objective view of vine vegetation dynamics that may
be used forvineyard management. Temporal data set
of ten-day vegetation image composites for the years
1999 to 2007 were used to develop spatial and
temporal profile in the Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI) and their relationship with
ground based observation of vine phenology for two
study sites were studied. The ground-based vineyard
phenology and satellite-derived flowering showed an
average spread deviation of 3 daysCunha et al.,
(2010).
Bonilla et al., 2015 studied of the spatial variability of
vine composition in a rainfedTempranillo vineyard
located in Rioja (Spain)based on the acquisition of
multispectral imagery at veraison and derived zones
based on NDVI, for assessing its performance onzonal
management. The study revealed a high spatial
variability within the plot, with a stable pattern over
the years; NDVI was a good predictor of vegetative
growth variables. It showed strongest correlations
with leaf length, exposed leaf area, pruning weight,
and total shoot. NDVI exhibited a positive significant
relationship for bunch weight and berry weight and a
negative relationship for amount of yield per vine,
sugar content, total acidity, totalphenolics for three
years of study.
Production of planting material
Development of Rootstock
Vines are multiplied exclusively by the rooting of
hardwood cuttings. Growers themselves obtain the
20
J. Adv. Res. GeoSci. Rem. Sens. 2017; 4(1&2)
hardwood cuttings from selected vineyards for raising
their nurseries. Well matured canes obtained in
September/ October is selected. Rootstocks are
selected with approximately 4 nodes possessinga
diameter of 8 to 10 mm from the selected canes. Such
rootstock cuttings are imbibed in water for 24 hours
for leaching out the soluble rooting inhibitors. Drastic
reduction in yield and productivity of own rooted
vines in major Vine growing regions of India
(Maharashtra, Northern Karnataka) necessitated use
of salt and drought tolerant rootstocks to sustain
productivity (Adsule et al., 2012).Under saline
irrigation, vines grafted on Dogridge rootstock has the
possibility to build upexcess sodium thus pave the
way for K deficiency, resulting in reduced fruitfulness
and death of vines (Sharma et al., 2010; Kodur et al.,
2013).
Usually, the basal parts of cuttings are then dipped for
five minutes in IBA (growth promoter) solution before
planting for enhanced vine growth and development.
Treated three to four cuttings are planted in situ in
soil at each spot in the main field followed by soil
treatment with chlorophyriphos 0.1 percent is a
practice to safeguard the cuttings against termite
damage.
Some of the factors such as soil characteristics,
management practices, and environmental factors
determine the success of vine cultivation, therefore a
proper understanding onpotential rootstocks and
limitations helps in selection of desired rootstocks for
a given location, variety and climatic conditions
(Cousin 2009).Root stock in vine is used to overcome
problems due to biotic stress such as phylloxera
(Reynolds and Wardle, 2001), viruses (Xue et al.,
1999), a biotic stress include soil salinity, drought and
low pH (Jogaiah et al., 2015) during cropping seasons
therefore growersuse droughtand salinity tolerant
rootstocks to overcome stress Root stock as the
potential to sustain adverse condition, hardwood
cuttings of the ‘Dogridge’ rootstock are subjected to
rooting on Gulabi/ Thomson seedless (Prakash and
Reddy, 1990) produce cytokines thereby maintain
growth and development of vine through favourable
bud formation (Mullins, 1967). Rooted cuttings of this
rootstock are planted in the main field during
February-March thusselected scion variety is then
wedge graftedon the rootstocks in the field. Wedge
grafting is a simple method; the best time for the
operation is September-October as it gives maximum
success (Adsule, 2013b).
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Mariappan VEN et al.
Establishment of vineyards
Land preparation and vine establishment
Soil and site characteristics are most important
causative factors for variability in Vine production
worldwide (Bonilla et al., 2015). Soil type, topography,
microclimate, slope, water holding capacity,
drainageplay a vital role on the spatial characteristics
of within-vineyard variability determine Vine yield
maps. Land leveling, trench opening is done before
planting of vne rootstocks in the field. It gives more
aeration to root stock and drainage of water at the
root zone. Usually trenchesare laid of 75 cm width, 75
cm depth and length 200-250 ft. A gap of 3 m
between trenches issued for cultural operations with
heavy machinery. The opened trench is allowed to
expose to the sun for about 15-20 days before filling
operation. The remaining gap is filled with20 kg of
farm yard manure, 0.5 kg of superphosphate, 0.1 kg
urea, 0.1kgsulphate of potash 0.2 kg magnesium
sulphateand 10 g micro nutrient mixture are added
for running foot of the trench.For planting rootstock
pits of 30cmx30cmx30cm are to be opened with a row
distance of 2m for heavy soil and 1.5m for light soil. A
mixture of FYM, sand and Chlorpyriphos in the ration
of 1:5:0.5gm for root penetration and termite control
respectively(Somkuwar and Adsule, 2004).
Canopy management of vineyards
Canopy management practices in wine vineinclude
environmental factors such as soil, available water,
climateas well cultural practices for obtaining better
yieldand quality of vines(Somkuwar, 2005). Vine
canopy depend on trunk (main stem), primaries and
secondary’s which makes permanent framework of
the vine (Adsule 2013a). This is achieved through
periodic training and pruning of vines in the initial
years of vineyard establishment (Adsule et al., 2012).
Vinecultivation will bemore appropriate, vine grower’s
attention onfavourable sunlight interception,
photosynthetic capacity and fruit microclimate to
improve vine fruit yield synchronization with best
wine quality acclaimed for healthy and robust growing
varietieswith dense canopies(Jogaiah, 2013). Excessive
sunlight exposure leads to sun burn damage and
consequently increase TSS or anthocyanin
concentration (Chorti et al., 2010). Many training
systems are in vogue around the globe, but the
intrinsic is Bower, Telephone and Flat Roof Gable
seems to a promising canopy cover system.
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Mariappan VEN et al.
Bower System
It is the popular system used for vine for its low cost
and high productive potential are highly suited for
varieties like Bangalore Blue, Anab-e-Shahi and
Gulabi. Vine varieties (Thompson Seedless and Tas-A-
Ganesh) with vigour and excessive foliage density lead
to poor light interception adversely affect the
productivity (Smart, 1990;Somkuwar, 2005).
Telephone System
T-trellis is used in varieties like Thompson Seedless
and other seedless cultivars are grown in about 25-30
percent of the vineyard area in Maharashtra.It looks
like a telephone pole containing three top wires and
‘T’ shaped and wires are followed for moderately
vigorous cultivars. In very hot and dry places, sunburn
of the berries is experienced in summer and therefore
yields in this system are less than the bower system.
Flat Roof Gable System
This system is the hybrid of bower and the extended Y
systems. It has the advantage of inter-connected Y
trellis forming a flat roof gable is being adoptedand
practiced (Somkuwar, 2005) is particularly followed
for vigorous vines. Topology of this system protect
vine bunches from direct sunlight and make the
worker available to sprays of pesticides within the
reach of an average height. This system is being
practiced in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka. Vines are pruned and
harvested once in the sub-tropical region
especiallywith the onset of springin North India, vines
are pruned twice harvested once in hot tropical
regions. All canes in a vine are pruned in March-May
back to single node; spurs to develop canes and the
canes are further forward pruned in the months of
October-November for good fruiting (Somkuwar,
2005). The number of nodes retained on a cane varies
with the variety and cane thickness. Unfavorable
weather conditions prevent vine growers to prune
before October and after November.Mild tropical
region favors vines growers to prune and harvest crop
twice in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Gulabi and Bangalore Blue varieties are fairly resistant
to fruit bud differentiation due to cloudy weather and
rains as well pruning is done at any time of the year.
Nutrient management
Nutrient Management of Vines Soil properties and
irrigation water quality are more important and
reliable parametersresponsible for higher production
of vine. An ideal soil should possess a deep and well-
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drained soil with a pH 6.5 -8.0 (Adsule, 2013b).
Nutrient availability to vine depends upon soil pH its
composition and availability of nutrients in soil in the
available form. Generally, fertilizers are applied to
plants based on the soil and crop petiole test in table
1.(Adsule, 2013a). Usually organic manures are
applied to soil in order to stabilize the inorganic
nutrient content of soil and to improve the soil
condition favorable foe crop growth. Fertilizer
recommendation usually ranges from 435-1100 kg N,
242 -1332 kg P2O5 and 132- 1337 kg K2O per hectare.
The annual dose is fixed based on the petiole analysis
carried out at 45 days after spur pruning in the
tropical regions at full bloom in the sub-tropical region
in Table 1. While 40 percent of the annual dose is
given through organic sources, 60 percent is given as
inorganic fertilizer. Low, high and medium of
N:P2O5:K2O is recommended during growth cycle and
high, medium, high of N:P2O5K2O recommended for
fruiting season (NRC Vines, Pune: crop profile).Micro
nutrients such as Fe and N deficiencies result in
chlorosis symptoms in vineyards results in decrease of
fruit yieldand quality in the current and the
subsequent year as fruit buds develop poorly
(Tagliavini and Rombola, 2001) followed bya poor
quality of must, reducing sugar and anthocyanin
accumulationin berries during ripening, increasing
totalacidity (Veliksaret al. 2005).
Quite a lot studies have demonstrated the feasibility
of chlorosis detection from Chlorophyll a+b(Cab)
spectroscopy (Gitelsonet al., 2003, Le Marieet al.,
2004;Martín et al., (2007)from hyperspectral remote
sensing imagery described their study on using
hyperspectral remote sensing to map vine quality in
vineyards affected by iron deficiency chlorosis. Fe
availability can be one of the major factors modifying
canopy size and chlorophyll content in leaves, which
have a considerable spatial variation due to variation
nutrient uptake by crops in vineyards affected by
chlorosis (Zarco-Tejadaet al. 2005). Smart et al.,
(2007) had described their study on remote sensing
for vine K deficiency symptoms using leaf level
hyperspectral reflectance. In Vines, K deficiency
results in reduced vine growth, premature leaf drop,
and yield loss andThe visual symptoms indicative of K
deficiency included yellowing of vine leaves and
symptoms of necrosis in the form of reddening and
black leaf (Christensen et al., 1978). However it is
known that K deficiency due to rapid shoot growth in
spring and the inadequacy of root absorption lead to
temporary K deficiency in vineshowing symptoms of
yellowing of leaves caused by production of
compounds such as putracene (Adams et al., 1990).
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Table 1. Nutrients recommendation for various growth stages of vine

Sl.No. After FYM Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
foundation Qty. Time of Qty. Time of Qty. Time of Qty. Time of
-pruning application (%) application (%) application (%) application
(days)
1 0-40 days 25 At the time 30 / First 40 20/100 31-40 days
tons/ha of pruning 100 days
2 40-60 days NIL NIL 40/100 40-60 days
3 60-120 NIL NIL 30/100 60-120
days days
After fruit pruning
4 0-40 days 25 At the time 30 / First 40
tons/ha of pruning 100 days
5 40-70 days NIL NIL 30/100 40-70 days
6 70-105 NIL NIL 30/100 70-105 30/100 70-105
days days days
7 After 105 30/100 After 105
days days
Courtesy: (Adsule, 2013b).

Table 2.Fertilizer dosages as per vine growth stages

Sl.No. N P2O5 K2O
1 Required nutrients (kg/ha) 500 500 1000
2 Through Organics (40%) 200 200 400
3 Through Inorganic nutrients in soil (30%) 150 150 300
4 Through fertigation (20% equivalent to 30%) 100 100 200
(NRC Vines, Pune: crop profile).

Irrigation of vine (Araujoet al., 1999; Flexaset al., 1999).

Since vines are grown in areas where the
evapotranspiration exceeds the precipitation,
irrigation is essential for Indian sub-continent. The
irrigation requirement of vines generally ranges from
450 -600 mm. Accurate estimation of table vines
water requirements are most significant for adequate
irrigation scheduling and irrigation planning, to
regulate the appropriate balance between various
stages of vine growth in affirm with vegetative
growth, yield, and berry composition, and to save
water (Medrano et al., 2014). Excessive and stress
irrigation are harmful for optimum Vine production.
Soil moisture plays a critical role during berry swelling
and reduced sugar accumulation at ripening when it’s
content fall below 50% (Roth and Herezo, 1992; Poni
et al., 1994). Non irrigated vines develop a very small
canopy and pruning weight leading to low production,
it is necessary to apply desired amount of irrigation at
various growth stages as per agro climatic condition
for improvement in physiological status reflect higher
yield with optimum vegetative, reproductive growth
and development of vine(Hera-Orts et al., 2004)or
else water stress decrease the photosynthetic activity
Excessive surface irrigation results into excessive
vegetative growth increase inter nodal distance
resulting differentiating bud converted into tendril
(Somkuwar, 2005;Sharma, 2003) especially in heavy
soil causes lack of aeration in root zone. Irrigation
water is applied before vine plant shows the
symptoms of moisture stress or else coupled with high
temperature affects to total health and productivity of
Vines (Sharma, 2003). Water Use Efficiency (WUE)
varies depending on soil and crop type, climatic
conditions and water management practices whereas
remote sensing technologies efficiently used to
estimate and derive water use efficiency spatially and
temporally. Walker et al., (2004)explained
transpiration efficiency as the amount of biomass
produced in terms of transpiration by water by the
vine of Shiraz andCabernet was of 2.5 to 3.3 kg m-3
under normal irrigated conditions, and 2.0 to 5.1 kg m-
3
undermild water deficit conditions respectively in
Australia. Therefore a very minimum irrigation is
applied for a period of 30 days for surface root
development.Later irrigation is scheduled at different
rates for different stages of vine growth and berry
development (Somkuwar and Adsule, 2004).

23 ISSN: 2455-3190
Mariappan VEN et al.
Automatic scheduling of drip irrigation maintains soil
moisture content near to field capacity (FC)or
available water capacity (AWC) throughout the season
under fluctuating evaporative demand (Parchomchuk,
1996).
Pests and Disease Management
Pests
Vine is prone to insect / pest development due to
prevailing agroclimaticconditions.It is understood that
Thripsare sucking pest that feed on lower leaf surface,
younger shoots, ovaries of flowers and newly set
berries. Trips namely Scirtothripsdorsalisand
Rhipiphorothripscruentatus are dominant pests for
vine yield reduction. They suck the sap form ovaries of
flowers affect berries lead to flower shedding and loss
in yield. This incidence is prevalent throughout the
year and endemic during flowering and early berry
formation stage.
Flea beetles
The adult beetles (Scelodontastrigicollis) scrape the
sprouting buds and eat them up completely after each
pruning and thus buds fail to sprout.They also feed on
tender shoots and leaves and cause substantial
damage to emerging shoots. Beetle activity varies
according to the region, its activity is pronounced in
the month of March in North India and associate with
the pruning season in South and West India.
Mealy Bugs
Mealy bugs are the major group of sucking pest
affecting 50-100 per cent vine yield loss in India. They
prefer high temperature and low relative humidity
and thus population increases in mid-December. Bugs
at nymph stage and adults are prone attack tender
shoots by sucking sap resulting in curling and
malformation of vines resulting in stunting of the new
shoots.
Table 3.Nature, occurrence of Powdery mildew disease and prevalence region
Sl.No. Powdery mildew Regions
1 Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
2 Punjab and Uttar Pradesh
3 Himachal Pradesh and High mountain regions
(NRC Vines, Pune: crop profile)
ISSN: 2455-3190
J. Adv. Res. GeoSci. Rem. Sens. 2017; 4(1&2)
Leaf hoppers
Incidence of leaf hopper occurs in the month of
October and Novembermonths of a year. The hoppers
of young nymphs adults suck sap from the lower side
of the leaves that results in leaf curling(NRC Vines,
Pune: crop profile; Adsule, 2013b).
Diseases
The important Vine diseases are downy mildew,
powdery mildew and anthracnose caused by fungal
pathogens at the warm climate with wet or humid
conditions and rust infection usually occur on older
leaves (Adsule, 2013a; Adsule 2013b). Instances of
bacterial infection were observed on vine (Chand and
Kishun, 1990) for Indian region. Downy mildew and
anthracnose is prevalent in all vine growing regions of
the country especially during monsoon season
coincide with higher relative humidity. Downy mildew
is highly destructive disease of vines may cause 100%
crop loss if not controlled during favorable weather. It
is caused by Plasmoparaviticola, characterized by
small light brown or greyish black lesions on young
leaves. Anthracnoseis caused by fungus
Elsonieampilina and Elsonieviticolaon leaves produces
small circular lesions, bark of the stem also attacks the
flower clusters and young fruits respectively.Powdery
mildew is caused by parasitic fungi Uncinulanecator
prevalent in all the Vine growing regions in India. The
disease is characterized by the presence of white
powderycoating in patches on both sides of the
leaves, young shoots and immature berries invariably
of all the regions in India in table 3.
A bacterial infection named bacterial canker is caused
by bacterium; Xanthomonascampestries in fects all
aerial parts of vine. Disease is characterized by
irregular growth, stunting and splitting of shoot at
advanced stages of infection.Rust disease is caused by
fungus Phakospohravitis. An orange spores are seen
on the matured leaves of Vines and is prevalent in
tropical and sub tropical regions. Minor diseases like
leaf blight and bunch necrosis are caused by Alteneria
sp. Cause fruit rotting at low temperatures (NRC
Vines, Pune: crop profile).
Occurrence of PM disease (month)
November
March –April
Early summer
24
J. Adv. Res. GeoSci. Rem. Sens. 2017; 4(1&2)
Conclusions
The purpose of this review article is to meticulously
provide information on vineyard distribution and the
importance of climatic variables on vine growth and
yield. Satellite remote sensing and GIS provide holistic
information on the identification, monitoring of vine
based on the spatial and temporal resolution of
images. Vine phenology and its biophysical and
biochemical attributes are also derived from remote
sensing and validated at actual field conditions. The
results of the analysis are well in the line with error
limits as achieved as accuracy assessments. Nutrient
deficiency symptoms are well monitored using remote
sensing tools and advance forewarning on irrigation,
nutrient, pest and disease of vineyard are to be
worked out to improve the optimum and sustainable
production of vine crop around the globe.
Acknowledgement
Authors are greatly thankful to the Management of
Sathyabama University, and Chennai for providing the
entire infrastructure and laboratory facilities for
bringing up this review article.We acknowledge the
contribution of all the staff in the Centre for Remote
Sensing and Geoinformatics.
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