TENSOR ANALYSIS

OF ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS AND MACHINES

L. V. BEWLEY
PROFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
AND
DEAN OF ENGINEERING
LEHIGH UNIVERSITY

THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY . NEW YORK

 PREFACE
I n this book I have attempted to present the essential principles, together
with applications, of the matrix-tensor methods of analysis of electric circuits
and knachines as developed over the past quarter century by Gabriel Kron
and published by him in four books and numerous papers and articles. The
book is designed to provide a unified consolidation of developments in this
field and to serve as an introduction to the remarkable power of tensor
methods in electrical engineering. I n my opinion, Kron's research constitutes
the most outstanding contribution to the theory of electrical engineering
made in this generation and deserves to rank in importance with the work
of Steinmetz. There is nothing in engineering literature t o compare with
Copyright 0 1961 by Kron's generalizations as highly organized methods of attack of unlimited
THERONALD PRESSCOMPANY versatility and power. The tensor method is one of great analytical beauty
- which in all stages of its development exhibits a clear-cut interpretation and
All Rights Resewed
understanding of the underlying physical phenomena.
No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form without permission in writing from There are five major areas discernible in Kron's methods: (1) the mathe-
the publisher.
matical disciplines of matrix and tensor analyses, with their associated con-
cepts, definitions, rules of operation, etc.; (2) the establishment of the
equations of generalized (or primitive) networks and machines; (3) the
transformation of voltages, currents, impedances, velocities, and torques
from the primitive system (or some selected set of connections) to other
systems; (4) transformations and artifices designed to save labor, or to
present a new point of view, or to simplify equations; and (5)the interpreta-
tion of the equations of performance in terms of equivalent circuits and
models.
Kron recognized the possibilities of tensor analysis as the tool par excel-
lence for the study of electrical systems, and while he added nothing new to
the mathematical theory per se, he must be given full credit for having
adapted tensor theory to electric circuits and machines, just as others had
adapted it to the study of differential geometry, relativity theory, mechanics,
elasticity, electromagnetic theory, and other mathematical and physical
fields. Kron showed how the fundamental equations of electric machines
could be established from any of four general methods of attack: (1) by
physical considerations and elementary equations, (2) by Lagrange's equa-
tions of motion, (3) by Maxwell's equations, and (4) by the Maxwell-Lorentz
equation. He conceived the all-important idea of "primitive" networks and
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 61-5655 machines in which all connections are severed and for which the equations
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA may be established by relatively simple means, and of then passing to the
actual connections by means of a "transformation tensor." If any one idea
in the amazing multitude of ideas which Kron has given us deserves to be
iii
iv PREFACE

singled out and crowned as his cardinal achievement, this is it. He devised
innumerable clever procedures and artifices for simplifying results, or t o
render them more intelligible, or for saving labor. Sometimes he became so CONTENTS
immersed in his search for a tensor or matrix which would bring about a
desired operation that he failed to notice that i t could be done by inspection
PART I
or by some simple device, but these things are t o be expected in pioneer work
and are easily forgiven. While his intuition was uncanny, i t was too often Matrices, Tensors, and Circuits
substituted for a rigorous and rational development, and this can prove CHAPTER PAGE
disconcerting to the reader.
For twenty years I have taught a course in the applications of tensor
analysis, essentially as covered in this book, to first year graduate students
a t Lehigh University. I am convinced that a course, based on this book,
could be given to electrical engineering seniors, and that in the not too
distant future such a course will become a standard part of undergraduate
curricula, so that this powerful tool may become a part of the equipment
of every electrical engineer.
I wish to express my thanks to the students of my classes, especially
Joseph Teno, William Hollabaugh, and Donald Talhelm, who searched so
diligently for errors, and to Mrs. Marion Stempkowski, who typed the
manuscript.
L. V. BEWLEY
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
January, 1961

P A R T I1
Machine Analysis
BASICCONCEPTS MACHINES.
IN ELECTRIC

THE QUASI-HOLONOMIC
GENERALIZED
MACHINE .
EQUATION.
USE O F THE LAGRANGE
USE OF MAXWELL'SEQUATION .
USE OF THE MAXWELL-LORBNTZ
EQUATION .
COMPARISON
OF THE GENERAL
SOLUTIONS
OF INDICES
THE RAISINQAND LOWERING AND GENERALIZED
PER-UNITCONCEPTS.
SMALLOSCILLATIONS
AND HUNTING
v
vi CONTENTS
20 SYNCHBONOUS
MACHINES . . 222
21 MACHINES .
INDUCTION . 246
MACHINES
22 COMMUTATOR . 268
MACHINES.
23 INTERCONNECTED . 283

Part I

MATRICES, TENSORS, AND CIRCUITS

 1
SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

1-1. Introduction. Tensor analysis was developed by the mathe-

maticians Grassmann, Riemann, Beltrami, Christoffel, Ricci, and Levi-Civita
as the mathematical tool par excellence for the study of n-dimensional spaces
undergoing transformations of reference frame subject to some condition of
invariancy. I n Einstein's hands it became the language of relativity theory,
and since then it has found ready application in all branches of physics.
Tensor analysis was introduced into electrical engineering by Gabriel Kron
in 1935, and almost entirely through his w~itings,which include four books
and numerous technical papers and articles, it has become one of the most
powerful analytical tools and methods of analysis in modern engineering.
Its unsurpassed supremacy as a means of generalization, its great unifying
concepts, its beauty of expression, and the ease with which it may be learned
and applied establish tensor analysis as perhaps the most powerful analytical
tool a t the disposal of the engineer.
Since tensor analysis can do everything that can be done with vector
analysis in a simpler and easier fashion and since it is not restricted to three-
dimensional orthogonal coordinate systems, and in addition can handle far
more difficult situations in which vector analysis is helpless, there seems little
doubt that it will eventually supplant vector analysis entirely.
The study of differential invariants is concerned with "a set of differential
equations" which is "invariant to" a "group of transformations." Its mathe-
matical discipline is called tensor analysis, or the absolute calculus, and the
concepts of set, form, invariancy, group property, and transformation are
its keynotes. Differential geometry is its geometric interpretation; and
applications to physics, dynamics, the unified field theory, and electric
machinery are examples of its physical interpretation. By means of it the
language and concepts of abstract geometry can be brought over en masse
into physical problems with unbelievable profit and enlightenment, and thus
the research which has been done in the field of abstract geometry by the
greatest mathematical minds becomes available a t bargain rates to the
engineer.
1-2. Networks and Notation. Consider an electrical network con-
sisting of n branches, each branch composed of any number of resistances,
inductances, and capacitances in series and each branch inductively coupled
3
4 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I Art. 1-31 SOME PRELIMINARY C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 5
with all the other branches of the network. At this stage of our information 1-3. The Canonical Equations. Fig. 1-1 shows n separate impedance
2n unknowns are associated with this network : the n currents in the branches, branches, each carrying its own current and having a voltage across it. No
and the n voltages across those branches. The determination of these 2n restrictions are placed on the nature of these impedances, and they may
unknowns would require 2n equations relating the voltages and currents and consist of any series combination of resistances, inductances, and capacitances.
any constraints or relationships between currents or voltages imposed by the Furthermore, every impedance may be mutually (inductively) coupled with
connections. (The specification of a voltage or of a current as a known every other branch. Later on it will be shown that more sophisticated con-
quantity is regarded here as equivalent to an equation.) It is a remarkable cepts of impedances permit extended definitions, but for the present a
fact that in any such network, no matter how complicated, n, or exactly half, general impedance may be taken as
of the 2n equations needed for a determination of the 2n unknowns can be
written from a knowledge of the composition of the branches without regard
to the way in which the branches are interconnected; and the other half can
be written entirely from a diagram of the connections without regard to the
composition of the separate branches. The first set of n equations is called
the canonical equations, and the second set the equations of constraint. The
solution of these 2n simultaneous equations determines the n voltages and
the n currents of the network. These equations may be expressed in various
in which, as in operational calculus,* -- Zib 4"
notations, such as scalar, vector, dyadic, matrix, and tensor. Each of these for transients Fig. 1-1. Branches of a network.
notations and methods of manipulation possesses certain advantages from P =
the point of view of compactness, associated physical concepts, ease of j o for steady-state alternating currents
numerical calculation, generality, and versatility. This book will adhere to
The canonical equations relate the branch voltages and currents :
tensor notation, but the special matrix notation developed by Gabriel Kron
will be employed for detailed specifications and routine manipulation. To
this end :
Currents (whether branch or mesh is immaterial) will be represented with
superscripts :
ia, ib, . . . , i n or, in general, by ik; (k = a, b, . . . , n) There are as many (n) of these equations as there are separate branches, and
they are written quite independently of how these branches may be inter-
Voltages will be represented with subscripts : connected. I n fact, a t this point it is not known how they are interconnected,
e,, e,, . . . , en or, in general, by ej; (j= a, b, . . . , n) or even if they are to be. This set of n simultaneous equations may be greatly
condensed by writing them in summation convention :
Impedances will be represented with subscripts :
Zaa, Zab,. . . , Znn or, in general, by Zjk; (j,k = a,b, . . . , n)
Admittances will be represented with superscripts :
Obviously, this much more compact notation expresses everything that Eq.
Yaa, Yab,. . . , Ynnor, in general, by Yjk; (j,k = a, b, . . . , n) 1-2 expresses.
The use of superscripts and subscripts is not arbitrary but, as will be Einstein noticed that the summation sign in Eq. 1-3 is superfluous, for
developed later, is a matter of the utmost significance. the duplicate occurrence of the index k, once as a subscript and once as a
I n the course of events, currents, voltages, impedances, and admittances superscript, suffices to give instruction for summation with respect to itself
will need to be transformed to new coordinates; for example, branch currents and thus permits the equation to be written simply
replaced by mesh currents with attendant changes in the voltages and imped-
ances. These new coordinates will be designated by primed quantities a', b',
. . ., n' or, in the case of several transformations in succession, by double- * Unfortunately, books on operational calculus, or Laplace transforms, are about
prime quantities a", b", . . .; and triple-prime quantities a", b", . . .; etc. equally divided in the adoption of p or s for the transformed equation, but the majority
of the papers on electric machine theory are written in terms of p.
6 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I
with the understanding that it is to be summed on k. As so often happens
when some simplification in nomenclature is adopted, new concepts are born.
Certainly, in the way Eq. 1 4 was arrived at, ej is a particular voltage depend-
ing on the value assigned to j, and ik is a particular current depending on k,
and Z j k is a particular impedance depending on the choice of j and k. But
may we not now regard Eq. 1 4 as the embodiment of all the n voltages, all
the n currents, and all the n2 impedances ? If so, Eq. 1 4 vastly extends our
concept of a voltage, a current, and a n impedance as not single quantities
but entireties associated with the whole n-branch system or network. Thus
ea is only a component of ej, ic is only a component of ik, and Z,, is only a
component of Zj,. On this basis Eq. 1 4 may be written in matrix notation
(for convenience showing only three coordinates) :
The arrows on the matrices indicate that the rows of Z j , are to be multiplied
by the column of ik. (The rules and procedures for matrix manipulation are
given in the next chapter.) Notice that voltages are written as rows and
currents as columns, corresponding to the subscript and superscript conven-
tion. Later on, these will be referred to as covariant and contravariant
tensors of rank one.
Much of the engineering literature is already saturated with the dyadic
notation
e=Z*i
in which e, Z, and i, written in boldface type, have the same significance as
the corresponding matrices in Eq. 1-5, and the dot product indicates the
same arrow multiplication as in Eq. 1-5.
1-4. The Equations of Constraint. Equations of constraint express the
conditions imposed by the interconnections of the network or the relation-
ships which exist between the various currents and voltages. I n circuit theory
these conditions are usually given by Kirchhoff's first and second laws :
X (currents a t a junction or node) =0
X (voltages around a circuit or mesh) = 0 (1-7)
But as a by-product of the idea of invariancy of power, under a transforma-
tion of coordinates in a n electrical network, i t will be shown in Chapter 3
that one of the two laws of Kirchhoff (either one) is redundant. From the
point of view of tensor analysis it is usually sufficient t o set up relationships
Art. 1-41 SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 7
among the currents (or voltages) only, although hybrid relations may some-
times have to be established. Numerous cases will be dekeloped in this book
by way of illustration.
Usually, but not always, interconnection of the branches results in the
need for fewer currents to describe the performance of the network. Thus
mesh currents may replace branch currents, or currents flowing in one direc-
tion may be substituted for currents flowing in opposite directions, or one
current a t a junction may be replaced by the algebraic sum of other currents
Fig. 1-2. Examples of substitutions of variables ("transformations of co-
ordinates").
a t that junction in accordance with Kirchhoff's law, and so on. I n any event,
a set of linear relationships can be formulated to express the relationship
between the original (or "old") branch currents and the "new" coordina.tes.
I n setting up these relationships, or equations of constraint, i t is sufficient
to show on the connection diagram only simple links, each consisting of a line
with terminals a t its ends, since the equations of constraint are independent
of the composition of the branches. Some examples of different kinds of
constraints are shown in Fig. 1-2.
I n Fig. 1-2a a bra,nch current ia is replaced by a branch current im'
flowing in the opposite direction, and the equation for this constraint is
ia = -im'
pig. 1-2b shows a junction of three currents ia, ib,ic. Obviously, two currents
ib' and ic' are sufficient to describe this situation, since
+
ia = ib' ic'
ib = jb'
ic = p'
8 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I Art. 1-51 SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 9

and, in general, the number of k' terms is usually less than the number of k symmetrical component substitution, or sines and cosines as in the synchro-
terms. Fig. 1-2c shows a mesh composed of four links in a network. Replac- nous machine example. Or they may be much more complicated. It is clearly
ing the branch currents ia, ib, ic, id by the loop current i", iP, t',is, i', there evident from Eq. 1-8 or 1-9 that
results
i" = i&- ii"
i b Ii& - iLJ
This is the transformation tensor. I t expresses the relationship between the
ic = j& - Y
i old coordinates or variables and the new coordinates or variables. The
id Ii d - je transformation tensor is the mathematical model of the connection diagram.
The study of its characteristics and behavior might be said to be the essential
Fig. 1-2d shows an ideal transformer in which the sum of the ampere-turns feature of tensor analysis itself. Much of this book will be devoted to its
is balanced (negligible magnetizing current). Accordingly, the secondary consideration. I n order properly to develop the study of the transformation
current may be expressed in terms of the primary current by the turn ratio: tensor, it is necessary first to explore and make available certain mathe-
matical tools. Accordingly, the next chapter provides the essential elements
on matrices. A separate chapter on the definitions and manipulative pro-
cedures of tensor analysis is also included, and the necessary ideas of this
field are further developed along with their application to circuits and
Another transformation is the substitution of symmetrical components machines. I t will be found that they evolve quite naturally and painlessly
(9,il, 3) for phase quantities (ia, ib, iC)
by the relationships and that no great amount of mathematical knowledge is necessary.
1-5. A Few Topological C o n ~ i d e r a t i o n s . ~ ?I~n* the analysis of
networks and electric machines i t is sometimes advantageous to use mesh
networks and a t other times to use node networks, depending on which
method of attack involves the least number of variables, the ease with which
And a final example is the substitution of direct, quadrature, and zero constraints may be recognized, and the known characteristics of certain
components ( i d ,iQ,z?) for phase quantities (ia,ib,ic)in the two-reaction theory elements. For example, it is usually better to handle vacuum tube circuits
of synchronous machines : as node networks. I t is therefore desirable to know a t the onset how many
branches, nodes, meshes, and junction pairs there are in a network. Let
ia = i0+ id cos 6 + iQsin 0 number of branches (which can be counted)
ib= i0+ id cos (I3 - 120") + ia sin (I3 120")
-
number of junctions or nodes (countable)
iC= i0+ idcos (0 + 120") + iQsin ( 8 + 120") number of subnetworks, which are not physically connected to one
another but may be inductively coupled (countable)
There are, of course, innumerable other ways in which new coordinates
minimum number of independent non-redundant meshes or closed
may be substituted for old, but they all reduce to a set of linear equations
circuits in the network for which each branch will be traced a t least
of the form
once
+ Ci,ib' + . . + CE,~"'
ia = ~',a,ia'
minimum number of junction pairs (any two junctions in a sub-
network constitute a junction pair) for which each junction is
included a t least once
Then these concepts are related by the two equations
These equations may be expressed in tensor notation as

B=M+P=M+J-S (1-12)
The C$ coefficients may be numericallj. equal to -1 as in Fig. 1-2a, +1 as * Superior numbers refer to publications in which ideas discussed in this book first
in Fig. 1-2b, f1 as in Fig. 1-2c, or they may be complex numbers as in the appeared. See the Bibliography at the end of the book.
10 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I Art. 1-61 SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

Hence, given any network comprising S independent subnetworks, with a Then, by Eqs. 1-11 and 1-13,
total number of branches B and junctions J, the minimum number of inde-
P=12-3=9 junction pairs
pendent non-redundant meshes M is
M = B + S - J (1-13)
M = 14 + 3 - 12 = 5 meshes (a, p, y, 6, a)

If M < P, the network can generally be more easily analyzed as a mesh
network; while if M > P, i t can generally be more easily analyzed as a node
network. Eqs. 1-11 and 1-13 thus furnish simple criteria for choosing the
One choice of the fire meshes is shown as (a, p, y , 6, a), but any other five
independent meshes may be selected. Similarly, any nine independent pairs
of the junctions may be taken as the nine junction pairs. At each junction
in a network a relationship (Kirchhoff's first law) may be written between
the currents a t that junction. (J - S) such non-redundant relationships, or
TABLE 1-1

The most simple Aggregations of Transformation Transformatior

representative any number of to other to other
physical system simple systems of reference reference
the same type for frames of the frames of
a particular same type different types
reference frame
with detined axes
or coordinates

Equations Scalar Matrix Matrix Tensor

How From physical First Second Third

established principles generalization generalization generalization
postulate postulate postulate

Equations Substitution of Transformation Transformatior

and matrix for scalar by means of a by means of a
quantities quantities transformation transformation
remain matrix and a law tensor and a
invariant of transformation law of
Fig. 1-3. A network. n form upon transformation
type of analysis. Complicated networks may necessitate a n appeal to the Example e' = Z' .i' e j , = Zj,k.ik'
concepts of all-mesh or all-junction pairs or hybrids. These will be considered aik
a t the proper time. C arbitrary C?,
a
= -
aij'
There is also the concept of the open mesh, which is simply any unclosed
circuit traced through the network from one junction t o some other junction.
equations of constraint, may be written for the network. Hereby any (J - S)
As a n illustration consider the network shown in Fig. 1-3. This network
currents may be expressed in terms of the remaining currents.
may be part of a much larger system from which it has been detached for
purposes of analysis in much the same fashion as portions of a structure are 1-6. Generalization Postulates. Kron focused attention on the
isolated in the theory of statics and analyzed as free bodies. In this network generality of the tensor method through the introduction of various postulates.
there are First generalization postulate. The method of analysis and form for a n
S = 3 subnetworks (I,11, 111) %-degreesystem of any complexity are the same as for a 1-degree system of
B = 14 branches (1, 2, . . . , 10; 11, 12, 13; 14) the same general type, provided each quantity is replaced by an appropriate
J = 12junctions(A, B , C , D , E , F , G , H ; L,M , N ; Q ) matrix.
Notice that in subnetwork I11 the two junctions of branch 14 coalesce into a Second generalization postulate. A matrix equation true in one reference
single junction Q by virtue of the short-circuiting jumper. Alternatively, frame remains invariant in form upon transformation to a new reference
the jumper could have been regarded as an impedanceless branch. frame of the same type.
 Art. 1-71 SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
12 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I

Third generalization postulate. A tensor equation true in one reference TABLE 1-2
frame remains invariant in form upon transformation to a new reference The Three Types of Networks
frame of the same or a different type.
The procedure to be followed in passing from simple to more complex Mesh I Junction P a i r Orthogonal Network
systems and interconnections is outlined in Table 1-1.

1-7. Types of Networks6 A network consisting of n coils or branches

will have k meshes and ( n - k) junction pairs, the selection of which is to a
certain extent arbitrary.
A network in which n voltages e, are impressed in series with each coil
and in which response currents i" flow in the coils is called a mesh network.
However, not all these currents are independent, and i t is sufficient to replace
them by k non-redundant mesh currents ik. I n setting up the k equations,
the n impressed voltages e, are replaced by k mesh voltages.
A network in which n currents Ia are impressed across each coil and in
which response voltages E, appear across the coils is called a junction-pair
network. However, not all these voltages are independent, and it is sufficient
to replace them by (n - k) non-redundant junction-pair voltages E,. I n
setting up the ( n - k) equations, the n impressed currents Ia are replaced by
( n - k) junction-pair currents.
A network in which n voltages e, are impressed in series with each coil n Impressed voltoges ea n Impressed currents I a n Impressed voltages ea
and n currents I" are impressed across each coil, while response currents ia (e, , eb , - . ., e, I (I", r b , . .., I,) n Impressed currents I a
flow in the coils and response voltages E, appear across the coils, is called a n k Response currents i k In-k) Response voltages E, k Response currents i k
orthogonal network. However, not all the response quantities are indepen- l i p ,i q / ( E n , Ec , Ef I v-k) Response voltages E,
dent, and i t is sufficient to replace them by k non-redundant mesh currents
ik and ( n - k) non-redundant junction-pair voltages E,. ej = zjk i k I"= YYYE" ea + E,=
B
ZCB l i + I I
a
Whether a network should be solved as a mesh, junction-pair, or orthog- 0r
onal network depends upon the relative number of meshes and junction pairs,
ia+~'=yaB(e +E )
and the types of variables it is required to determine. Some networks B B
(rotating machines, transmission lines, magnetic circuits, multiwinding k Equations In-k) Equations fl Equations
transformers) are inherently mesh networks. Other networks (vacuum tube
and dielectric circuits) are inherently junction-pair networks. Each type of
network has its own equation of performance and its own special methods
TABLE 1-3
of handling. The three types of networks, the corresponding primitive
networks, the number and kind of impressed and response quantities, and I Mesh I Junction Pair
the equations of performance are indicated in Table 1-2. Each of these types Mesh Junction pair
will be dealt with in detail in subsequent chapters; i t is unnecessary here Coil (or branch) Junction (or node)
to do more than call attention to their existence. Impressed voltage ei Impressed current I"
Response current ik Response voltage EV
A coil may be regarded as two or more coils in series by introducing one Impedance Admittance Yuu
zjk
or more junctions (Fig. 1-4a). Transformation tensor Transformation (inverse) tensor *
A junction may be regarded as a branch by stretching it into a zero (Kirchhoff's first law) C:, (Kirchhoff's second law) C:
Equation of performance ef = zj,ik Equation of performance I" = YY"E,
impedance coil (Fig. 1-46).
A coil voltage may be regarded as a junction-pair voltage by inserting a I Transformation equation P = C$ik' I Transformation equation E, = C;E,*
a

junction (Pig. l 4 c ) .
 MATRICES, TENSORS, AND CIRCUITS A r t 1-81 SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS 15

A junction-pair voltage may be regarded as a coil voltage by closing

through a zero impedance branch (Fig. 1 4 ) .

1-8. Duals6 There is a certain duality or parallelism in the methods of

for mesh and junction-pair circuits, and a correspondence between
the quantities and concepts associated with these two methods. Quantities
having corresponding roles are called duals. The value of recognizing such
dua,ls lies in the possibility of using identical processes of reasoning and
procedures in the analysis of dual systems. For the two types of networks
there is the duality shown in Table 1-3.
Numerous other duals are encountered in physical systems; examples
are given in Table 1-4.
The dual character of Nature is manifest everywhere, and indeed there is
no physical quantity which does not have its dual.

PROBLEMS

1-1. How many branches, junctions, junction pairs, subnetworks, and meshes
does the delta-quadruple zigzag transformer of Fig. 5-8 have? Would you analyze
this transformer as a mesh or junction-pair network?
1-2. Show that Eq. 1-10 follows from Eq. 1-8 or Eq. 1-9 if the CF, are inde-
pendent of the currents.
1-3. Con~pilea set of duals for mechanical, optical, and thermodynamical
systems.
1-4. Much of this book is concerned with developing methods and procedures
for analyzing a complex system by first breaking it up into its component parts,
Fig. 1-4. finding the solution for each part in terms of its own terminal conditions, and
then interconnecting the parts into a composite whole and obtaining the over-all
solution. Consider a single-phase power system comprising a generator, sending-
end transformer, transmission line, receiving-end transformer, and motor. Sup-
pose that the A, B, C, D constants for each separate part of this system are known
TABLE 1-4 and thus that the relationships between the terminal voltages and currents for
each part are given in the form
Covariance Contravariance
Resistance Conductance G ~ B
Magnetic flux Dielectric flux
(or charge) Qa
Permeance Reluctance pap I, = CE, + DI,
Magnetic flux density Magnetizing force (rnrnf) ha
Inductance Reciprocal inductance Obviously, once the terminal voltages and currents for any part are known, the
Elastance Capacitance Cap
Voltage Dielectric flux density internal behavior of that part can be determined. For example, the voltage and
(displacement) Da current at any distance z from the receiving end of the transmission line may be
Kinetic energy Potential energy V found in terms of its terminal voltages and currents by the well-known formulas
Series Shunt
+ I, dm sinh d
Short circuit Open circuit
E = E, cosh Z/%z E z

I = I, cosh Z / E x + E,Z/= sinh d E x

16 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I

Using subscripts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 for the A, B, C, D constants of the generator, trans-

former, line, transformer, and motor respectively, find the generalized constants
A,, B,, C,, Do of the complete system such that
El = AoE5 + B$5
1, = CoE, + D0I5
The philosophical concepts involved in this problem do not differ in reality from MATRICES
those which will be invoked repeatedly in this book.

2-1. n-Way Matrices. Tensor analysis, in its grand concepts and broad
generalizations, may be regarded as a strategic mathematical tool. But, for
handling the routine operations involved in its applications-addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and inverses-matrix algebra is indispensable.
This chapter is concerned with the matrix algebra necessary for our purposes.
Matrix algebra was developed for the systematic solution of sets of simul-
taneous equations and for effecting transformations of variables.
A matrix is a rectangular (not necessarily square) array of numbers (real,
complex, constant, variable, or operational) with which are associated certain
rules of procedure or operation. In books on mathematics such an array is
usually enclosed by brackets or parentheses:

But in electric circuit theory i t is highly desirable to know a t all stages of an

analysis to just what circuit element any particular number belongs. Thus,
if expressions (2-1) represent an impedance matrix, there is nothing in this
notation to indicate to what branch or mesh of the circuit the impedance h
might belong. I n his writings on this subject, Kron devised a-far more
explicit matrix notation which tells a t a glance to what circuit element every
constituent belongs.
I n Kron's "box notation," voltages and currents are represented by
1-way matrices :6-8

These I-way matrices might just as well be shown as column matrices rather
than as row matrices, depending on the use t o which they are to be put.
17
18 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 2 Art. 2-21 MATRICES 19

Impedances and admittances are represented by 2-way matrices :
A 3-way matrix may be shown as a cube:
which higher-rank matrices are handled will be demonstrated as they are
encountered.
A 0-way matrix is a number which has no reference to any coordinate
system-a simple constant of multiplication, for example.
An n-way matrix has kn cells or constituents, although in practice many of
these may be unfilled or zero. The way in which a matrix is filled generally
offers considerable information about the type of physical system involved
and leads to systematic classifications.
Since a matrix expressed by a single symbol like e or i or Z or A represents
not one quantity but a whole set of quantities, there follows the conception
of set. A 2-way matrix represents a 2-way set. The idea of set is of great
importance in modern mathematics.
A 2-way matrix has all its diagonal elements equal to unity and all other
elements equal t o zero; it is called the unit matrix or idemjactor I or
Kronecker delta 6 :

a b c
a 1 0 0
1 ifj=k
% = I = b

c
0

o
1

0
0

1
=(
0 ifj#k
(2-7)

a
- b
Y
c
. -
7

I t has the unique property, t o be proved later, that any matrix multiplied
by it remains unchanged.
For manipulation purposes a 3-way matrix can be used only by breaking i t A matrix having all its elements equal to zero is called a null matrix,
up into 2-way matrices. This can be done in many different ways, for example : and it has the property that any matrix multiplied by i t is reduced to zero.

1. By taking horizontal slices along the x-axis so that 2-2. Addition and Subtraction. Only matrices of the same dimensions
and with the same indices may be added. Addition or subtraction then
Ax,, = Aauz + Abuz + Acvz consists in adding or subtracting corresponding (same indices) components.
Thus
2. By taking vertical slices along the y-axis so that
a b c a b c a b c
Ax,, = A,, + Ax,, + Axcz L=JI i2=mA&D
l B ~ CE & F

3. By taking vertical slices along the z-axis so that a b c a b c a b c

Azuz = Azua + Am, + Axvc

4. By taking slices in any other fashion with no requirement that the
slices be similar or equal or symmetrical-single cells, columns, rows, double
columns, and so on, can all be segregated by appropriate use of the indices.

For 4-way and higher-rank matrices no pictorial symbols are feasible (or
necessary), and they are specified in terms of their 2-way slices. The way in
I It often happens, however, that two matrices with different indices need
to be combined into a single matrix. It is then imagined that both matrices
20 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 2 Art. 2-31 MATRICES 21

possess all indices, but that the elements of the non-present indices in each since, no matter how they are designated, they mean the same thing-sum-
matrix are zero. For example, rnation. Matrices of any rank are multiplied according to the rule

where the dummy index y vanishes in the result, and therefore the h a 1
matrix always has two less indices than the sum of the number of indices in
the factor matrices of the product. I n actual practice, only 1- and 2-way
a b c a b c a b c matrices need be multiplied:

This idea is habitually employed in adding the impedances of one network

to those of another network to give the over-all impedance of the combined
network.
I n matrix algebra the commutative law applies : The arrows indicate that the rows of Zjkare to be multiplied by the column
of ik in accordance with the tensor notation. The sum of the ranks of Zjk
A+B=B+A=C (2-8)
or, in tensor notation,
and of ikis 2+ 1 = 3, and the rank of their product e j is 2 less than this, or 1.
The product of two square matrices is
uvw...
+ uvw...
AXVZ ... BXVZ ... - CXVZ ...
- uvw...
(2-9)
and the rank of c;::: ., , that is,
is the same as the ranks of A:;:::: and PVW-..
all have the same superior indices and the same inferior indices.
2-3. Multiplication of Matrices. Multiplication
- of a matrix by a
constant simply multiplies each element of the matrix by that constant:

the dots showing the positions vacated by the dummy indices and the arrows
Notice that in the tensor notation this is obvious. showing that the rows of Ajk are to be multiplied by the columns of Bk"
Multiplication of two 1-way matrices corresponds exactly t o the dot and added:
product of vector analysis; that is, corresponding elements of the two
matrices are multiplied and added. The result is a scalar or 0-way matrix.
Thus
I' =s .i = l l mI= +
I n tensor notation, remembering the summation convention,
eiia + ebib ecic (2-1 1)

Of particular interest is the multiplication of a matrix by the idemfactor :

When an index, like k , occurs in a product once as a superscript and once as a
subscript, it is called a dummy index and it is the instruction for summation.
I n a tensor product a dummy index can never occur more than twice.
Dummy indices can be replaced by any other dummy indices :
22 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 2 Art. 2-51 MATRICES 23

Of course, this is easily seen from the tensor notation
+
Ajk6k = A j a S k Ajb& + . Ainz6: . +
since all 6: = 0 for k # nz, while 6::;= 1.
Notice that only a square matrix can have an inverse, for a rectangular
(singular) matrix is equivalent to a square matrix having a row (or column)
+ - - + A j n S Z = Aj, (2-16)
of zero elements, whose determinant would then be zero. This would corre-
spond t o trying t o solve a set of simultaneous equations having either more
variables or less variables than the number of equations.

mjR?j
2-4. Inverse of a 2-Way Matrix. The inverse of a 2-way matrix is
analogous to division. Only 2-way square ma,trices have inverses. Consider As an example let
a system of simultaneous equations :
for which D = 30
If this system of equations is solved for the i k by determinants, then, accord-
ing to Cramer's rule, Z= 4
1. Interchanging rows and columns gives the transpose:
in which, for any k and any j,
= cofactor of Z j ,
ykj (2-1 8) z, = 2
determinant of all the Z j k
For example, if the impedance matrix is

3. Alternating the signs,

RI
2. Replacing each element of the transpose by its minor:

then its inverse (the admittance) tensor is

4. Dividing by the determinant,

and D is the determinant:

y = z-1 =

I zca zcb zcc 1 -zaazbczcb - zcczabzba

2-5. Some Definitions and Relationships. A diagonal matrix has
elements only along the diagonal, all other elements being zero.
The steps in finding the inverse of a matrix then are:
1. Interchange rows and columns (take the transpose).
2. Replace each element by its minor.
3. Alternate the signs of each minor starting with ( + ) in the upper left- (Ajk= 0 for j # k)
hand cell.
4. Divide each new element by the determinant of the original matrix.
24 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 2 ~ r t2-71
. MATRICES 25

A symmetrical matrix is symmetrical about the main diagonal: ~ u int tensor notation the commutative law with respect t o products is
obeyed :
AjkBkm= BkmAjk
since the indices suffice to indicate the products which are t o be taken.
The conjugate of a matrix A which is a function of complex variables is a
matrix A* whose elements are the conjugate complex variables; that is,
A skew symmetrical matrix has equal elements of opposite sign about the
main diagonal of zero elements: if A = f(x + jy) then A* = f(x - jy)

2-4. Differentiation. A matrix of any rank is differentiated with respect

to a parameter by differentiating each of its elements with respect to that
parameter :
a
- a aA(e) U u w . . .
ae A:;::::@)= -
ae [A(%)]::::::= x Y z... (2-25)
Obviously, A j j = - A j j = O since only O is equal to its own negative. For example,
Any matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-
symmetric matrix by
symmetric skew-symmetric
+
Ajk = *(Ajk Akj) + W j k - Akj) = * ( A + At) + * ( A- At) (2-22) 0 sin 6 cos 0
The transpose of a product of two matrices is equal to the product of the
transposes of the two matrices : A matrix of any rank is differentiated with respect to a I-way matrix
according to the equation

That is, each element of Az:::: is differentiated in succession with respect to

The inverse of a product of two matrices is equal to the product of the each element of xS and the resultant matrix has a rank higher by one. For
inverses of the two matrices : example,
a b c a b c
sin fl cos xp 6

a B 7 -- -sin xp

Dyadics and matrices do not obey all the laws of algebra. I n these 2-7. Compound Matrices6 I n simple problems involving relatively
notations, few variables, the corresponding matrices have few components and generally
can be handled as they are. But, in more complicated problems involving
Distributive law: A(B f C ) = AB & AC
many variables, the matrices are of large dimensions, and their routine
Associative law: ABC = A(BC) = (AB)C multiplication, taking of inverses, and the like, become a formidable task.
Commutative law: A+B =B+A To alleviate this situation matrices are subdivided, or partitioned, into
AB # BA smaller matrices, and rules of manipulation are establishsd for dealing with
26 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 2 Art. 2-81 MATRICES 27

such compound matrices. For example, the matrix equation e =Z i may the order of multiplication of the components in proper sequence. For
be partitioned as follows. example,

a b c d e a b c d e P 4

Note that along the arrows the compound indices ( r , s) must be the same and
.
that R D cannot be substituted for D R in the final product.

;[ml;
2-8. Solution of Matrix I n the matrix representation of
a system of simultaneous equations, let the matrices be split in the following

-
fashion.
k 4 v
/-

=p Z9k ZPC 290 a

in which ( p ,q ) are compound indices each of which embraces several individual 2"k Z", ZU"
axes of the original matrices. Thus p = a, b and q = c, d, e. The partitioning
is quite arbitrary and the resulting submatrices may be either square (Z1 or
Z,) or rectangular ( Z , and Z, or i, and i,).
The rules for manipulating compound matrices follow.
Hereby the set of equations
Transpose. If A, B, C, . . . are matrices of a compound matrix, the
transpose is
has been broken up into sets of equations :
+ +
ea = e, es e ,
iS = ik + +a + iv
where
+
e, = Zjkik Zjaia + Z,,iv
For example, the transpose of the previous impedance matrix is e, = Z,,ik +
Z,ia + Z,iv
+
e, = ZUkik Z,,ia + Z,,iv
in which (j,k = 1, . . . , n,), ( p , q = n, + 1 , . . . , n,), and ( u , v = n, + 1,
... , n,). Obviously, the splitting up into parts could be carried as far as
desired rather than for only three splits, as in the illustration above. Eqs. 2-28
may be solved for any set of currents, say iv from the last set:
i v = Yvue, - YZIUZUkik
- YvUZUaiq (2-29)
in which YvUis the inverse of Z,,. Then, inserting this value of iVin the first
two sets of Eqs. 2-28, there results
Products. The product of two compound matrices is taken in the same +
(e, - Zi,Y"ue,) = ( Z j k- Z j v Y " V u k ) i k ( Z j a- Z,,Y ""Z,,)ia
way as the product of simple matrices, particular care being taken t o keep ""Z,,)ik + (2, - Z,,Y
i (e, - Z,,Y ""e,) = (Z,, - Z,,Y ""Z,,)iq
28 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 2 MATRICES 29

These equations may be rewritten Eliminate i3 and reduce to two matrix equations. Then eliminatei2and reduce to
one matrix equation. Check this first result by Eq. 2-31 in the text by eliminat-
ej = Zjkik + Z~,iQ ing i2 and i3 in one step.
ei = Z&ik + Zkiq 2-3. Show that the inverse of a diagonal matrix is a matrix each of whose
elements is the reciprocal of the corresponding element in the original matrix.
Solving for iq from the last equation, Remember from this that, if a matrix can be reduced to diagonal form before an
inverse must be taken, the work is enormously simplified.
2-4. Consider the five simultaneous equations represented by the numerical
and substituting in the other equation, there results matrices given in Art. 2-7. ( a )Eliminate the c-, d-, and e-axes one at a time.
( b ) Eliminate the c-, d-, and e-axes in one step. Compare the amount of work
ey = (ej - Zj,Y'Qpe;) = (Zjk - Z ~ q Y ' a p Z ~ , =
) i kZykik (2-31)
involved in the two processes of elimination.
Thus the original set of equations (2-28) has been reduced to a single equation 2-5. Given the compound matrices
in terms of the current set ik, where

Then iQfollows from Eq. 2-30, and iv from Eq. 2-29. This procedure is the
matrix or tensor equivalent of the ordinary step-at-a-time solution of a set
of simultaneous equations.
If a set of equations is reduced one a t a time, there is no need to take the
inverses of matrices. Thus, if the last of Eqs. 2-28 represents a single equa- .
Find A . B, B A, A t . B, A t . A.
tion, then in Eq. 2-29 Y V U= l / Z u v since Zuv would then be a number and 2-6. Prove that multiplication of a matrix by a scalar is equivalent to multiply-
not a matrix. ing each of its elements by that scalar. (Use the rule for the addition of matrices.)
2-7. Prove that the transpose of a product of two matrices is equal to the
PROBLEMS product of the transposes of these matrices. Extend the proof to the case of n
matrices.
2-1. Given the three matrices 2-8. Prove that the commutation law holds for diagonal matrices.
a b c 2-9. Prove that the inverse of the transpose is equal to the transpose of the
inverse of a matrix.
2-10. Prove that the inverse of the product is equal to the product of the
i = b inverses of two matrices. Extend the proof to the case of n matrices.

Find :

Note carefully how these various operations check and cross-check one another.
2-2. Given the matrix equations (in which each member is a matrix)
 Art. 3-21 TRANSFORMATION O F COORDINATES 31

2. Establish the equations of transformation or constraint (Eq. 1-9) (also

a "set").
k .k'
ik = Ck.z (3-3)
3. Specify the invariancy of power (the power or energy in the network is
the same regardless of the particular set of variables-currents and voltages-
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES used in its description).
P = e.if = e .,$' .. e.Cf.,ij'
3 3
= e.,ij'
.'. e,. = C:,ej (34)
3-1. Forms. The terms of a tensor equation include different types which ..
e . = C!'e.,
3 3 (3-5)
may be classified according to their form. The idea of form is one of the Evidently the voltages transform in a n inverse fashion from the currents,
essential concepts of tensor analysis. Indeed, tensor analysis may be since Cr is the inverse of C$.
described as that branch of mathematics which is concerned with 4. Preserve the invariancy of form in the equation of performance, in
a set of equations invariant to a group of transformations passing from the "old" variables e,, ik t o the "new" variables e,., ik'.

and the preservation of a n invariant form is of primary importance.

A relationship involving the variables xT is called a n algebraic form, and
one involving the differentials dxT is called a differential form. Forms often
encountered are listed in Table 3-1.
= Zjjktik'
TABLE 3-1
5. Solve for the new currents by multiplying by the inverse Yk'j' of the
impedance matrix and using the Kronecker delta.
Linear ~ k ' i , '- ~ yk'i'zjrm,im'
~ - 6k' 'm' - ik'
(3-7)
Quadratic
Bilinear 6. Find the old currents in terms of the new (Eq. 3-3).
Linear set
Bilinear set - ~ kk , i k =
2' k - ' c k ,yk'Yej,
k (3-8)
Multilinear
7. Find the old voltages (Eq. 3-2).

A quadratic form can always be expressed in terms of the symmetric part e3. = Z 3k. ik = ZZjkC;,
yk'i'ej, (3-9)
(Eq. 2-22) of its 2-way matrix, for Thus all quantities have been found in a routine fashion by making use
of the concepts of "sets," "group of transformations," and "invariancy of
form," and by using the rules for matrix multiplication and for taking
inverses. The seven steps outlined above are always sufficient.
This particular relationship is frequently used in machine theory. Since the currents are transformed (Eq. 3-3) directly by C,k,,whereas the
I n a tensor equation certain forms remain invariant, that is, unchanged, voltages are transformed (Eq. 3-5) by the inverse tensor CT, currents are
after a transformation of coordinates. called contravariant vectors and are designated by upper indices, while
voltages are called covariant vectors and are designated by lower indices.
3-2. Transformati~n.~-~ The concepts employed and t h e steps in the
An impedance transforms directly as a doubly covariant tensor and therefore
formulation and solution of tensor equations are illustrated by the analysis
has two lower indices. An admittance transforms inversely as a doubly
for a mesh network :
contravariant tensor and therefore has two upper indices. I n general, a mixed
1. Set up the canonical equations or equation of performance (Eq. 1 4 ) tensor of any rank, having both upper and lower indices, transforms with
(a "set" of simultaneous equations). respect t o its upper indices as a multiple contravariant tensor, and with
e, = Zjkik respect to its lower indices as a multiple covariant tensor. It is t o be noted
30
32 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 3 Art. 3-21 TRANSFORMATION O F COORDINATES 33

that the transformation tensor CE. is itself a contravariant tensor in one of Now suppose
-- that the coils are connected as shown in Fig. - 3-lb, and let
its reference frames and a covariant tensor in its other reference frame. new currents ia and iP be selected arbitrarily. I n terms of these new currents
It is worth noting here that we did not employ Kirchhoff's laws explicitly. the old currents are
a B
Instead a n equation of transformation, or transformation tensor, was
established which related the old and the new currents. I n effect, this
corresponds t o an application of Kirchhoff's first law only. The second

Thus the transformation tensor C, a singular or non-square matrix, is estab-

lished. Since the determinant of a singular matrix is zero, its inverse cannot
be found.
The new impedance matrix is found in two steps:

Fig. 3-1.

Kirchhoff law is not necessary, because step 3, expressing the invariancy of

power or the law of conservation of energy, replaces it. The inverse of the new impedance matrix is
I n dyadic notation the seven steps are
e =Z.i
i .
i=C.ir
i=C.Y'.er
e' = Ct o e
e=Z.C.Y1.e'
Z1=Ct.Z*C l ;~; l ;
The new voltages are
Pf,-I=

As a n example, consider three branches (a, b, c) as shown in Fig. 3-la

and let the voltages, currents, and impedances be

where, from the connection diagram, it is seen that e, + e , = e, - e , =

= 105, the applied voltage. The new currents then ars

The equation of performance in terms of the "old" variables is e =Z i.

34 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS 1 Art. 3-41 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 35

The old coil currents are

i=c.i'=

-1
o=g -8
It will suffice at this point to give a simple example. I n Fig. 3-2 first let
currents ia, iBbe selected as the new currents so that
u B

e =Z.i = mj[=B
and the voltages across the coils are

-8 - 43

Thus all voltages and currents, in both the old and new reference frames,
Then suppose it is decided to use mesh currents iU,iv. The transformation
between the ( a , /3) and the (u, v) sets is

Then the over-all transformation

have been determined. More complicated circuits are solved by exactly the tensor is u v
same procedure, but the matrices become larger and their manipulation more
cumbersome; yet the steps are the same and they proceed in the same
orderly sequence.
3-3. Group P r ~ p e r t y . ~ -It~ is sometimes necessary or desirable t
apply several transformations in succession, rather than to transform dire
from the primitive system to a new system. For example, suppose that and this is verified by direct comparison of the ia, ib,iCand the iu, iv currents.
transformation tensor, together with all currents, voltages, and impedance 3-4. Interconnection of Subnetworks. Electrical systems consist of
has been set up for a network connected in a certain way, and i t is the separate parts-generators, transformers, transmission lines, motors, loads,
required to make some minor change in the connections which would involv etc.-and each part has its own set of internal currents, voltages, and imped-
respecifying some of the currents. Instead of starting all over again, a ances and can be analyzed individually in terms of the conditions a t its
transformation tensor can be established to show the new substi terminals. But the connections joining them together impose constraints.
involved. A complete transformation involving any number of changes ma It is perfectly possible to set up an impedance matrix for the entire system,
then be arrived a t in succession as follows : including the impedance of all the parts, and then to set up a massive trans-
formation tensor to take care of all the interconnections, both internal and
Zay = c:zaBcBB, external, of the separate subnetworks or parts. But this procedure might
very well become prohibitive because of the amount of work involved, and
z,,,~.
= c$za.,.c,8:
= C$C;Z~,C#C$ = c2.z4 cB.B most certainly i t would not take advantage of the work previously done in
a"8"~ 9=,c<rcai~a.z
za,,,,-= czrz c6cpkK arriving a t the interconnections and performance equation of each sub-
a
a a a 8 = c>z
a B B 8 aB
CJ%,
B network. A much more profitable procedure takes into account only those
............................... changes imposed by the interconnections between subnetworks. I n Pig.
" ,
c> = Qpc>C: 3-3 are shown a number of subnetworks whose internal impedances and
internal transformation matrices are
This is a group property of the transformation tensors.
Successive changes may be occasioned by: adoption of a new set of
currents; imposition of a constraint (such as ignoring the exciting current
in a transformer) ; substitution of symmetrical components; interconnection
of networks; and so on. Illustrations will be given throughout this book.
 MATRICES, TENSORS. A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 3 Art. 3-41 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 37

Thus, if the new coordinates enjoined by the external interconnections are

included in the impedance matrices of the subnetworks, Eq. 3-11 is used
directly, but, if i t is first necessary to convert the impedance matrices of
the subnetworks t o the new coordinates, then Eq. 3-12 must be used.
EXAMPLE?Fig. 3 4 shows two subnetworks (I and 11) carrying coil
currents ia, ib, iCand if, ig, ih, respectively. Switches S1 and S, are to be
opened and the subnetworks connected by wires BF and AG. It is required
to determine the impedance of the combined network.
The first step is to select new currents for each subnetwork, (ia',ib')for
Fig. 3-3. I and (if',i g ' ) for 11, and in terms of these new axes to find the new subnet-
work impedances.
B F

The combined network impedance is given by the compound matrix

Fig. 3-4.
Now let these subnetworks be interconnected, having a totality of
coordinates
+ +
(a, B ) = an (j, k) all (p, q) all (u, v) + ..
.
+
(a', B') = all (j', kt) all (p', q') +
all (u', v') + - ..
Then the impedance matrix of the whole network before interconnection of
the subnetworks is The transformation matrix for the interconnection of the two subnetworks,
+ +
Z,.,? = ZjPk' Z,.q! Z,',' ... + in terms of new currents ia", ib", ig", is
= c;,Zjkc,",+ + +.
c;,z,,c,., C ~ ? Z , , C ~ ? . .
Next set up the transformation tensor C: representing the external inter-
connections. The impedance matrix of the entire network is
Za"f = C"Z,.~.C~":
= c$[z,.*'+ z,.,. + Z ,.,, + . - qcj: (3-11)
+ C$Z,C: + G'$Z,,C~, + . - .]G'g;
= c,~'[c,!z,~c$ (3-12)
38 MATRICES. TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 3 Art. 3-51 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 39

and the new impedance becomes Now select new coordinates, but among them include all the active external
axes. The remaining new axes may be selected as convenient. I n terms of
these new axes set up a transformation matrix, remembering that the ( r , s)
axes are the same in the new as in the old reference frames; thus

Alternatively, a transformation matrix between the original and final axes

can be set up :

a" b" g" a b c f g h

and

and then

and the two methods check.

3-5. Driving Point and Transfer Impedances. A network of any
complexity having internal applied voltages and any number of external
leads may be reduced to an equivalent network entirely in terms of the Fig. 3-5.
external impressed voltages and response currents on the external leads, and
therefrom the driving point and transfer impedances may be determined. Then the new impedance and voltage matrices take the form
Fig. 3-5 shows an enclosed n-branch network with external leads ( a , 6, c, . . .).
It is assumed that each external lead has an impedance (which may be equal
to zero), and that the enclosed network is made up of any arrangement of
impedances and impressed voltages. Let indices

( r , s ) represent the external lead axes a , b, c , . . . , r' j'

(j,k) represent the internal axes inside the network,
( a ,/3) represent all axes, both external and internal. e , = 1a;., + c:,e, I c;,er + q.ej I
= (3-16)
Hence
Then the impedance matrix may be partitioned:

and upon elimination of the iv currents there results

40 MATRICES, CIRCUITS, A N D TENSORS [Ch. 3 Art. 3-61 T R A N S F O R M A T I O N O F COORDINATES 41

which may be condensed to A transformation matrix (Eq. 3-14), which preserves the (a, b) axes is
a' b' c'

The latter equation is again partitioned so as to segregate the a"-axis,

(P,!I) # a :

Now, if all voltages except e,.. = ea are put equal to zero, that is, short-
circuited, and the iQ" currents are eliminated, there results
The new impedance matrix (Eq. 3-15) then is
a' b' c'

and this defines the driving point impedance a t terminal a.

and the new voltage matrix (Eq. 3-16) is

Eliminating the ic' current by Eq. 3-18 gives

Fig. 3-6.

The transfer impedance between two terminals a and b is found by putting

all voltages except ea equal to zero and eliminating all currents except ibso
that finally there results an equation of the form

which defines the transfer impedance.

EXAMPLE.^ Find the driving point impedance a t terminal a and the
transfer impedance a t b for the T-circuit of Fig. 3-6. The impedance matrix
(Eq. 3-13) is
Putting e, = 0 and eliminating iv, there results e, = 3817/(11 x 46)ia',
a b c f o or the driving point impedance is 7.53 ohms and the current iv is

or the transfer impedance is -7.37 ohms.

M.Constraints.' An enforced relationship between two or more
variables is called a constraint. Every constraint permits one variable or
coordinate t o be eliminated. But the suppression of a contravariant variable
42 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 3 Art. 3-61 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 43

automatically brings about the birth of a covariant variable, and conversely. On the other hand, if the equations of transformation are given and i t is
Thus, when a current is reduced to zero by the opening of a branch, a voltage desired to change over to corresponding equations of constraint, i t is neces-
appears across the opening. Or, when a. velocity component in a given direc- sary only to rearrange the transformation tensor in the form
tion is reduced to zero by a barrier, a reaction force appears in that direction.
Kirchhoff's first law, stating that the sum of the currents a t a junction
must be zero, is a n equation of constraint, since it sets up a n enforced relation-
ship between the currents a t the junction. If there are J junctions in a
network, a total of (J- 1)non-redundant relationships between the currents
may be written, each of the form zik
= ia ib+ + - . = 0.
a

I n an iron core multiwinding transformer having windings with turns Nu,

and the equations of constraint are then
Nb, N,, . . . , all of which have the same* closed magnetic circuit, i t is gener-
ally sufficient to ignore the magnetizing current and to assume a balance of
ampere-turns :
2 Nkik= Naia Nbib+ + =0

This relationship then constitutes an equation of constraint relating the so that

several currents.
Equations of constraint are of the form
B;, = (C; -a;,) = u[~; 1 -at, 1
It is required to convert such an equation of constraint t o a corresponding EWLE.~ A 5-branch network with four junctions is shown in Fig. 3-7.
and equivalent equation of transformation. The procedure follows. The constraints a t J - 1 = 3 of the junctions are

1. Write down the set of equations specifying the constraints.

2. Rearrange the equations of constraint so that a different dependent
variable appears on the left side in each equation of constraint, and reduce
the right side to combinations involving only the remaining independent
variables. There will be as many dependent variables as there are equat,ions
of constraint. If indices (u, v) represent these dependent variables and ( r , s) The remaining junction is redundant, since adding the
the independent variables, then the equations take the form +
three equations gives -iC id = 0, the constraint a t Fig. 3-7.
D. The matrix of the equation of constraint is

3. The remaining independent variables are then written down. If indices c a b c d e

(r, s ) represent these independent variables, they may be written

4. If indices ( a , p) represent both the independent ( r , s ) and dependent

(u, v) variables, then
8
'
Express a different current in each equation of constraint as a dependent
variable ; for example,
ia = -ie' + id'

* This precludes 3-phase windings on different legs of s, shell type and 5-leg core-type
design.
44 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 3 Art. 3-71 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 45
Then id and ie, the remaining currents, are the independent variables and the made and, as might be expected, a rational approach will involve both of
transformation matrix for the currents is Kirchhoff's laws.
d' e' Consider only the network as actually connected and make no reference
to the primitive or any other network. Let
ei = actual voltage impressed in series with coil j
ik = actual coil currents

3-7. Equivalence of Transformation Theory to Kirchhoff's Laws.

The transformation theory presented in this chapter, particularly with respect
to the notion of a primitive network as a reference frame, is to a certain extent

Fig. 3-9.

The impedance drop i n the coil then is

v3. = z3k. ik (s27)
Choose new currents iv and express the old currents in terms of these new
currents by the transformation
ik = c;,jk' (3-28)
Then there exist certain new voltages ei. to be associated with the correspond-
ing currents i f such that the power consumed by the network remains invar-
Fig. 3-8.
iant to the transformation of coordinates. That is, ejt is dejined such that
naive and philosophically unsound. Actually, the power consumed in the
primitive network with given impressed voltages is in no way related to the
power consumed in the actual network with the same impressed coil voltages.
This can be easily verified in a simple case by comparing the powers con- Hence
sumed in the two networks of Fig. 3-8. The powers consumed are, respec- e,, = C:mi
tively, = C?,z.
3 3k
i"
P = e,il+ e2i2= 4 x 4 2 x 1 = 18 + = c;,zjkc;,ik'
+
P' = (el e2)i = 6 x 2 = 12 = z 3. .k ,ik'
The powers of the two networks are not the same, and the stipulation of the The voltage ej, as determined by Eq. 3-31 will be made up of certain
invariancy of power on such a basis is unsound. combinations, or algebraic sums, of the voltages v j , and these will define a
In order to justify the transformation theory based on the concepts of closed circuit or mesh in the network; see Fig. 3-9. This closed circuit will
invariancy of power and invariancy of form, a different approach must be include the corresponding zik associated with each v, = zikik as well as the
46 MATRICES, TENSORS, AND CIRCUITS [Ch. 3 TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES

series impressed coil voltages e,. For this closed circuit Kirchhoff's second
law requires that C (impressed voltages) = X (consumed voltages) or

where the C includes all of the terms yielded by Eq. 3-31. But this is
identically the mesh voltage ej, of Eq. 3-31 and therefore, since in the sum-
mation around the mesh the ej occur in exactly the same way as the v,,

e,, = 2 ej = C' e3' j

Fig. 3-1 1.
Consequently the same final results are obtained if in all equations ej is
substituted for v j . Nevertheless, there is a n unsoundness in doing so, for v, 3-6. Without resorting to diagrams or sketches, and using only the concept
is not ej, Eq. 3-27 is not true if the substitution is made, and there is no of the transformation tensor, prove in a few lines that the arbitrary selection of
justification for the so-called primitive network which e, = zj,ik represents. rn independent branch currents in a network of rn meshes defines m independent
The foregoing demonstration places transformation theory on a sound meshes.
and proper basis, discards the erroneous concept regarding the primitive
network, and shows the roles of Kirchhoff's first law in Eq. 3-28 and his
second law in Eq. 3-33. Nevertheless, since the end results are correct if one
proceeds from the primitive network notion, the above may be taken as
justification for using it.
PROBLEMS

3-1. Verify all operations given in this chapter. Solve the circuit of Fig. 3-6
for all currents and voltages (both old and new) if e, = 4 and .eb = 3.
3-2. Eq. 3-4 does not follow from the previous equation simply by "canceling"
ij' on each side of the equation. Show in detail the proper steps and justify them.
3-3. If the two networks in Fig. 3-10 are connected, find the total impedance

Fig. 3-1 0.

in terms of axes a, b, f , h by first transforming from the primitive networks of

each subnetwork and then interconnecting; and then by verifying by transform-
ing from the primitive network to the complete network.
3-4. Determine the driving point impedance for the network of Fig. 3-11.
Find the currents in all branches.
3-5. Write the equations of constraint for Fig. 3-11 and set up its matrix B.
What is the corresponding C?
 Art. 4-31 SYMMETRICAL C O M P O N E N T S 49

For a network having e , i, and Z as matrices, the power is

4
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

41. Conjugate Tensors. When the elements- of a matrix A consist of Or, expressed in terms of the impedance,
+
complex numbers such as (a jb), where j = 4 - 1 , the corLjugate of the
matrix is denoted by A* and is found by replacing each complex number
+
(a jb) in A by its conjugate (a - jb), that is, by substituting -j for j 4 2 . Transformation Formula. The transformation formulas for
throughout : currents, voltages, and impedances have t o be modified slightly when con-
jugates are being used. As before,
a+jb o+jd a-jb c-jd

but the invariancy of power now becomes

There follows immediately Hence

(A*)* = A
or, taking the conjugates of both sides,

I n a-c circuits where voltages and currents are expressed as complex

Substituting the impedance relationship,
numbers,
+ +
e = El jE2 = E(cos 8 j sin 8) = Ede (4-3)
i = Il + j12= I(cos 4 + j sin 4) = I$@ (4-4) The application of these transformations will be illustrated in the next two
articles.
the power is given as the product of the conju-
gate of the voltage and the current: 4-3. Symmetrical Components. Fortescue introduced a sequence
operator which transforms the phase quantities (voltages or currents) existing
P + jQ= e* .i = EE-jeIEj@ in three separate phases to a set of three balanced quantities called zero,
= EI[cos (8 - 4 ) - j sin (8 - $)I positive, and negative sequence quantities. The defining formulas are (for
currents)
Fig. 41.

in which
= (E14 + E212)+ j(E112- E A ) (4-5) + +
ia = (iO i1 i2)/ J3
ib= (iO+ a2i1+ ai2)/J3 (4-14)
P = EI cos (8 - 4) = real power (4-6)
Q = EI sin (8 - 4) = reactive power, defined as
+
ic= (iO ail + a2i2)/J3
positive for a leading current (4-7) in which ia, ib, iCare the phase currents; iO,il, i2 are the zero, positive, and
negative phase-sequence currents; and
A resistance power loss is defined as
50 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 4 Art. 4-31 SYMMETRICAL C O M P O N E N T S

Obviously The impedance tensor transforms f i s t with respect to the current as

Actually, Fortescue's equations of transformation did not include the 1 / d 3

factor of Eqs. 4-14, but such a factor is necessary to preserve invariancy of
power in the transformation. Eqs. 4-14 may be written in matrix form:

i = .
C i' where

which gives the phase voltages e in terms of sequence currents it. Writing
in which S O , S1, and S2are the so-called zero, positive, and negative phase- this impedance as
sequence operators. This non-singular tensor, together with its conjugates, 0 1 2
inverses, and transposes, provides a group of transforn~ationswhich are (as
is easily verified)

the completely transformed impedance becomes

Among these ten different tensors there are only two different matrices.
Currents and voltages transform by Eqs. 4-1 1 and 4-12 as

If the mutual impedances are zero, Eq. 4-22 reduces to

52 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 4 Art. MI SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 53

If, now, the phase impedance has the special form

a b c

Z + aaZ' + aZ"
Z + aZ' + a2Z"
(4-24)

I n general, there is no advantage in using symmetrical components rather

than phase components unless the impedance matrix reduces, as above, to a A grounding impedance z, between a neutral and ground carries all three
diagonal form; for it is only then that zero, positive, and negative sequence phase currents, adding up to %hi0:
currents cause only voltages of their own sequence; thus

When the mutual impedances are zero,

- -I
-
43
+ + i2)+ (iO+ a2i1+ ai2)+ (iO+ ail + a2i2)]= d 3 i 0
[(iO i1

a b c Hence a grounding coil has only a zero sequence impedance, and its trans-
formation tensor is n

4-4. The Basic Networks in Symmetrical C o r n p o n e n t ~ . ~ .I~n

problems where symmetrical components are employed, four different net-
As special cases of Eq. 4-26 there are works and reference frames are, or may be, involved. They are:

a b c 0 1 2 1 . The primitive actual network of n coils, made up of 3-phase coil groups.

Its currents, voltages, and impedances are phase quantities and will be
designated by ia, e,, .zap.
2 . The given actual network of k meshes, made up of 3-phase coil groups.
Its currents, voltages, and impedances are phase quantities and will be
designated by ia', e,., zarp,.
3. The primitive sequence network of n coils, made up of 3-phase coil groups.
Its currents, voltages, and impedances are sequence quantities and will be
designated by i d , e , ~z, , . ~ ~ .
4. The sequence network having the same number of meshes and coils as
the actual network but arranged in a different number of subnetworks. Its
currents, voltages, and impedances will be designated by ism, en-,zamp-.

Other mixed networks involving both actual and sequence reference frames
in different combinations may be encountered or set up for special purposes;
for example, a network which will give phase voltages in terms of sequence
currents.
54 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 4 Art. 4-51 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 55

Transformation tensors can be established between any two of the four
principal networks, and formulas developed for transforming from one net-
work to another in accordance with the following scheme (in which double-
headed arrows represent reversible transformations, and single-headed
arrows represent generally irreversible transformations).
Now, expressing the dependent currents iv"in terms of the independent
currents in"= 8:: is-, there results
Finally, changing is"to is", the transformation tensor becomes

_
Primitive Primitive
Actual n
i+-+ C,"-ia Sequence ia" sy
(NetworJ " (NetworJ 1 (4428)
= } independent variables

+ ( Actual )
C;,iaP ia* C$, iajn
-(D:c;. - p . ) - l ( D : C ~- C:) } dependent variables

Network Xetwork
The tensor C,$ is the Fortescue symmetrical component transformation,
and i t expresses the relationship between the sequence currents in the primi-
tive sequence network and the phase currents in the primitive actual network,
or, inversely, by CE". This tensor is always known.
The tensor CE, is the ordinary transformation between the phase currents
in the primitive actual network and the actual network. If the actual net-
work has been established in terms of phase quantities, this tensor is easily
found. However, it will generally have a singular matrix and, therefore,
no inverse.
Usually, the sequence network is unknown, and tensor C$, the trans-
formation between the primitive sequence and actual sequence networks,
will have t o be found by a special process to be shown. I n general, it will
have a singular matrix and, therefore, no inverse.
The tensor C$ is the transformation between the actual and sequence
networks.
4-5. Changing C,"$$:"" to C ~ ~ ~If :the ~ currents
~ ~ . of. the actual
network are coil currents, then the transformation

in which the (r, s ) independent variables and the (u, v) dependent variables
may be replaced by an equation of constraint,
Fig. 4-2.
0 = B,U.ia' or 0 = B,Uia since S' = s (4-30)
where Ba is found from C:, by subtracting the Kronecker delta from the The procedure then is:
independent variables (in accordance with Eq. 3-26). Converting to sequence
currents, 1. Arrange C,$ as a compound tensor separating the independent (r, S)
0 = Bija = B:c,"-~~" = B:iaX = (~21;'" + &$'") (473l) and dependent (u, v) variables.
where 2 . Arrange CEn also as a compound tensor separating the independent
S v 8" 2)" 8" v" and dependent variables t o agree with the first step.
3. Find C$ from Eq. 4-34. The sequence network may be found there-
from by inspection.
4. Find em- and ZaYIfrom eaeand Za-,,".
56 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 4 Art. 4-51 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 57

5. Use (7,"-= C;"C,"-to establish the sequence network from the primitive The corresponding compound tensor for the Fortescue transformation is
actual network e, and Zap.
6. Determine actual phase currents from i"' = c > ~ .
EXAMPLE. In Fig. 4-2 is shown a %phase grounded neutral generator
supplying an unbalanced load grounded through an impedance. The gener-
ator impedances are specified in terms of sequence quantities, but the load
and grounding impedances are given in terms of phase values. The given
data are

Hence by Eq. 4-34, upon performing the several operations,

The combined impedance and voltage matrices referred to sequence axes

are

The sequence network impedance and voltage then are

1; 2; . 2

1; 2, + Z1 + 2 2 + 3 2 , 2, + + 32,
=c $ . z ~
zafmPm 8", =
~~"
2; Zo+ 2 + 32, 1 2, + 2, + 2 2 + 3 2 ,

The transformation tensor between the actual network and its primitive, The sequence network currents are then
and its rearrangement separating the independent and dependent variables is found in the usual manner by

It is clear from the Zanrflm

and earntensors that the equivalent circuit of the
sequence network is as shown in Fig. 4-3, and this may be set up on an a-c
calculating board.
After the sequence currents have been found, the phase currents are
 58 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D C I R C U I T S [Ch. 4 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 59

The sequence voltages are 4-4. In Fig. 4 4 a generator with a neutral impedance supplies a load. The
impedances and voltages are

The actual phase currents are

Calculate the sequence and actual short-circuit currents and the voltage differ-
ences across each phase of the generator and of the load for the following condi-
tions: (a)line-to-ground fault (switch S1 closed); (b) line-to-linefault (switch S4
which may be checked by ia = C:-C$iaW. closed); (c) double line-to-ground fault (switches S1 and Sp closed); (d) three-
The voltages across each coil are phase fault (switches S1, S2,S3 closed).

which may be checked by ea = &".Za,.~$:ip*.

PROBLEMS
Fig. 4-4.
4-1. Write the conjugate of
4-5. Repeat the preceding problem when the load is a balanced delta-connected
impedance with z in each side of the delta.
z +jy 3-j4 cos 6 + j sin 6

/-1200 ( -A2 AL~

4-2. Confirm Eqs. 4-18 to 4-26 inclusive, together with all the special cases
of Eq. 4-26.
4-3. For the example of Fig. 4-2 identify in detail each step in the analysis
with corresponding Eqs. 4-29 to 4-34 inclusive, defining the procedure.
 Art. 5-11 MULTlWlNDlNG TRANSFORMER CIRCUITS 61

It is evident from the construction of Eq. 5 4 that the voltage and current
terms involved are of the form
- - % No = (volts per turn)%
ea -
na Na
. N ia
nuta = Q- =
(ampere turns in winding)
MULTIWINDING TRANSFORMER No No
that is, it is as though both windings had No turns.
CIRCUITS21-4e Now consider a multiwinding transformer with (n 1)windings numbered +
from 0 to n inclusive, and let winding 0 be selected as the reference winding.
Let indices ( j , k) range from 1 to n inclusive. Then, ignoring the magnetizing
currents,
5-1. Basic D e f i n i t i o n ~ . ~ l -Multiwinding
~~ transformer circuits are
unique among static networks in that ignoring the magnetizing currents
+
O = i" nkik or i0= -nkz .k (5-5)
and
reduces the number of simultaneous equations by one for each complete
magnetic circuit, and this in turn leads to the concepts of "leakage imped-
+
e.3 = z.30 i0 zikik= (zjk- nkzj0)ik (5-6)
ances" and of voltage differences rather than absolute voltages in the eo = zooiO+ zokik= (zOk- nkzm)ik (5-7)
canonical equations. Subtracting n j times Eq. 5-7 from Eq. 5-6 and rearranging,
Consider two windings a and b linked by a common magnetic circuit, and
having turns Nu and Nb, respectively. Select a winding of No turns as the
"reference winding." Let

Nu turns of winding a
n =-= n, = Nb
-
a No turns of winding 0 No
zaa = Raa + jwLaa = self-impedance of winding a Comparing the terms in parentheses in Eq. 5-8 with the definition of a
leakage impedance as given by Eq. 5 4 , i t is seen that these terms are leakage
zab= zba= jwMab = mutual impedance between windings a and b
impedances, and thus Eq. 5-8 may be rewritten
Then, ignoring the magnetizing current, and writing the voltage equations

in which 8 , is the branch impedance matrix.

This same equation may also be arrived a t by using matrices and trans-
formation tensors as follows: Let indices ( u , p) range from 0 to n inclusive.
Thus Eqs. 5-5, 5-6, and 5-7 are replaced by

e, = za8iS (5-11)
in which
Multiplying Eq. 5-2 by (lln,) and Eq. 5-3 by (lln,), and subtracting, and
dividing by naia,
0
. 0

zoo
1
0 1 ! 0
2

I
...
...
I
n

20.

(5-1 2)
=

= leakage impedance between windings a and b

n zno znl Z,P ... Z,"
referred t o reference winding 0 (5-4 7

60
62 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch.5 Art. 5-21 MULTlWlNDlNG TRANSFORMER CIRCUITS

The magnetizing current is eliminated by the transformation The balance of ampere-turns requires that

ia = Citk Nia' + N'ib' = 0 or ib' - -N ;a1 = -nial

N'
where
1 2 ... The transformation tensor then is
n
a'

Ci, = 1 for all (j,k)

cr - -n for a11 (7, 8 )

a' -
The new voltage then is

The voltage is then transformed as

and the new impedance tensor becomes +
e,, = C;,(e, - n,eo) = Ci.(ej - njeo) C;,(e, - V O )
= (el+ + .. +
e, + + .. +
em) - (nl n, nrn)eo
+ . .+ +
- n(ern+, . en) n(nrn+,+ ... + nn)eo

Eqs. 5-15 and 5-16 agree with the f i s t line of Eq. 5-8. The advantage of
using the final specification of C: in Eq. 5-14 rather than the entire matrix
expression is evident.

- -
;a1I
:6'
I-
5-1
5-2. Windings in Series. I n Fig.
is shown a transformer having
primary windings numbered from 0 to
m, of total turns N in series carrying
where E = (eo
(em+,+ ..
.
+ el + + em) is the total primary voltage and E' =
+ en) is the total secondary voltage.
The impedance matrix before transformation is
= zjk f Z j s Zrk + + (5-19)
current iO,and secondary windings num-
and i t transforms t o
+
bered ( m 1) to n of total turns N'
z,.,. = C,",Cj.Z,, = C ; . C p j k + c ; * c ~ , Z +j s c;,c;,z,,+ c:,c:,zrs
I 1' '1 I - current in. Let indices
in series carrying
+ Z1, + . . + Zlrn + . . + Zmm)
.
(j,k) range from 1 t o m, and indices = (Z,,
(r, s) range from ( m 1) t o n. + - n(Z1(,+,)+ . . . + + Zmn)
21, '''
Select new currents ia'and ib' flowing
through the primary and secondary - n(Z(m+l)l+ + Z(rn+~)mf
' '' ''' Znm)

I I
I I
I
windings respectively, and put + n2(Z,m+l)(m+l)+ . . . + Z(rn+l)n+ . . . + Znn) (5-20)
I n the case of a single primary winding No and two secondary windings Nl
N=N0+N1+.-.+Nm and N , in series ( m = 0 , n = 2), the impedance reduces to
= total primary turns
N' = Nm+, + ..+N,
Za,B,= n2(Zll + 2Zl2 + Z2,)
N N' = total secondary turns
Fig. 5-1. n = NIN'
This formula is much used in transformer design for the calculation of
= turn ratio reactances.
64 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 5
Art. 5-41 M U L T l W l N D l N G TRANSFORMER CIRCUITS 65
5-3. Windings in Parallel. Pig. 5-2 shows two independent windings
For example, if there are four windings ( n = 3 ) and the turns of the second
0 and 1, and ( n - 1) windings 2 t o n in parallel with a common load imped-
and third windings are equal, n2 = n3, the equations become
k ) and ( a , p) both range from 1 t o n inclusive.
ance Z(,+l,(n+l,. Let indices (j,
Then the current in+' flowing in the load impedance Z(n+l,(n+l,is eliminated el - nleo = + Z12i2+ Z13i3
Zllil
by the connection tensor whose components are
-n2eo = Z2,i1 + ( Z 2 2+ Z ) i 2 + ( Z 2 3+ Z ) i 3
c; = 6; ct+l = (6: - g,"+ l ) (5422) -n2eo = Z3,i1 + ( Z S 2+ Z ) i 2 + ( Z 3 3+ Z ) i 3 (5-26)
where g;+l = 1 for all a. The "new" voltages are 5-4. Coupling Windings. Coupling windings are used to reduce
reactances and stray flux, and to transfer ampere-turns. A multiwinding
transformer with a number of coupling windings is shown in Fig. 5-3. It
The transformed impedance becomes

Fig. 5-3. Coupling windings.

4 is convenient to number each pair of coupling windings by an odd and an

Fig. 5-2. Windings in parallel.
or, rearranged as a matrix, putting Z(n+l,(n+l,= Z ,
1 2 ...
+
even number, (2k 1) and 2k, respectively. The transformation tensor
which eliminates the currents in the odd-numbered coupling windings (2k 1) +
has components for k = 1, 2 , . . . , n as follows :
n

Since e,, = e2,+,, the "new" voltages are

If the turns are equal for each pair of coupling windings, the only surviving
The new equation is then voltage term is
e, = Zapip
(el - nleo) (5-29)
The "new" impedance is
which can be solved for the current iB upon taking the inverse YPa of the
impedance
= YBae,
66 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 5 Art. 5-61 M U L T l W l N D l N G TRANSFORMER CIRCUITS

For example, a transformer with two pairs of coupling windings, and The admittance matrix is the inverse of Zapor
equal turns on each winding of a pair, would be represented by the equations

The currents then are

5-5. Load Ratio Control Circuit. The connection diagram of a load

ratio control transformer in the off-
ratio position is shown in Fig. 5 4 .
The transformation tensor for elimi-
nating the common winding current
r i1 is
I n simple problems of this type the tensor method does not compare
favorably with ordinary methods of solution. I t is easier and simpler to
identify the circuit constraints and insert them direct,ly into the canonical
equation^.^^
5-6. Forked Autotransformer. A forked autotransformer is shown in
Fig. 5-5. The ampere-turn balance and the current constraints require that

Fig. 5-4. Load ratio control transformer. -u

Therefore, since i2 = 4 3 ,
The branch impedance matrix of Eq. 5-9 is
1 2 3

The transformation tensor, which eliminates the current in the common

winding, is
3
n

The new impedance then is

2

The old and new impedance matrices

then are
1 3
The voltage, after putting E = el f e2 = el + e3, is

(541)
3 1 0 0 ~ 1 Fig. 5-5. Forke-d autotransformer.
68 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 5 Art. 5-81 M U L T l W l N D l N G TRANSFORMER CIRCUITS 69

The new voltage is The new impedance and voltage are

= -(n,n;n; + nz)eo+ n;n;(el - eb) + n;(e; - e;)

which is, of course, simply the line voltage referred to the load side.
= -(nln;n; + n,)e, (546)
E 7 . Group of Transformers. The connection diagram for a three-
since
winding transformer, I, with regulating units consisting of an exciting
el = eh and e; = eg

5-8. Wye-Delta-Zigzag Transformers. The connection diagram for

a wye-delta-zigzag transformer with a load on the zigzag winding is shown

Fig. 5-7. Wye-delta-zigzag.

Fig. 5-6. Group o f transformers.
transformer, 11, and a series transformer, 111, is shown in Fig. 5-6. The
transformation tensor and primitive impedance matrix are
in Fig. 5-7. There are four windings on each magnetic circuit, but each "elec-
trical" leg involves, through the zigzag, two "magnetic" phases (legs). As
this is typical of all phase-shifting connections, some care is required in
setting up the transformation tensor. Let (1, a , a2) be the three roots of
unity, so that
i l = -i2" - -a2i2 or i 2 = - a i l = & 4

The transformation matrix and its conjugate for the "magnetic" phase,
therefore, are
3 4 3 4

*
and C; =
 'm
70 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 5 Art. E-91 M U L T l W l N D l N G TRANSFORMER CIRCUITS 71

The new voltage is Let the windings be numbered as shown in Fig. 5-8. For simplicity
3 4 assume perfect interleaving of the windings so that there are only three
branch impedances :
2 3 4
*
Ch(e, - njeo) =
3
1 el -lnleo 1 e2 - n2eo 1 e3 - n3eo 1 el - a2e2

3 4
-
- e3 - n3e0 (nl - a2n2)e, (548)

The primitive impedance is I n terms of these impedances the primitive impedance matrix is
1 2 3 4

1 211 2.2 ' 213 I I

and the new impedance becomes

3

The transformation matrix, in terms of the 120" phase-sequence operators

(1, a, a2), is
1 2 3 4

Fig. 5-8. Delta-quadruple-zigzag transformer connections.

5-9. Delta-Quadruple-Zigzag Transformer. Quadruple-zigzag trans-
formers are used for power supply to 12-anode mercury arc rectifiers. The
diagram of connections under short-circuit conditions is shown in Pig. 5-8.
72 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 5
1 An. 5-91 M U L T l W l N D l N G TRANSFORMER CIRCUITS

The new voltage matrix then is I The admittance matrix is

a ( l - a ) [ z n t - z"(n + an') + z'na] ( a - l ) [ z n T a- z"(an + n') + z'n]

-
- 6(zz' - z " ~ ) eo

(5-59)
Hence
since nl = n2= n, = n4 = n, n5 = n , = n , = n8 = n', and from Fig. 5-8
it is clear that el - ae, = 0, e2 - a2e8 = 0, e4 - ae, = 0, e3 - a2e5 = 0.
The new impedance matrix is

- z"a2(an + n') + z'na2] eo

6(zz1- zV2)
1 2 3 4

1 z - az" - a%" + z' I z - az" - az" + a%' I

z - az" - az" + a%' z - az" - a%" + z'

The impedance as measured from the primary terminals is

(5-61)
The ratio of currents is
and since the new voltages are el = e4 and e2 = e,, while in the impedance
matrix the coefficients of i1and i2are the same, respectively, as those for i4
i1-
- + +
zn' - z"(an' n) z'na = AEje
and i3,only axes 1 and 2 need be retained, so that i2 +
-znr + z"a2(an n') - z'na2
Thus il and i2 are of unequal magnitude and out of phase by a n angle 0 if
both resistance and reactance are present. If the resistances are zero, then
A = 1, but 6 may have any value.
It is interesting to check the preceding equations by the use of compound
matrices. Let the various matrices be written in terms of the following
indices: (j,k) = 1 , . . . , 8; (r, s) = 1 , . . . , 4; ( p , q) = 5 , . . . , 8. Then

where the 2 is required to compensate for the ignored currents i3 and i4.
74 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS
and, carrying out these operations, Zapis confirmed. Similarly, for the
voltage,
PROBLEMS
5-1. Verify and carry out in detail the calculations for each case given in this
chapter. In this regard it is highly instructive to show the various transformation
tensors, such as Eqs. 5-22 and 5-27, in matrix form.
5-2. Set up the transformation n~atricesand the performance equations for
the stub delta connection of Fig. 5-9.
Fig. 5-9. Stub delta.
5-3. Set up the transformation matrices and the performance equations for
the extended delta connection of Fig. 5-10.
Fig. 5-10. Extended delta.
5-4. Set up the transformation matrices and the performance equations for
the inscribed delta connection of Fig. 5-11.
Fig. 5-1 1. Inscribed delta.
[Ch. 5
MULTIVELOCITY TRAVELING WAVES22945.47
61. Differential Equations of a Line. A multiconductor transmission
system having n incoming lines and n outgoing lines connected through a
transition network is shown in Fig. 6-1. Incident voltage and current waves
(e,, i') approach the transition point and give rise to reflected waves (ei, i'3
and transmitted waves (ef, inT).It is required to set up the equations for
these waves.
I waves waves waves
I Fig. 6-1. Multiconductor transmission system.
The electrostatic charges &Z accompanying the incident waves, expressed
in terms of Maxwell's potential coefficients p,,, are given by
1 from which
where KT8is the inverse of the matrix psT.These coefficients are calculated
for parallel cylindrical conductors in the presence of ground by including the
images of the conductors in the ground surface.
The magnetic flux linkages are given in terms of the inductance coefficients
LTS by
q$ = LTsiS (6-3)
1 The currents flowing to ground and between conductors, including the effects
of both leakage and corona, are given by Grse,. And, h a l l y , the resistance
drops in the conductors due to the currents are RTsiS.
I 75
76 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS
Hence the differential equations for the multiconductor transmission
system become (putting p = a/at in the Heaviside sense)
Eliminating iq, there results
in which 6: is the Kronecker delta and
J," = (Lmp + Rm)(KqSp+ Gas)
Now, if the losses are ignored (R,, = 0, GrS= 0), then Eq. 6-6 is satisfied
by the traveling wave function
in which a closed index (ci) is used to suspend temporarily the summation
convention with respect to cc. Substitution of Eq. 6-8 in Eq. 6-6 gives
Since this equation must be satisfied fok waves of the same velocity, and
since p2f(a,= v&f& and (a2/ax2)f(,)= f&,
(Lr,$'9& - 6:)~:' =0
I n order that this set of equations have other than trivial solutions the
determinant of the coefficients must vanish; that is,
and this condition then determines the velocities q,,.
To each root of Eq. 6-1 1 there correspond n values of a(,"), and any (n - 1)
of them may be determined in terms of one value taken arbitrarily. Let this
one arbitrary value be taken as a?) = 1. Solving Eq. 6-10,
where s f 1, r f 1, and (bi81 is the determinant Ic;'I with row s = 1 and
column r = 1 deleted, and A: is the cofactor of b: in 1 bi81.
[Ch.6 Art. 6-21 MULTIVELOCITY TRAVELING WAVES 77
The complete solution then becomes
in which
Yra = KrSa;vca,
Eqs. 6-13 and 6-14 show that there are on each of the n conductors n pairs
of forward- and backward-traveling waves and each of these has its own
particular velocity v(,, .
I n the event that the zero-potential plane for both the voltage and
current images is the ground surface, and, if there is no corona, all the L,,
and KTSare related so that in Eq. 6-11
(6-7)
where v is the velocity of light. Then i t may be shown22that the expansion
of the determinant (Eq. 6-11) gives v(,, = v and all velocities are thus equal
to the velocity of light, and the sum of waves of equal velocity becomes
a,"ja(x- vt) = f,(x - vt)
so that Eqs. 6-13 and 6-14 reduce t o
e, =f,@- 4 + FAXf vt) (6-1 7)
- vt) - Fs(x
ir = YTS[fS(x + vt)] (6-18)
Eqs. 6-17 and 6-18 are the traveling wave equations for a multiconductor
single-velocity transmission line, in which f ( x - vt) represents a forward
(6-10)
+
wave and P ( x vt) a backward wave. I n practice, the backward-traveling
waves develop as reflections of the forward waves a t a transition point.
6-2. Transition Points. I n the general case of Fig. 6-1 any number of
incoming lines terminate a t a transition point consisting of a n interconnected
network and any number of outgoing lines. When incident waves on the
incoming lines reach the transition point, currents will flow in the network,
transmitted waves will move out on the outgoing lines, and reflected waves
will start back on the incoming lines. I n temor notation, let
z,, = surge impedance of the incoming lines
yTS= surge admittance of the incoming lines (inverse of z,,)
zuv = surge impedance of the outgoing lines
yuv = surge admittance of the outgoing lines
Zj, = branch impedance of the transition network
CE,= transformation tensor specifying the total interconnections of the
network and outgoing lines
78 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 6 Art. 6-21 MULTIVELOCITY TRAVELING WAVES 79

Then First the impedance matrix for the transition network and the outgoing
lines is set up :
+ z,,)
ZaB= ( Z j k = impedance of network and outgoing lines before
i k u '19
interconnection
Za,B,= C$C$,ZaB = impedance after interconnection of the network
and outgoing lines

Now ZaTB, may include branches other than those connected to the incoming
lines. The open-circuit branches will have been eliminated by Ci,, but the
grounded branches other than those connected to the incoming lines will have
to be eliminated by the substitutions
S !l

Zayp = z,, + 2, + z,, + 2, = (6-19)

zoo
ju - 211

E, = Z,p + Z,Za (6-20)

The impedance matrix has been partitioned in Eq. 6-19 so as to separate

the axes (r, s) connected t o the incoming lines from the axes (p, q) not con-
nected t o incoming lines. From Eqs. 6-20 and 6-21, upon eliminating the Fig. 6-2.
short-circuit currents 1 9 , there results
In the second step a transformation matrix is set up, including among its
new axes all the branches connected t o the incoming lines, that is, the
( T , S) axes a and b,
where E , and I 8 are the total voltages and currents on the incoming lines a t
the transition point. i k u v
Now let (e,, i r )and (ei,i") be the incident and reflected waves, respectively,
on the incoming lines. Then the resultant voltages E , and currents I' a t the
transition point are the sum of the incident and reflected waves, or

agp
so that
ir + i f ,= (6-24) Then the new impedance matrix is

e, + ek = Z;,(iS+ i t s )= ZisySt(et- e',) (6-25)

The total voltage E , and the total current I+ follow from Eq. 6-23, the
remaining network currents from Eq. 6-21, the network voltages from Eq. '
6-20, and so on; thus all system quantities may be determined.
Za,s. = Cg,ZasC$,= ( b'

EXAMPLE.As an example of the application of the general equations p ( cP -2.1 -%a RZ + 2

.

previously derived, consider the 2-conductor transmission system shown in

Pig. 6-2 in which incident waves e,, e, impinge on a transition network Rl, I n this new impedance matrix the (a', b') axes are connected t o the incom-
R, and give rise t o reflected waves e;, e; and transmitted waves e:, e,". ing lines, but the c'-axis is not, and therefore i t must be eliminated by splitting
 Art. 6-21 MULTIVELOCITY TRAVELING WAVES 81
80 MATRICES. TENSORS, A N D C I R C U I T S [Ch. 6

zva=;;cl
Since the equations are becoming unwieldy in algebraic form, i t will serve

afml
the matrix as specified by Eq. 6-19 and then using Eq. 6-22. Splitting our purpose just as well t o pass to numerical values for illustrating the
according t o Eq. 6-19, procedure. Let

27, = b'

a' b' C'

Z, = q-5q-l -Zza Z, = c'

n E
R,
+ l
+ z,, y a p = cr -
R, z2a

E, B =(R1-B m ) d
and Eq. 6-22 becomes

R, + 222
yap = -1
500

and Eq. 6-26 becomes

The admittance matrix of the incoming lines is

Solving for the reflected voltages, gives
y.' = (~~$1 5

6-25 relatine. the reflected and incident voltage waves then is

The total voltages on the incoming side of the transition point are

The reflected current waves are

The total currents on the incoming side are

82 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 6

The impedance of the network and outgoing lines is

7
JUNCTION-PAIR NETWORKS6
Hence the currents are

The previous chapters treated mesh networks.

The essential steps in the analysis of mesh networks in earlier chapters were :
1. Setting up an equation of performance, e = z .i, for the primitive mesh
network.
The branch currents are 2. Establishing the equation of transformation, or equations of constraint
(corresponding to Kirchhoff's first law), relating the "old" currents to the
"new" currents by a transformation tensor.
3. Finding the equation of transformation for voltages by invoking the
invariancy of power.
4. Finding the equation of transformation for impedances by preserving
the invariancy of form.
5. Determining the new currents, using the inverse of the impedance.
And, finally, the transmitted voltage waves are 6. Finding the old currents with the aid of the transformation tensor.
7. Finding the coil voltages.
The analysis of junction-pair networks follows the same operations, step
for step, upon the substitution of the corresponding dual quantities. For
a comparison of three methods of analysis see Table 8-1, p. 102.
Thus all incident, reflected, and transmitted voltage and current waves and Consider n separate coils having admittances YUv(including both self
all network currents have been de$ermined in a routine fashion. and mutual values), and across each coil let a current I"be impressed, flowing
into one junction and out of the other. As a consequence, a response voltage
PROBLEMS
E,appears across the coil. The equation
of performance for all the coils is
6-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter, and verify in detail every step in
the derivations. Iu = YUvED (7-1)
6-2. Why must Eq. 6-11 hold for non-trivial solutions? If the coils of Fig. 7-1 are now inter-
6-3. If Eq. 6-15 holds, show that all v(,) are equal to the velocity of light. connected in some fashion so that the
6-4. Numerous examples and solutions of transmission line networks will be new network consists of J junctions (or
found in texts such as the author's Traveling Waves on Transmission Lines.=
nodes), then P = (J- 1) independent
These examples can be assigned as problems in tensor analysis and the results
checked against those in the reference text. Actually, the methods of tensor
junction pairs may be established. Any
analysis do not present any advantage over the solutions by simpler methods, two junctions may be selected as a
but of course the problems provide exercises in the tensor method. junction pair; the minimum number of
6-5. Write out the set of Eqs. 6-10 and show the determinant (Eq. 6-11) non-redundant junction pairs is (J- 1)
for three conductors (r, s = 1, 2, 3). Then solve for the a?) as in Eq. 6-12 and and every junction is included a t least
Fig. 7-1. The primitive junction-
write out the set of Eqs. 6-13 and 6-14. once. Let the "new" voltages between ppir network.
83
84 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS
the junction pairs be designated by E,,. Kirchhoff's second law permits
(J - 1) linear relationships to be set up between the voltages E, of the
primitive network (Fig. 7-1) and the voltages E,, of the new network. These
relationships define a transformation tensor C c , so that
E, = CE'E,,
Art. 7-11 JUNCTION-PAIR NETWORKS
85
Select, arbitrarily, three junction pairs such that every junction is included
a t least once, and designate the new junction-pair voltages by Ea., E , , E,..
The voltage between any pair of junctions, that is, across any coil, is readily
found as the sum of the voltages around closed circuits through the two coil

Stipulating the invariancy of power between the primitive and new net-
works, there is
P = E,IU = E,,IU'
Substituting Eq. 7-2 in Eq. 7-3,
C : ' E , , I ~= E,P'
from which
I,' = c;'p
Ed'
Substifuting Eqs. 7-1 and 7-2 in succession in Eq. 7-4,
( a ) Actual network ( b ) Coil voltages ( c ) Junction-pair voltages
I,' = c;'p " ~ c;'y U v c ; ' ~ ,=, ~ " ' v ' E , ,
=,
in which Fig. 7-2.
p ' v ' c;'y,vc;'
junctions, as shown in Fig. 7-2c. A direct comparison between the coil
is the transformed admittance. voltages (Fig. 7-2b) and the junction-pair voltages (Fig. 7-2c) defines the
Eq. 7-5 may be solved for the "new" voltages in terms of the junction-pair transformation tensor.
currents by taking the inverse of the new admittance tensor:
E,, = ( p ' " ' ) - q * ' = ,,,,I"'
The voltages across the individual coils follow from Eq. 7-2, and the currents
flowing in these coils from Eq. 7-1. Thus all currents and voltages may be
determined in routine fashion. E, = Ed' - E,? - E,,' .
7-1. The Selection of Junction Pairs. I n the analysis of a junction-pair Ed = - E d' d
network of J junctions i t is mandatory t o select a minimum of (J - 1) E, = E,, + E,? e
independent junction pairs, even though currents may be impressed acros E, = E,. - Ed.
a fewer number of junction pairs, because unknown response voltages occ f 1~ -1
across all junction pairs and must be recognized in setting up the trans
formation tensor. This is the counterpart of selecting as many independen Let the primitive coil admittance tensor be
meshes as there are unknown currents in a mesh network.
After the (J - 1) junction pairs have been selected, the transformatio
tensor is established by assuming new voltages E,, for these junction
and then equating the old voltages E , across each coil t o the sum of jun
pair voltages around closed circuits for which the coil junctions are termin
Alternatively, equations of constraint may be set up for short-cir
junction pairs in terms of the new junction-pair voltages. The proc
will be clarified in the examples to follow.
EXAMPLE.^ I n Fig. 7-2 is shown a network having six coils and fo
junctions, and therefore (J - 1) = 3 junction pairs. Currents Id and I f ar
impressed across two of the coils.
86 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 7 Art. 7-11 JUNCTION-PAIR NETWORKS
87
The new admittance matrix is furnish two equations of constraint, permitting En. and E,. to be eliminated;
thus
YU'V' = c:' Y U V ~ " '
0 En,= 0
-E,. + + +
Ea, E,, Em. = 0 :.
E,. = E,'+ Er# Em, +

The old and new currents are

( a ) Actual network ( b ) Coil voltages ( c ) Junction-pair voltages

Fig. 7 4 . Circuits with constraints.

When these values of I"' are inserted on the diagram of connections there Expressing the "old" coil voltages in terms of the remaining variables
results the distribution shown in Fig. 7-3, from which i t is seen that the Egt,Erj,Em,, there results
original currents Id and P are correctly q' r' m'
given by the superposition of the new
junction-pair currents. If the inverse of
t,he admittance tensor i s

Es = Ear + Em*
then the junction-pair voltages follow E , = E,, = Ea, + Em, + E,.
from Eq. 7-7, the coil voltages from
Eq. 7-2, and the coil currents from But the same tensor may be written directly from Fig. 7 4 by observing
Eq. 7-1. from the connection diagram that En. = 0 and - E , E,.+ +
Em, E , = +
EXAMPLE OF CONSTRAINTS.~A net- 0 ; hence
Fig. 7-3. Superposition of junction-
pair voltages. work in which certain junction pairs ED = Em#
are short-circuited is shown in Fig. E , = E,. + Em, + E,.
7-4a. The voltages across individual coils are shown in Fig. 7 4 b . Since, Let the primitive admittance tensor be
there are four junctions, there are three junction pairs, and these may be
selected arbitrarily so as to include each junction a t least once, as shown
in Fig. 7 4 c , where new junction-pair voltages Em,,E,,, and E,, are shown.
There are two ways in which the transformation tensor may be set up:
either by introducing equations of constraint specifying the short circuits, or
by writing the tensor from inspection of the diagram of connections.
Using first the method of constraints, let as many new junction-pair
voltages E,., E,,, E,., Em,, En, be selected as there are coils. I n terms of
these voltages, as seen from Fig. 7-4c, the short-circuited junction pairs
 MATRICES. TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 7 Art. 7-31 JUNCTION-PAIR NETWORKS 89

procedure ignores the identity of subnetworks already established and simply

treats the final combined network as derived directly from its over-all
primitive.
2. The admittance and current tensors of each Ebl
subnetwork as already established are combined to
form the compound tensors
ydv,= ydv' + y;W + y;'vl + . . .
1

The impressed currents are I g and I t , and therefore the new junction-pair I,' = 1;' + I,"' + 1;' + . . .
currents are Each tensor is assumed to poseess all the
a' r' m' nates for the combined network but has zero ele-
ments except for the specific coordinates of its own Eel
subnetwork. Then a transformation tensor is set Fig. 7-5. Substitution
up to express the interconnection, and the com- of variables.
0---
bined admittance is calculated from
7-2. Change of Variables.6 After the equationsof performance for a net-
..
work h n v- ~heen established
...-
- - in terms of a particular set of junction-pair EXAMPLE.^ Consider the interconnection of the networks of Fig. 7-2 and
coordinates, it may be desirable for some reason or other to restate them in - 7 4 , as shown in Fig.
Fig. - 7-6. The compound admittance is the sum of the
terms of a different set of junction pairs. Of course, there must be as many subnetwork admittances, as previously found.
junction pairs in the new set as there were in the old, and each set of junction
pairs must include each junction in the network a t least once. The procedure
in setting up the appropriate transformation tensor to change from one set of
variables to another consists simply in writing the equations which express
the old junction-pair voltages in terms of the new:
E," = C$Eut

For example, in Fig. 7-5 are shown two sets of junction-pair voltages,
(Ea,,Eb,, Ec,, Ed,, Ee,) and (Ea-,E,", R,, Ed.., E,"), for a network with six
junctions. It is clear from the diagram that
a" b" c" d" e"
!
E,, = Ea- - E,"
--- 4

E,, = -Ea" + E," + Ed"+ E,"

E,? = E a - - E,- Select new junction-pair voltages E,, E,, Ed. so that
or CU'
uq = c'
+ E," - Ed"- E," --- a" 6" d"
- - - -
- -Ea" - LC,- + hd"+ he"
b'd' -
, "
-1
h 1 I 1

e'
Ee' -- - E d - - E,"
7-3. Interconnection of Networks.6 When two or more networks a d
t o be interconnected t o form a combined network, two procedures are
possible.
1. The primitive admittance and current tensors for the individual coib
of the entire combined network may be set up, the junction pairs selected,
a transformation tensor established, and the analysis completed. This
 JUNCTION-PAIR NETWORKS 91
90 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 7

The current tensor for the combined network is applied between junctions 1 and 2 and between junctions 3 and 5. Make a
complete junction-pair analysis of this network, finding all response voltages.
7-6. Solve the network of Fig. 7-7 and indicate on the diagram all coil voltages
and currents. The mutual admittances are all zero.

Fig. 7-7.

I I
Fig. 7-6. Interconnection of t w o subnetworks.

and the admittance matrix follows in the usual fashion a s

PROBLEMS

7-1. The use of the principle of the invariancy of power under a transforma-
tion of coordinates, or for a change in the connections of a network, was justified
for a mesh network in Art. 3-7. In a similar fashion prove that the use of the
principle is justified for a junction-pair network.
7-2. Superimpose the new current IU' on Fig. 7-4 and show that they combine
to give the actual currents at the original junctions.
7-3. Confirm all calculations indicated in the chapter.
7-4. Prepare a tabular form of three columns to illustrate the correspondence
(or duality) between the analysis of mesh and junction-pair networks. In the
first column list the items: impressed variables, response variables, circuit
parameters, equation of performance, equation of transformation and trans-
formation matrix, invariancy of power, transformation of the response quantities,
invariancy of form, transformation of the circuit parameters, new response
variables, old response variables, old coil variables. I n the second column show
the corresponding steps in the analysis of mesh networks. In the third column
show the corresponding steps in the analysis of junction-pair networks.
7-5. Consider a network in the form of a hexagon with six junctions having a
coil between each pair of junctions (15 in all). Let junction-pair currents be
 Art. 8-21 COMPLETE NETWORKS 93

I n complete networks (or what Kron calls "orthogonal networks"), series

8 across the junction pairs. No restrictions are placed on which voltages or
COMPLETE NETWORKS6
& I . The Variables of Complete Networks.6 Every network of n
coils comprises m meshes and (n - m) junction pairs, and in general there
is a voltage applied in series with each coil and a current applied in shunt
across each coil. Then m response currents ik'flow in the meshes, and (n - m)
response voltages E , appear across the junction pairs. Therefore there are
applied coil voltages ek and shunt applied coil currents 1" coexist, and con-
sequently m currents ik'flow in the meshes and (n - m ) voltages E,. appear
currents are known or which are t o be solved for, but there are a total of
n unknowns: for example, the m mesh currents and the (n - m) junction-
pair voltages. Under these conditions a non-singular transformation tensor
can be established.
When a branch with a mesh current ia (a contravariant variable) is open-
circuited, that current is reduced to zero and in its place appears a junction-
pair voltage E, (a covariant variable). Or, conversely, when a junction-pair

n applied series voltages ek

n applied shunt currents IU
ik'
m mesh currents
(n - m ) junction-pair voltages E,.

In pure mesh networks there are n known impressed series coil voltages
e,, the shunt currents Iuare zero, the junction-pair voltages Eu, are of no
concern, and the m mesh currents ik' are related to the coil currents ikby a Fig. 8-1. Replacement of open and closed meshes by apparent coils.
singular transformation tensor. I t is sufficient to solve for m unknown mesh
currents ik'in terms of m impressed mesh voltages ek, from the equation of
voltage Ea is short-circuited, that voltage is reduced to zero and in its place
performance,
appears a mesh current ia. Thus the total number of variables is not changed
e.,
3
= z.,
3 k
,ik' by the imposition of constraints; there is only a substitution of one type of
A voltage in an impedanceless branch (z = 0) is treated as a voltage in series variable for another. If, however, one type of variable assumes a known
with a zero impedance coil, and each such voltage adds anadditionalreference value along an axis, there will appear in that same axis the dual type of
axis, or mesh, to the network. variable as a n unknown quantity.
I n pure junction-pair networks there are n known impressed shunt coil An open mesh across which appears an unknown voltage Ea may be
currents I U ,the series voltages ek are zero, the mesh currents ik'are of no. regarded as closed through an impedanceless apparent coil through which
concern, and the (n - m ) junction-pair voltages E,. are related to the coil flows a zero current ia. Similarly, a closed mesh through which flows a n
shunt voltages Eu by a singular transformation tensor. It is sufficient to unknown current ia may be regarded as opened across an admittanceless
solve for (n - m ) unknown junction-pair voltages E,, in terms of (n - m) apparent coil in shunt with which is a zero voltage Ea. These possibilities
impressed junction-pair currents I,' from the equation of performance, are indicated in Fig. 8-1.

8-2. The Three Types of Terminals. I n any network, three types of

A current across an admittanceless coil ( z = co) is treated as a current in
shunt with a zero admittance coil, and each such current adds an additional
reference axis, or junction pair, to the network.
92
adjacent-terminals should be recognized :
1. Terminals between which there is a coil of impedance zkk in series
with an impressed voltage e, carrying a coil current itc) and bridged by a n
94 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 8 Art. 8-31 COMPLETE N E T W O R K S 95

impressed shunt current Ikand a voltage E,. Such a general element is shown
in Fig. 8-2a. It is to be noted that the current through the terminals is
From the point of view of the remainder of the network, this is the current
contributed by the series-shunt coil element, and it is the current which is
to be transformed. Evidently, for each such local circuit,
+
ej E j = zjkifc,= zjk(ik Ik) + (8-2)
2. Terminals between which there is an admittanceless branch (that is,
no coil but an open circuit), and across which there is impressed a known
junction-pair current iv and a response voltage E, as shown in Fig. 8-2b.
1. Close all ( n - m) junction pairs through impedanceless (z = 0)
apparent coils. The (n - m) arbitrarily selected junction pairs must include
all admittanceless branches across which known currents are impressed and
also all impedanceless branches having known impressed voltages; that is,
the selected junction pairs in the network must include all the apparent coils.
In order to avoid the inclusion of apparent coils in the primitive impedance,
all known impressed quantities associated with these apparent coils must be
considered known response quantities ivand E,. The following nomenclature
is adhered to:
known voltages in series with coils are denoted by ek
known voltages in series with impedanceless branches
(apparent coils, z = 0) are denoted by Eu
known currents impressed across real coils, and not assumed
as junction-pair currents, are denoted by Ik

known currents impressed across admittanceless branches

(apparent coils, z = a)are denoted by iv

2. Select arbitrarily TI. new mesh currents ik to include the ( n - m)

currents iV:
across admittanceless coils they are usually known
around the meshes they are usually unknown
( a ) Coil element ( b ) Known current ( c ) Known voltage in an
3. Set up the impedance matrix for the "all-mesh" network. Let (j,k)
across an open impedanceless
branch branch coordinates represent the original n coils, and (u, v) coordinates the (n - m)
impedanceless junction-pair apparent coils. The impedance matrix then
Fig. 8-2. The three types of adjacent-terminal pairs.
takes the form, and has the dimensions, shown:
The purpose of designating the known current ivrather than P , in spite of
the fact that it is a junction-pair current, is to reduce the complete network to
an all-mesh network, as will be shown. Closing the circuit through an
external Evintroduces an additional mesh in the network.
3. Terminals between which there is an impedancelessbranch, and through
which there is impressed a known series voltage E, and a response current
iU,as shown in Fig. 8-2c. The purpose of designating the known voltage E,
rather than e,, in spite of the fact that it is a branch voltage, is to avoid the
introduction of apparent (z = 0) coils in the network.
8-3. Procedure in Analysis of Complete Networks. The procedure
in setting up the impedance and transformation tensors and the equations
of performance for a complete network, regarded as an all-mesh network,
follows.
96 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 8 Art. 8-31 COMPLETE NETWORKS 97

4. Set up the transformation tensor in the usual fashion, selecting arbi- 10. The total currents in the n new axes are
trarily n new currents represented by coordinates (j', k') but including the
currents in the added meshes. It takes the following form :
ik' Ik' + (8-11)
11. The equation of performance in the new coordinates is (by Eqs. 8-7
\ at kg and 8-9 and expression 8-1 1)
eat + Eat= ~ , , ~ . (+i ~I B ' ) (s12)
I n this equation there is a total of n unknowns. I n order to solve for the

When the junction-pair axes are not required, the corresponding k' columns
may be ignored and Ci, reduces to the singular transformation matrix of
an ordinary mesh network. I n this compound matrix, the n original branch
currents a s given by Eq. 8-1 are related to the n new currents by

( a 1 Actual network ( b ) Equivalent "all-mesh'lnetwork

(Note that Ci. is established as a relationship involving total currents through
the terminals of a coil, and not coil currents; they differ-by the impressed Fig. 8-3. Complete network of five coils.
shunt current Ik). unknowns it is necessary to partition the voltage equation along the mesh
The added mesh currents iv are to be preserved by the new axes, and (j', k') and junction-pair (u', v') axes as follows:
therefore the (n - m) junction-pair currents are related t o the new currents
by
iv= h;,ik' (8-6)
EXAMPLE.^ The following example of the analysis of a complete network
5 . Currents impressed across real coils, and not assumed as junction-pair
is adapted from Chapter XVI of Kron's Tensor Analysis of Networks, and
currents, are designated by Ik.
i t illustrates the procedure for handling such networks.
6. The new impedance is
I n the actual network of Fig. 8-3a there are
za.B.= Cf.C$,zaB= (C;, + 6;4)(~:,+ 6:,)z,, = c;,C:.zjk (8-7) n = 5 coils (zaa, %bbt Zcc,Zdd,~ ~ f )
7. The current transformation is (using Eq. 8 4 ) m = 2 meshes
(n - m) = 3 junction pairs (to be selected, but to include q and r)
Note that only actual (non-zeroimpedance) coils are counted, while apparent
8. The voltage transformation is (using Eq. 8 4 )
(zero or infinite impedance) coils are to be regarded as junction pairs.
e,. = C,b.e, = (Ci, + 6:.)ek = C:.ek = e,. (8-9) n = 5 known series coil voltages (e,, eb,e, = 0, ed = 0, ef)
9. The coil shunt currents I k , being components of the total currents ik, n = 5 known shunt coil currents (Ia= 0, Ib= 0, IC,Id= 0, If = 0)
and if not assumed as junction-pair currents, transform in the same way as 1 known junction-pair current (iQ)
ikby the inverse of Ci,: 1 known junction-pair voltage (E,)
~ k= ' c k ' p (8-10) This leaves one additional junction pair t o be chosen.
98 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 8 Art. 8-31 COMPLETE NETWORKS 99

I n Fig. 8-3b, the ( n - nz = 3 ) junction pairs p', q', r' have been chosen
to include the admittanceless branch q and the impedanceless branch r, and
these junction pairs are shown as closed through impedanceless apparent
coils so as to convert the original network to an "all-mesh'' network of five
meshes and mesh currents (a', b', p', q', r'). Between these five new mesh
currents and the primitive terminal currents a non-singular transformation
can be established. There are then the following matrices.
Note that when the junction-pair axes (p', q', r') are ncit active, the corre-
sponding columns of C;. are eliminated, and the remaining singular part of
the transformation matrix C;, is identical with that which would be set up
for a simple mesh network of two meshes (a', b').
The junction-pair currents transform into themselves :

ek = I I e, eb 1 0
-

I I I
0 ef or n = 5 known series impressed voltages

a b c (1 f
0 I0 0 or n = 5 known shunt impressed currents
The new impedance matrix is

a,' b' p' q' r'

a ' ib'
-
0 id

known
if or n = 5 new mesh currents, of which
two are known (p', q') and three
unknown (a', b', r')

E,,. -1 o o I ED, 1 Ed 1 E,. I or n = 5 new junction-pair voltages, of

J
known
-
known
which three are known (a', b', T')
and two are unknown (p', q')

The new voltages, all of which are known, are

The new mesh currents corresponding to the impressed shunt currents Ik

are found upon taking the inverse of C;,.

The non-singular part of the transformation tensor is established by

comparison of coil terminal currents with the new mesh currents; thus

and all these currents are known.

 100 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 8 Art. 8-41 COMPLETE NETWORKS 101

Finally, there are the voltage equations along the mesh (af and b') and Rearranging the equations so that only one reference axis appears on the
junction-pair (p', q', r f ) axes: left side defines the following transformation matrix :
+ 0 = z,,,,ia' + z,.,,ib' + zatQ.(iQ'+ IQ')+ ~ ~ . ~ ,+( iI?')
e,. "
+ 0 = zb.,.ia' + zb.,ib' + zbrqr(iq'+ Ia')+ zbJir' + IT')
e,,
e,, + E,. = z,,,,za ' + ~ , , ~+, ~
' i~, . '~ .+ ~ ' + z,,,,(ir' + I")
( ila')
eq. + E,. = zQparia' + zQ,,ib' + + IQ') + zQ,,.,(i7'+ IT')
e,, + E,, = z,,,,ia' + zrTb,ib'+ z,,Jia' + IQ') + zr,,,(ir' + I")
In these five equations containing 14 variables there are
9 knowns (eat,e,,, E,,, iQ',lQ',I"", e,,, eQt,eT.)
5 unknowns (E,,, E,,, in', ib',iT')
and therefore there is a sufficient number of equations t o solve for the
unknowns.
8-4. The Conversion of Networks6 Any n-coil network may be used
as a reference frame for the same n coils interconnected into a different
network. The procedure follows.
1. Convert each network to an "all-mesh" network by closing its junction-
pairs through apparent coils. The mesh currents of the reference network
are designated by ik', and those of the new network by ik".
1 2. Express each coil current in terms of the mesh currents in both the
reference network and the new network:
ik= c,k,ik' = ~ , k , , j k " (8-14)
I
3. Rearrange these equations so that only one reference current appears
I
( a Reference network ( b ) Derived network
on the left side of each equation (thereby defining the required transformn tion
tensor) Fig. 8-4. Conversion of "all-mesh" networks.
II i k f -- c k r c k jk" = c k T j l c "
I
k k" P" (8-15)
Thus all n-coil networks made up of the same impedances are related The new impedance and impressed voltage matrices then are
through appropriate transformation tensors. Therefore, when the equations
of performance are known in one reference frame, they may be converted t o
any other reference frame within the group.
EXAMFLE.~ The following example, adapted from Kron's Tensor Analysis
of Networks, illustrates this procedure. I n Fig. 8 4 , five coils are shown
interconnected in two different ways, having three and two junction pairs, '

respectively.
Equating the coil currents in terms of the currents in both the reference
and derived networks, there results
p = ia' - ia" ib" - i d - if"
ib = i n ' + i ~+' i ~+' jr' - - ic"
ic = i b' - p' -
- ia"
id = - ib' -
- ib" + ic" + id'' These matrices could have been found also by setting up the transforma-
if = i a ' + ib' + i"' - - ib" tion tensor Ci. between the new network and the primitive coil currents.
Art. 841 COMPLETE NETWORKS

.m
'4
II IIII II IIII II I1 I1 11
 104 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 8
8-5. "All Junction-Pair" Networks.6 A complete network also may
be reduced to an "all junction-pair" network and its equation of performance
established as a current equation:
The procedure in setting up this equation parallels that for an "all-mesh"
network upon the interchange of dual quantities and the opening of each
mesh for the insertion of an apparent ( Y = 0) coil.
8-6. Comparison of the Three Types of Networks. Every network
comprises n coils, m meshes, and (n - m) junction pairs and has (n) known
impressed voltages ek in series with the coils, (n) known impressed currents
Ikin shunt with the coils, and a number of apparent (zero or infinite imped-
ance) coils. I n general (m) response currents ik' flow in the meshes and
(n - m) response voltages E,. appear across the junction pairs. Then
1. If m < (n - m ) , I u = 0, and Eut is of no concern, t,he network is
preferably solved as a simple mesh network.
2. If m > (n - m), ek = 0, and ik' is of no concern, the network is
preferably solved as a simple junction-pair network.
3. If both e, and Iu are impressed, the network may be solved either as
an "all-mesh" or an "all junction-pair" complete (orthogonal) network.
A comparison of the several steps involved is given in Table 8-1.
PROBLEMS
8-1. The use of the principle of the invariancy of power under a transforma-
tion of coordinates, or for a change in the connections of a network, was justified
for a mesh network in Art. 3-7. Justification for the use of the principle for
junction-pair networks was assigned as Problem 7-1. What is the justification
for the use of the principle in the case of complete networks?
8-2. A thorough understanding of the underlying concepts and philosophy
of complete networks is absolutely necessary to the analysis of such networks.
I t is believed that these matters have been put on a sound basis in the text and
that by Eqs. 8-13 all the essential ideas have been presented in a logical order.
On a large piece of paper show a closed contour within which are representative
types of adjacent-terminal pairs as shown in Fig. 8-2. Alongside the diagram
write the definitions and procedures to be followed. And, finally, show the
impedance and transformation matrices, and equations. This "bird's-eye view"
is complete when it clearly defines and explains every necessary concept of
complete networks.
8-3. Check every step in the numerical examples in the text.
84. Reduce a complete network to an "all junction-pair" network and
establish Eq. 8-16 as its equation of performance.
THE ELEMENTS OF TENSOR A N A L Y S I P 4
The previous chapters have been devoted to underlying principles in the
application of matrices and tensors to electric circuit analysis, but actually
only the barest notions of tensor algebra have been introduced. However,
electric machine theory will require the most advanced concepts of tensor
analysis, and, while many of these concepts can be examined as they occur
in the development of machine theory, i t is, nevertheless, desirable to present
now the elements of tensor analysis as briefly as is consistent with an under-
standing and appreciation of them.
It has been mentioned that the essence of tensor analysis is bound up in
the ideas of: set, form, invariancy, group, and traqformation. And there are,
of course, the associated notations, conventions, definitions, and rules.
9-1. Sets. The totality of the variables required for the description of a
geometrical or physical system comprises a set and in tensor notation is
represented by a single symbol:
xr E?E (x", xb, . . . , xn) (y-1)
Here x is called the base variable and refers to the type of variable. For
example, geometric coordinates, currents, voltages, velocities, and accelera-
tions are all different types of variables and need to be designated by different
base letters such as x, i, e, v, a.
The superscript index (not exponent) r may be interpreted either as indi-
cating any (but not a particular) one of the several variables xa, xb, etc., or
alternatively (and this is the preferred point of view) as the whole set of values.
When it becomes desirable, or necessary, t o specify a particular variable,
a capital letter is used for the index, for example xR, or else a specific ele-
ment like xbis written.
Indices may appear either as superscripts, as in x" or as subscripts, as
in y,, depending on the nature of the variables. Variables which transform
in a direct fashion are called wntravariant variables, and their indices are
attached as superscripts. Variables which transform in a n inverse fashion
are called covariant, and their indices are attached as subscripts. I n a given
system one type of variable may be selected arbitrarily either as contravariant
or covariant .
105
106 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 9 Art. 9 4 THE ELEMENTS O F TENSOR ANALYSIS 107
The idea of set is not restricted to single variables like xT or y,, but can be When several pairs of dummy indices occur in a product, summation is
extended t o tensors of any rank or valence; see Table 9-1. implied with respect t o each pair of dummy indices. Examples are

TABLE 9-1
I
Valence (or Rank)
Tensors
--
Contravariant
I Covariant Total
1 Current, velocity,
coordinate
1 Voltage, force, gradient
2 Impedance
2 Admittance
2 Rotation
2 Kronecker delta
2 Transformation tensor
It is evident that the letter used to represent the repeated or dummy index
3 Affine connection
is immaterial. I n practice, in order to assemble terms, i t is often necessary
4 Riemann curvature
t o substitute letters for the dummy indices occurring in different terms.
For example,
A tensor of valence 2, such as a,, where ( r , s ) range from 1t o n , constitutes
a set of n2 elements. A tensor of valence 3, such as A:4, constitutes a set of 9-3. Invariance. Invariance refers to the constancy of some entity, or
n3 elements. form, which does not change under a transformation of coordinates. There
Furthermore, functions of variables, or equations, comprise sets. For are two types of invariancy of special importance in tensor analysis :
example (using the summation convention),
1 . An entity, like energy W or power P, or the distance d between two points,
which remains unchanged under all permissible transformations of
coordinates.
2 . A mathematical f o r m , like the formula for stored magnetic energy (a
is a linear set of n terms, while quadratic form) L T S i T i s ,or the equation of voltage (a linear form) e, =
zTSiS,which preserves the same form in all reference frames.

It often happens that the tensor equation representing the most general
case will contain terms not present in simpler reference frames. The invariant
form is thus considered to be that corresponding to the most general case,
but some of its terms are zero or vanish for certain reference frames.
9-4. Group Theory. A set of elements, A , B, C, . . . . having a rule of
.
combination (denoted by , but not restricted to multiplication) is defined
as a group if the following four conditions apply:
is a bilinear set of n2 terms. 1. The combinations A . A and A . B are also members (the "group
9-2. The Summation Convention. The summation convention has property").
already been defined and used in previous chapters. Whenever in a tensor 2. The associative l a w holds: ( A . B ) . C = A . ( B . C ) .
product the same index occurs twice--once as a contravariant and once as a 3. There exists a u n i t element I such that combination between it and any
covariant index-summation with respect thereto is implied. Such an index member of the group leaves the member unchanged.
4. Every member has an inverse A-l, also a member of the group, such that
is called a dummy index. An index which is not repeatedis called a free index.
A . A-1 = I .
108 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 9 Art. 9-71 THE ELEMENTS OF TENSOR ANALYSIS 109

If only the f i s t three conditions are satisfied, the set is called a semigroup. There are two possible interpretations of a transformation of this type:
If all elements of the group belong to a second group, the set is called a
1. The passive interpretation regards an identical physical configuration
subgroup of the second group.
of a n entity alternatively represented in two different reference frames. It
If a group repeats itself, it is called a cyclic group.
is simply a case of expressing the same entity in two related systems of
If a group has a finite number of members, it is called a Jinite group; if i t
coordinates by a substitution of variables. (For example, the temperature
has an infinite number of members, it is called an inJinite group.
distribution in a flat plate may be expressed in terms of rectangular or polar
For examples see Table 9-2.
TABLE 9-2 coordinates.)
2 . The active interpretation regards two different physical configurations
Group All positive and negative integers lotation by multiples of 90' of a n entity as expressed in the same reference frame. (For example, the
Set . . . , - 2 , - 1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ,... y, = 90°, y, = 180°, temperature distribution on two identical flat plates may be linearly related
y3 = 270°, y, = 360" in terms of the same coordinate system.)
Rule of combination Addition (+) Addition (+)
Unit element 0 y, = 360" The passive interpretation is used in cases where a mere substitution of
Inverse (2) + (-4 = 0 + +
Yl Y3 = Yz Yz = Ya variables occurs, such as substitution of mesh currents for branch currents
Condition 1 (2) + (&Y) = (2 * Y) +
Y I 7, = y3, etc. or of one set of branch currents for another, a permutation of variables, or
Condition 2 ( x + y ) + z = X + ( ~ + d (71+ Y,) + Y, = yl a n imposition of con~t~raints.
+
(Y,+ Y,) The active interpretation is adopted when a given network is to be recon-
Condition 3 x + O = x +
Y E y4 = YZ.etc. nected into an entirely different network.
Condition 4 (2) + (-4 = 0 +
Y1 Y3 = Yz + Yz = Ya The transformation (Eq. 9 4 ) is reversible if the equations can be solved
for the independent variables in terms of the dependent variables.
The rotation group is cyclic if it is agreed that any angle plus 360' cannot Solving Eq. 9 4 by Cramer's rule,
be distinguished from the angle. (This could not be tolerated in some
investigations; for example, in determining the work done in taking e
magnetic pole around a current many times.) The 90" rotation group is also
a subgroup of a rotation group having any angle 8 as its modulus. in which ICfI is the determinant of the transformation matrix and A: is the
The transformation matrices which substitute one set of variables for cofactor of C: in the determinant. Obviously, this solution does not exist if
another set in a network form a Jinite group, since only a finite number of the determinant vanishes, that is, if its matrix is singular. I n other words,
substitutions is possible (i.e., replacing branch currents with mesh currents). a singular matrix has no inverse and the transformation is irreversible.
The transformation matrices which change one network into another also 9-6. Successive Transformation and Group Property. A set of
form a jinite group (i.e., reconnecting the elements of a network). variables x7 may be transformed to x7', and this in turn to xr", and so on, thus
The transformation matrices which change one network into another
with a different number of coils form a semigroup, since such matrices do not
have an inverse (i.e., reconnecting with a different number of coils).
The transformation matrices which introduce hypothetical currents as
variables form a n inJinite group (i.e., substitution of symmetrical components).
The transformation matrices which substitute variables are a subgroup
of the transformation matrices changing the interconnections of a network, etc. (9-6)
which in turn are a subgroup of the group of connection matrices for the The successive products of transformation matrices possess the group
generalized machine. property.
9-5. Transformation. A set of coordinates xSrepresenting a description 9-7. Definition of a Tensor. A set of numbers or functions which
of some configuration may be transformed into another set xa by a linear remain invariant under a group of linear transformations is called a tensor.
transformation, If the CL are independent of the variables, then
xa = c;xs (94)
in which the coefficients Cf are independent of the variables.
 l I0 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 9 Art. 9-1 I] T H E ELEMENTS OF TENSOR ANALYSIS I II

and therefore the definition of a tensor requires that But e, and i T cannot be added because they have base letters of different
types (a voltage and a current) and one has a covariant and the other a
contravariant index.
The sum of several tensors transforms in the same way as its constituent
9-8. lnvariancy of Form. Suppose that . the variables transform members :
linearly according to the equation aaB baB = C ~ C B ~ T S C ~ C B ~ T S
7 s 7 s
xT = c;xa (9-9)
= C:Cf(ar" fT" = c y ! d r s = dab (9-19)
What is the law of transformation for the coefficients in the equation
9-10. Contraction. If a pair of contravariant and covariant free
a,xT = b (9-10) indices in a tensor are made identical, they become dummy indices implying
if its form is to remain invariant? Substituting Eq. 9-9 in Eq. 9-10, summation, and the operation is called contraction. For example,

That is,
ar(Cixa)= (aTC;)xa= aaxa = b (9-1 1) st ." a~nt"'- rlt-'
(amno... ) s = n = r n n p . . . - a m l p+ r2t".
am + ~ 3 t . . .
Z p... a m 3 p... +
. . = bms.
r t...
.. (9-20)
Contraction is seen t o reduce the valence of a tensor by 2, since the sum of the
aa = arc: or a, =C;a, (9-12)
terms is a tensor with 2 less indices than the original tensor.
Thus the coefficients transform in a n inverse fashion from the variables, and
this leads to the following distinctions : contravariant tensors (like xT)trans- 9-1 1. Multiplication. I n multiplication of a tensor by a constant, each
form directly according to Eq. 9-9; covariant tensors (like a,) transform element of the tensor is multiplied by this constant (just as in multiplication
inversely according to Eq. 9-12; hence the use of upper indices for contra- of a matrix by a constant), and the resulting tensor has the same valence and
variant and lower indices for covariant tensors. is the same type as the original tensor:
Quadratic forms transform as follows : kars = bn (9-21)
I n the general (or outer) product of two tensors, each element of one tensor
b 7 s =
~ b~T S (~C ; ~~a ) ( C ! ~ p ) = ( b T S c ~ C ! ) ~ a ~ / 3 = b a B ~ a ~ , 9 (9-14) is multiplied in turn by each element of the other tensor (as in the product of
two matrices), yielding a tensor of valence equal to the sum of t,he valences
A bilinear form transforms as follows : of the factor tensors :
a y y , = a : ( C y ) ( C ! y B )= ( a : c ~ c f ) x a y=
B a!xayB (9-15) arb: = (9-22)
I n general, any multilinear form transforms as follows: Transforming the left side of Eq. 9-22 with form invariant,
1 :: xrxsxt . . . ymyny, . - = am"""'
rst-.
CmaC n~ C Y , - - - C T C ~ t x P z u x r y a y .p .y .y
P a r a;b,P = C " , ~ a ~ C ~ C
=~Ca
bm~
~CnGPCSdmr
r u n s = diP, (9-23)
that is showing that the indices in the product are the same and in the same position
BY. .. = Ca CBCY . . . C T C S C.~. . amn"' ' '
ape,... m n p P a r ,st... (9-1 6 ) as the indices in the factor terms.
Therefore, if it is known that a quantity is a mixed tensor of multiple When multiplication and a double contraction are combined on like terms
valence, i t is transformed by as many direct transformation tensors as i t has of the same valence, the resulting operation is called the inner product or
upper indices, and by as many inverse transformation tensors as i t has lower composition. It is defined by (putting r = n and s = m )
indices, and the transformation tensors are prescribed automatically by the a : . b: = arb; = d (9-24)
position and type of the indices.
A constant is a tensor of valence 0,since it has no indices, and it trans- For tensors of higher valence, repeated contraction of the product results
forms into itself. finally in a n invariant, as shown below, using the dot for inner product and
the ( ) for contraction:
9-9. Addition of Tensors. Tensors may be added or subtracted only if
their base letters are of the same type, and each has the same free indices
similarly placed (equal valence). Thus
-
((a:: b',:)) = ((amn ." = ( ( d 3 = ( a 3 = ( f 3= g
,bm,)) (9-25)
A chain product consists of multiplication and a single contraction, such as
+ + e: = E,
e, e; (9-17)
z,, 4 .is + z:s = zrs (9-1 8 )
112 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 9 Art. 9-14] T H E ELEMENTS OF TENSOR ANALYSIS 113

The expansion of Eq. 9-26 is the same as for the product of two matrices, 9-13. The Quotient Law. I n tensor analysis, an equation as a whole
each of rank 2. may be a tensor, but i t does not follow that every factor among its terms
is a tensor. The quotient law provides a criterion for testing such factors.
9-12. Multiplication of aTensor by I t s Inverse. Ifthe set of equations
Suppose that
a(rst)ba = dT (9-39)
is solved for the variable xa, there is The right side is a tensor dr of valence 1, and the left side contains the tensor
bst of valence 2. What, then, is the nature of the object a(&) ? Assuming
that the form of the equation remains invariant under transformation,
in which C: is the inverse of CL. Substituting Eq. 9-28 in Eq. 9-29, there there results
must be
2" = c a c T8x 8 = p Bx S = xa (9-30) a(a,5'y)bsY= da = Czar = Czbsta(rst)= C,"CjC:bsYa(rst) (940)
Then
:. c;c; = s; (9-31) a(a,!ly) = C;C;C:a(rst) (941)
It is also possible to prove this relationship from the definition of the element and therefore a(&) is a tensor of valence 3 , contravariant in r and covariant
of an inverse as in s and t :
CT = cofactor of Cz a(&) = a:,
(9-32) (9-42)
" determinant of the Cz and Eq. 9-39 can be rewritten
Then, from the theory of determinants, aT
st
bst = d7 (943)
The indices now balance on both sides of the equation. This r e q u i r e m e n t
that in every product in a tensor equation the indices mnst balance with the
indices in all the other terms of the equation-furnishes a quick and infallible
This is true for the product of any tensor of valence 2 by its inverse. means of identifying an unknown factor by inspection.
By virtue of Eq. 9-31, the equivalent valence of the indices on the two
9-14. General Functional Transformation. Up t o now only linear
sides of a tensor equation is easily demonstrated. Consider the equation
transformations have been considered, and tensors have been defined only
with respect to such transformations.
A general functional transformation is one which relates the variables in
and contract by putting y = a on both sides:
two different reference frames by a n arbitrary set of functions as
a;, = CkC,"C;arD= bgCiarD = CFaFm (9-35)
showing that a , m, and n are dummy indices and there is only one free index,
b, on each side of the equation. Suppose that the transformation is reversible, so that
Or consider the double contraction of Eq. 9-23 by writing (putting p = fi
and a = a )
and that the functions possess derivatives to any order required. Then
((azb:))= a;b{ = ((CkCFCyzarb:))
= CkCzC;~;arbb:= bb",b,"arb:
= aFb: (9-36)
Or consider the single contraction in the chain product ( p = /?) :
(sib:) = ( C k C ~ C ~ C ~=a ~~&b C~z)~ ; C ! a z b=: CkCzG:arb: = CkCzaFb'
in which the CF and Cr, are now no longer constants, as in the case of linear
(9-37) transformations, but functions of the variables. Thus a linear transformation
The Kronecker delta is itself a tensor, as a n examination of its trans- is merely a special case of the general functional transformation. But the
formation shows : differentials transform linearly and are integrable. Therefore the necessary
CzCibl= C;Ci = 6; (9-38) and sufficient condition that the transformation between the differentials
114 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 9 Art. 9-17] THE ELEMENTS OF TENSOR ANALYSIS 115

be reversible simply means that the determinant of the coefficients (the 9-16. Derivatives of a Tensor. The derivative of a tensor is not a
Jacobian) does not vanish, as was demonstrated in the case of linear trans- tensor. Let
formations. That is,

Taking the derivative, and remembering that Ck is a function of the variables,

It is easily seen from the rule for the product of two determinants that
Icj . Ic;l = lc:c;l = la$ = 1 (9-50)
If xn is an electric charge and t is time, then in = dxn/dt,and
The extended definition of a tensor now becomes :
A function of any order (valence) is a tensor with respect to a general
functional transformation if it transform in accordance with a linear
transformation between the old and new differentials.
Thus, if a& is a third-order function of the variables x*, it is a tensor of This is not a tensor transformation because an additional term, other than
valence 3 if its law of transformation is Ck, appears on the right side of the equation.
9-17. Rectilinear Reference Frames. A point in a plane is uniquely
determined by two numbers, a point in ordinary space by three numbers,
A tensor of valence 1 transforms as and a point in n-dimensional space by n numbers. These numbers are the
coordinates of the space in question. The coordinates may be rectangular
.
%a =
axa i'
- (orthogonal or not) or general curvilinear. Familiar examples of different
axr coordinate systems (or reference frames) are: rectangular, polar, spherical,
If a linear form remains invariant under transformation, and cylindrical. I n every case, the point is determined by the intersection
of a set of parametric surfaces. It is even possible to use different units of
eaia= eTiT
measurement along each axis ; for example, in a rectangular coordinate system
and, upon substituting for ia,
the units of measurement along the x-, y-, z-axes, respectively, may be inches,
feet, and centimeters. As will be shown, there is a remarkable entity called the
metric tensor which automatically takes care of the different yardsticks as
Hence
well as providing the correlation between coordinate systems.
Let yT = (ya, yb,ye) be the Cartesian orthogonal coordinates of a point in
space. Then the equat.ion
If a quadratic form remains invariant under transformation, then

9-15. Weighted Tensors. If transformation (9-51) is multiplied on the

right side by a power M of the Jacobian, it is said to be a tensor of weight M .
-
where the C: are constants, defines a linear transformation to new variables
x* (xl, x2, s),and these variables may be looked on as new coordinates
for the point in a rectilinear reference frame. The transformation is revers-
ible, so that
I n general,

If P I and P2 are two points having rectilinear coordinates xi and x;,

is a tensor of weight M. respectively, and if y; and y7, are their corresponding Cartesian coordinates,
1 16 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D C I R C U I T S [Ch. 9 Art. 9-1 91 T H E ELEMENTS O F T E N S O R ANALYSIS 117

then the square of the distance between these two points is given by for the different axes. For example, suppose the units of measurement along
the axes are in the ratio 1 :h: k. Then, in terms of the unit measurement, the
s2= (=I2 = +
(ylf - Y ; ) ~ (Y; - Y;12 + (Y; - ~3~ distance of a point from the origin would be
= +
(Y; - Y;)(Y; - Y;) (Y; - Y;)(Y; - Y;) (Y: - Y%YE + - ~3
= C;(x; - X;)C;(X; - x[) +
C:(x: - x;)c;(x{ - 2;)
+ C:(xq - x;)c;(xf - xi)
=(Cp; + c:c; + C;C;)(x; - xi)(xlB - x2)
B
When the unit measurements are the same for all axes, gTs is 1 for r = s and
= c;C;(x; - x;)(x! - 2;) 0 for r # s.
= g&; - x;)(g - 4 (9-58)
in which
g,, = ctc; + cp; + cy; (9-59)
I n particular, if one point is the origin,
s2 = g xax, (9-60)
If the two points are infinitely close, (xy - x i ) = dxa and

Now s or ds is an invariant, and therefore the right side of Eq. 9-60 or 9-61
Fig. 9-1. Cartesian and rectilinear axes. Fig. 9-2.
is an invariant and, since xu is a tensor, it follows from the quotient law of
tensors and Eq. 9-60 that
9-18. The Magnitude of a Vector. Similarly to Eq. 9-60, the magni-
gmp= gBa is a symmetric double covariant tensor of valence 2. It tude of a contravariant vector A T is defined as
is called the metric tensor and is of fundamental importance.
A = (gT,~r~y)" (9-63)
As an example of these concepts, consider a point P in a plane whose
Cartesian coordinates are (ya,yb) and whose rectilinear coordinates referred and the magnitude of a covariant vector is defined as
to axes a t fixed angles 8 and 4 from ya are x1 and x2. From Fig. 9-1 it is clear B = (~'T~B,))"
that
ya = x1 cos 8 x2 COS 4 + in which gT8is the inverse of grs; that is,

yb = x1 sin 6 + x2 sin 4 gTdm" = s:

gTrngms
Then Cy = cos 8, Cg = cos 4, C! = sin 8, ~ b =, sin 4, and therefore A unit vector is one of unit magnitude. If aT and bT are unit vectors,
gll = cos2 8 + sin2 8 = 1
g2, = g12 = cos 8 cos 4 + sin 6 sin 4 = cos (4 - 8)
g22= cos2 4 + sin2 4 = 1 9-19. Angle Between Two Directions. I n Fig. 9-2 let A and B be two
The distance of the point from the origin then is points unit distance from the origin represented by the unit vectors aTand bT.
Then
- - - - -
AB" 0A2 + 0 B 2 - 2 0 A . OB cos 8 = 2(1 - cos 6 ) (9-68)
But A% = (aT- bT)and hence, by Eqs. 9-58 and 9-66,

But even an orthogonal coordinate system may attract a metric tensor

with other than unit elements if the units of measurement are not the same
l I8 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 9 Art. 9-21] T H E ELEMENTS OF TENSOR ANALYSIS 119

A comparison of Eqs. 9-68 and 9-69 shows that The interchange of the dummy indices may be made automatically without
the necessity of showing the metric tensors explicitly; for example,
cos I9 = g,,aTbs
If a' and b7 are perpendicular, 0 = 90' and therefore the condition for
two directions being orthogonal is
Similarly, the free index may be raised or lowered simultaneously on both
0 = g,,a'bs (9-7 1 ) sides of an equation to yield a n equivalent equation. For example, if
I n general, for two vectors ATand BTof magnitudes A and B, respectively,
the unit vectors are a' = A T / Aand bT = BT/Band there is
then
A2 = grsA'AS
B2 = gTsBTBS (9-72) and so
cos 19 = gTSaTb" gT,ATBS/AB
The dot product familiar in vector analysis follows as 9-21. Tensor Fields. The general tensor transformation of Eq. 9-52 is
AB cos I9 = gTsATB" true in general for one point only, because the coefficients axa/axkare func-
tions of Z and therefore of xu, and consequently, if the relationship holds
9-20. Associated Tensors: Raising and Lowering of Indices. If the
for one point, there is no assurance that it will hold for any other point.
contravariant vector An is multiplied by g,, and contracted, there results
Thus the tensor is localized at a point, and the various algebraic operations
the covariant vector
which were developed for linear transformations apply in general a t a point.
A, = grmArn (9-73) If, however, A: ::: and A: ::: are functions of xk and satisfy Eq. 9-52 a t
This process is called lowering the index. every point in space where the functions are defined, the aggregate of all
If, now, An is multiplied by grn and contracted, these tensors is called a tensor ,field.
gTmAm= gTmgmnAn
= 6',An = AT (9-74)
PROBLEMS
and this is called raising the index.
Thus, lowering an index and then raising i t restores the original vector. 9-1. Give examples of the following: h i t e group, infinite group, cyclic group,
Two vectors with the same base letter, but with covariant and contravariant semigroup, subgroup.
indices, are called associated vectors and are said to represent the covariant 9-2. Write the set of equations (9-4)for three variables x8 = ( x a , xb, x C )and
and contravariant components of the same vector. xa = (xl,x2, z3) and solve for the x S in terms of the xa in accordance with
Any number of indices may be raised or lowered by repeated applications Eq. 9-5.
of the metric tensor. When a n index is thus changed, a dot is left to show 9-3. Give an example of Eq. 9-6 showing all the C.
9 4 . Give the proof of Eq. 9-33.
the position from which it was moved. Examples are
9-5. In the equation e, = z(r,s)iS,if e, and is are known to be tensors; prove
ATs = gT"Ams (9-75) that z(r, s ) must be a tensor.
9-6. Give the proof of Eq. 9-50.
A,! = gSmATm (9-76)
9-7. The relationships between certain curvilinear ( x l , x 2 , x3) and rectangular
A 7 = gSmA'"t (9-77) ( y l , y2, y3) coordinates for some typical systems are given in the following table.
Indices may be raised and lowered simultaneously by employing a suffici- Tabulate the metric tensors for each case.
ent number of metric tensors; for example,
..I: - gku~mn"
&.I - r m sn
' PI (9-78)
Spherical xl sin x2 cos x3 xl sin x2 sin x3 x1 cos x*
I n a product of tensors, wherever a dummy index occurs it can be raised Cylindrical X1 C 0 8 XZ x1 sin xB
in one tensor and lowered in the other without changing the value of the Parabolic xlx2 cos x3 ~1x2 sin x3 f
product :
Elliptic
ATsB, = gTmAmSgTnBn = 6,mtlmsBn= AmsBm= A,BT (9-79)
 Art. 10-21 TENSOR DIFFERENTIATION 121

Adding Eqs. 10-6 and 10-7, subtracting Eq. 10-5, and dividing by 2 there
results

The left-hand side of this equation is called the Christoflel symbol of the
TENSOR first kind and is written

10-1. The Christoffel Symbols. The ordinary and partial derivatives
of conventional calculus are only special cases of much more general processes
encountered in tensor analysis; for this reason tensor analysis is sometimes
called the absolute calculus.
Consider a vector-field of parallel vectors of equal magnitude whose
positions are functions of a parameter t, and in terms of Cartesian, yr, and
curvilinear, xr, coordinates let this vector-field be represented by Y r ( t )and
X r ( t ) ,respectively. Since the components of these parallel vectors are equal
in Cartesian coordinates, they are constant with respect t o t and therefore
But
The Christofel symbol of the second kind is defined as
These three-index symbols are not tensors, as will be seen when their equa-
tions of transformation are derived. They are symmetrical in m , n , as is
easily seen since the metric tensor gmn is itself symmetric. They vanish in a
rectilinear reference system. They are of enormous importance in tensor
analysis, and they possess numerous interesting properties.
10-2. Intrinsic and Covariant Derivatives. Return now t o Eq. 10-3
and multiply it by grP(aya/ax"):

But
and its derivative therefore is (using Eq. 10-l),
aye aye - gm, by ~ q 1 0. 4 and g m d w = 6;
axm axD
also
Now, according to Eq. 9-59 the metric tensor is qr* 7aye = rnn
ax ax ax
( '] by Eqs. 10-8,10-9,lO-10

Hence Eq. 10-1 1 becomes

and upon differentiating with respect to x p there results

Any vector satisfying Eq. 10-12 is thus a parallel vector-field. But X r is a

function of the variables xr, so
By a cyclic interchange of the indices in Eq. 10-5 there are
d x-
- r axTdxn
dt axn dt
and Eq. 10-12 then becomes
122 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 10
Since this must be true for all values of dxn/dt, evidently a parallel vector-
field satisfies the equation
Now let X, be any covariant vector along a curve and let A' be an arbitrary
contravariant parallel vector-field, satisfying Eq. 10-15, along that curve.
Then (ATX,) is a n invariant and its derivative is
Since the left side of this equation is a n invariant, the right side must also
be a n invariant. Interchanging dummy indices r, m, there is the'invariant
But ATis a vector, hence by the quotient law the quantity
is a covariant vector called the intrinsic derivative of X, with respect to t and
is denoted by 6XT/6t.
I n exactly the same way the intrinsic derivative of a contravariant vector
Xr is found to be
Putting
in identity (10-19),
and, since dxs/dt is a tensor, by the quotient law the expression in square
brackets is also a tensor, contravariant in r and covariant in s. It is called.
the covariant derivative of XTand is denoted by
I n a similar way i t may be shown that
The commas in identities (10-21) and (10-22) denote differentiation.
Art. 10-31 TENSOR DIFFERENTIATION 123
By comparison with Eq. 10-15, it is seen that the condition for a vector-
field to be parallel is that its covariant derivative vanish, Xrs = 0 or X,,, = 0.
10-3. Derivatives of Tensors of Higher Valence. Let Xi, be a tensor
of valence 3 which is a function of a parameter t. If it is multiplied by three
arbitrary parallel vector-fields A,, BS, Ct, and the consequent invariant (a
function oft) is differentiated with respect to t, there results another invariant,
The intrinsic derivatives, identity (10-18) or (10-19), for each of the arbitrary
parallel vectors is equal to zero; hence by the quotient law Eq. 10-23 gives
which is the intrinsic derivative for Xi,. I n a similar fashion the intrinsic
derivatives for tensors of any valence are easily derived. The construction
is clear from Eq. 10-24, and the intrinsic derivative for higher valence
tensors may be written by inspection. Substituting
ax:,
--
ax:, axk
at axL at
in Eq. 10-24, and separating out dxk/dt, there remains a set of terms which
by the quotient law must be a t,ensor and is called the covariant derivative,
I n a Cartesian coordinate system, the metric tensor components are all
constant; the Christoffel symbols are therefore zero; and the intrinsic
derivative reduces t o the ordinary derivative, the covariant derivative
reduces to the partial derivative.
The same rules which apply to the ordinary and partial derivatives of
sums and products apply to intrinsic and covariant derivatives, for any
tensor relationship which is true in a particular reference system must be
true in every reference system. It is therefore only necessary to substitute
intrinsic or covariant differentials for ordinary or partial differentials to pass
from rectangular to curvilinear coordinate systems. Some examples are
given in Table 10-1.
 MATRICES, TENSORS, AND CIRCUITS [Ch. 10 125
Art. 10-81 TENSOR DIFFERENTIATION
TABLE 10-1
I n rectangular coordinates it reduces to
Rectangular coordinates Curvilinear coordinates

Let C: = A: + B:
dC,' dA: dB,'
:.dt=dt+dt 10-7. The Curl of a Vector. I n curvilinear coordinates the curl of a
covariant vector A , is defined as
curl A , = PtAt,, (10-32)
Let C;, = AkB;
dc;, - d A & in which there appears an operator defined by
- - -B,"1+ dB;
at dt
"
erst = qdlgmnl
where

p t =
1{ +10 when
where any two of the indices are equal
r s t is an even permutation of 1 2 3 (10-33)
1 -1when r s t is an odd permutation of 1 2 3
Kronecker delta 6; = constant I n rectangular coordinates this reduces to
as:
--
ax. - O

10-4. Divergence of a Vector. I n a rectangular system the divergence

of a contravariant vector AT is defined as

If A, is derived from a potential (Eq. 10-29), then A,,, = A,,, and

I n a curvilinear system it must then be
therefore
div AT = A', = gTsAs,, (10-28) curl grad 4 = 0 (10-35)

10-5. Gradient. If a covariant vector A , is derivable from an invariant 10-8. The Curvature Tensor. The curvature tensor is of importance in
4 (a potential function), it is called the gradient of 4, and in rectangular and electric machine theory when oscillating reference axes are encountered.
curvilinear coordinates i t is It is a generalized second partial derivative of a vector.
The covariant derivative of a vector X , is given by identity (10-22).
grad 4 = (a4 a4 , -
-, - 8 6 ) = 4,, = A , Regarding X,,, as a covariant tensor of valence 2: there follows from Eq.
ayl ay2 ay3 10-26 (leaving out the contravariant r index and then substituting r for s,
in which, for a scalar, the covariant derivative is equal to the partial deriva- s for t, and t for k)
tive

10-6. The Laplacian. The divergence of the gradient of an invariant is

called the Laplacian. By Eqs. 10-28 and 10-29, i t is
126 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. 10 Art. 10-101 TENSOR DIFFERENTIATION 127

By exchanging dummy indices this equation may be rearranged: From this expression i t is evident that

That is, i t is skew-symmetric in p, r and also in s, t.

10-9. Holonomic and Non-holonomic Systems. I n a holonomic
ace there are as many canonical equations, n, relating the variables as
Interchanging indices s and t, subtracting, and remembering that the ere are n unknown variables xu, and the transformation tensor is
Christoffel symbols are symmetric, there results

I n a non-holonomic space there are 2n unknowns ( n old variables, and

n new differentials), and they are determined from n canonical equations
a n d n equations of transformation. The transformation tensor, which is
I n a rectangular coordinate system Eq. 10-38 reduces t o zero, since a function of the differentials, is

Since the left side of Eq. 10-38 is zero for rectangular coordinates, i t must
be zero for all coordinate systems, and therefore, in all reference frames,
R",,, = 0 (10-41
The left side of Eq. 10-38 is a tensor and therefore the right side is also
a tensor, and, by the quotient law, since X , is a tensor, R!,, is also a tensor.
It is called the Riemann-Christoffel tensor. I t depends only on the metric
tensors gTs and their derivatives of the first and second orders.
The associated curvature tensor is
10-10. Transformation of the Christoffel Symbol. The Christoffel
symbol of the first kind is defined by Eq. 10-9. I t s transformation is now
sought. Let the metric tensor transform as
ga,fi,= gafiC;,C$ (10 4 9 )
in which the transformation tensor is a function of the coordinates
Also, for brevity put

Taking the partial derivative of Eq. 1 0 4 9 with respect to d'

Substituting Eq. 1 0 4 3 in Eq. 10-39 and remembering Eq. 10-10, there

finally results
and, by a cyclic interchange of the indices,

or, substituting for the Christoffel symbols,

agyTa*- -c;,cj,c;.
ab'
agya
ad
-
ax@
ac:.c;,
+ gya acy,c:,cj.+ gyac:* (10-S4)
1 28 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch.10 Art. 10-101 TENSOR DIFFERENTIATION
Add Eqs. 10-53 and 10-54 and subtract Eq. 10-52, divide each side by 2, Then by Eqs. 10-57 and 10-58, Eq. 10-56 may be expressed as
and then to the right side add and subtract

The resulting equation becomes

The last three terms are called the non-holonomic objects; they are written

na.8.,y,
= -(act
"*Y,

The term on the left is recognized as the holonomic Christoffel symbol of the
first kind in the new coordinate system. The first term on the right is
recognized as the holonomic Christoffel symbol in the old coordinates
multiplied by the three transformation tensors. The remaining terms may
now be combined by vertical pairs, and a t the same time the old g4 trans-
formed to new gatr. There results
2ad
a:) c:.c;.
axa
It is skew-symmetric in its first two indices, and it is not a tensor.
It is evident from Eq. 10-59 that the holonomic Christoffel symbol is not
a tensor, since its transformation involves terms other than the transforma-
tion tensors.
If the non-holonomic objects are moved to the left sid; of the equation,
there results an identity called the afine connection:

I n a holonomic reference frame, where Eq. 1 0 4 7 applies, the non-holonomic

obiects vanish and

But, in these combinations, I From Eq. 10-61 it is seen that the affine connection in holonomic space
is the same as the Christoffel symbol whose law of transformation is
I
Also, since the derivative of any of the expressions in (10-57) is zero, there
is, for example,
-
But, in non-holonomic space, the non-holonomic objects appear on the left.

co'cB .-. C", - aca'

acj. = - 2
8 @ ' - - go; (10-58)
8
axa axa C j ,
 Art. 1 1-31 SPECIAL A N D USEFUL ARTIFICES 13 1

11-2. T h e "Short-Circuit" M a t r i ~ . ~ If - ~ only a single winding is

short-circuited, say winding R, then in Eq. 11-1 put j = R and k = R and
ej = 0, and let indices (u,v) include all the remaining indices except R. Then

0 = zRRiR + z&iV
from which
SPECIAL A N D USEFUL ARTIFICES
ZRR
and, substituting in Eq. 11-2,
A number of helpful artifices are used in circuit and machine analysis.
Rather than introduce them as they occur in the development of machine
theory, it seems better to assemble them here in a single chapter so that they
This expression follows also from Eq. 11-4 upon substituting e j = 0, j =
can be more conveniently referred to.
k = R, and ykj = (zRR)-l = l/zRn
-
I I I. T h e "Short-Ci rcuit T h e ~ r e r n . " e - ~This is simply the procedure Thus a new matrix, with row R and column R deleted, and having elements
which has frequently been used in this book for the simultaneous elimination
of several rows and columns in a matrix or tensor equation. It consists of an zuRZR,
= ZUV - - (11-10)
appropriate partitioning of the matrix equation so that the variables not
ZRR
needed can be eliminated. Thus, if there are n variables and those up to m defines the retained axes.
are to be eliminated, the partitioned equations are The advantage of this method over the previous method is that the inverse
of a matrix need not be calculated. The disadvantage is that the procedure
must be repeated for every axis eliminated.
11-3. Lauder's Rule.45 A. H. Lauder has given an interesting and
in which indices (j,k) range from 1 to m and indices (u.v) from (nz + 1) to n . practical rule for the elimination of reference axes. To establish his rule, let
A7:3 be the cofactor of z,, in the determinant D = IzIkl, so that
Solving Eq. 11-1 for the currents ik,

Substituting Eq. 11-3 in Eq. 11-2 and rearranging, Eq. 11-4 may then be rewritten

and substituting Eq. 11-5 in Eq. 11-3, But the numerators in this equation may Be recognized as the expansion of
the following "bordered determinants,"* so that the equation becomes

By Eq. 11-5 any set of currents may be solved for, and then if the remain-
ing set of currents is required, Eq. 11-6 may be used.
It is often preferable, in eliminating variables by the procedure above,
to do so one a t a time, for then the inverse matrices are much easier to com- As long as the determinants do not become unwieldy, this is a fast and simple
pute. procedure.
If, as often happens, the set of voltages e, = 0 (as in short-circuit prob- When the voltages (el . . e,,) are all zero, as for amortisseur windings or
lems), then the corresponding terms drop out of Eqs. 11-5 and 11-6 and the ground wires, the first term, e l , drops out.
calculations are greatly simplified.
130
* See NcConnel1.l p. 19.
 MATRICES. TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I I Art. I I d ] SPECIAL A N D USEFUL ARTIFICES 133

Finally, for el = e2 = 0, let the result be confirmed by eliminating one

axis a t a time (by Eq. 11-10). First put R = 1, so that

Fig. 11-1
As a simple example take the case of Fig. 11-1 in which there is a generator Applying Eq. 11-10 again to eliminate axis 2 :
on winding 3 and loads on 1 and 2. The impedance matrix, partitioned t o
permit elimination of the short-circuited axes, is

which checks with the results found by the other methods.

1 1-4. Elimination of Complex number^.^-^ Complex numbers may
be dispensed with in favor of real numbers a t the price of doubling the
number of rows and columns in a matrix equation.
The voltage drop in an impedance is

Arranging in matrix form, with the first row or column referring to real
quantities and the second row or column to imaginary values, gives

in which (1) and (2)now refer to real and imaginary components, respectively.
For example, the complex matrices of a polyphase induction motor are

= (z33 -
213222231 - 213232221 + 223211232 - 223212231
211222 - '12221
Or the same result may be obtained from Lauder's rule (Eq. 11-13) :
134 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I I Art. I 1-81 SPECIAL A N D USEFUL ARTIFICES 135

11-5. T h e Polyphase Matrix. I n balanced polyphase circuits having velocities may be fractions v, v,, v2 of synchronous speed. Then (dispensing
symmetrical polyphase windings and balanced voltages and currents, only with Re)
one phase needs to be dealt with explicitly, since the variables in any other pi = jhWIEjhWt (11-20)
phase are the same except for a phase displacement. Let there be P phases
and N coordinates per phase. The time displacement between adjacent -1 . = -
1 lEihot (11-21)
phases then is 2.rrlP or 2(x - 1)n-/Pbetween phase xand thereference phase 1. P jho
Or, in general,
Then, if indices (r, s) apply to the reference phase and indices ( m , n ) to all
= EEj(hmt+a)
= Z(P, PO, ~ 0 1P02)i
phases, any current is ,
in = E-32;r(z-l)/P 8 (*-1pfsis
n = PsniS (11-15) = Z(jho, v o , vlo, v 2 0 ) I ~ j h w t ( 11-22)
in which P," is the polyphase matrix ~ - ~ ~ " ( ~ - ' ) ~ ~The
6 ~voltage
~ - , , ~ + ~ . and, canceling the exponentials, the a-c relationship
equation then is
(11-16)
E =- Z(jhw, v o , v,o, v2w)I ( 11-23)
em = Zmnin= ZmnP:iS
results. For example, if

Z,,
For the reference phase (x = l ) ,
= Z,.
= 6; and in = i s , em = e,, and
I n rotating machine analysis often P = 4 and N = 2; thens
Z(p)= R + LP + Mp0
and i = Idhmtand p0 = vw, then

11-7. Product Frequencies. The product of two sinusoidally varying

quantities of different frequencies yields two terms whose frequencies are
the sums and differences of the parent frequencies. Thus, if
11-6. Substitution for the T i m e Derivative. The impedances of y, = $(A cos o,t - B sin w,t)
static networks and machines usually involve the time derivative and its y, =J ~ (cos
c w2t - D sin o p t )
inverse : then
d
p = - and -
at
1
P
=St
dt + +
yly2 = [(AC - BD) cos (o, 02)t - (BC AD) sin (ol w2)t]
+ +
+
[(AC BD) cos (w, - w2)t - (BC - A D ) sin (o,- 0 2 ) t ]
For example, in a n R, L, C series circuit, the impedance is
(11-25)
The coefficients in the product above are given correctly by the products of
the following complex numbers :
I n addition, in the impedance functions of machine theory, the mechanical
angular velocities of the moving conductors, p0, moving reference axes, pel,, Y , = ( A - jB),l +
Y: = ( A jBIm1 ( 1 1-26)
and moving magnetic paths, PO,, are encountered.
The solutions for the transient case are found by treating the impedances
Y 2 =( C - jDL2 +
y2* = (C jQoZ

in the Heaviside operator, or Laplace transform, sense in the usual way. Y 1 Y 2= [(AC - BD) - j ( A D + BC)1!m1+m2, (11-27)
I n steady-state a-c cases the instantaneous value of a current may be Y,Y,*= [(AC + BD) - j(BC - AD)1(,1-m2) ( 11-28)
expressed
11-8. C r i t e r i a of Stability. When a disturbance superimposed on a
i= I cos hmt = Re Iejhmt (11-19) dynamic system induces an oscillation, the oscillation may die out as a result
in which w = 2n-f is the synchronous (or base) value, and h is the fraction of of the damping effects of the losses in the system, or may be sustained
the synchronous value a t which the current is varying (as, for example, indefinitely, or may cumulatively increase in amplitude. I n the latter case
during hunting or a t subsynchronous speed). Likewise, the mechanical the system reaches its limit of stability and falls out of synchronism.
136 MATRICES, TENSORS, A N D CIRCUITS [Ch. I I Art. 11-81 SPECIAL A N D USEFUL ARTIFICES

I n an electrodynamic system, such as an electric machine, the equation of Hurwitz's criterion for stability requires that
small oscillations takes the form
1. All the coefficients a be positive.
Ae, = Z,, Ais ( 1 1-29) 2. The n determinants
in which the determinant of is a function of the time derivative p of the
form
IT,^( = anpn + an-lpn-l + . . + alp + a0 (11-30)
When equated to zero, this is the characteristic equation of the system, and
its roots define the characteristic values which determine the nature of the
transient. I n general, roots will occur which are pairs of complex numbers
of the type ( a fj o ) , and they give rise t o terms in the solution of the form formed by letting k be 1 , 2, . . . , n in succession be positive.

eat sin (ot + /3) (11-31)

When a is negative, the oscillation dies out; when a is zero, the oscillation is
sustained; and, when a is positive, the oscillation increases in amplitude.
When (11-30) is a polynomial of high degree, it is difficult, or time consuming,
to determine the roots. A number of criteria have been developed for ready
determination of the nature of the roots without actually solving for them.
Routh's criterion applies when the a coefficients are all real numbers. The
procedure in applying this criterion follows.
1. Arrange the coefficients in pairs :

2. Cross-multiply the even coefficient, a,, in the first column by each of

the odd coefficients in the other columns; and also multiply the odd coef-
ficient, a,, in the first column by the even coefficients in the other columns,
and form the combinations bl = a4a3- a5a2, b2 = a4al - a5ao, etc., and
make the new arrangement
a4 a2 a0
bl b2
3. Cross-multiply aga,in to form
c1 = bla2 - a4b2 c2 = blao
and make the new arrangement
b, b2
Cl c2
4. Continue to cross-multiply and make new arrangements until no more
products can be formed.
5 . If all the coefficients are positive, the system is stable. If any of the
coefficients is negative, the system is unstable.
 Part I1

MACHINE ANALYSIS
 BASIC CONCEPTS I N
ELECTRIC MACHINES

The complete analysis of any rotating electrical machine leads to the

development of the following equations, but not necessarily in this order.
1 . The equation of mmf, including the effects of the various field excita-
tions, armature reactions, and currents induced in short-circuited (amortis-
seur) windings; and taking into account the way in which the several
windings are connected (number of turns, coil pitch, skew of conductors,
distribution, and connections).
2 . The equation of $ux, in terms of the mmf's and permeances of the
magnetic paths; or, alternatively, in terms of the currents and the self- and
mutual inductances of the windings.
3. The equation of voltage, showing the way in which voltage is induced in
the windings by variation of the fluxes, movement of the conductors, and
movement of the magnetic paths.
4. The impedance equation, relating the voltages and the currents through
generalized impedance functions (motional impedance; synchronous,
transient, and subtransient impedances in direct and quadrature axes; etc.)
5 . The equation of torque, showing the force due to interactions between
the currents and the flux densities.
6 . The equation of motion, combining the equation of voltage and the
equation of torque into a composite expression which may be derived from
energy considerations or general laws (Lagrange equation, Hamiltonian
principle, Boltzmann-Hamel equation, Maxwell-Lorentz equation, etc.)
7. The equation of oscillations, expressing the effects of oscillating motion
of conductors, oscillating reference axes, and perturbations in the currents,
fluxes, and voltages.
8. The equation of power, showing the power inputs, outputs, and losses.
These equations may be developed from several different points of view, and
by employing quite different concepts, and their forms may be quite different,
subject to widely different physical interpretations, yet yield identical
numerical results.
It is the purpose of the remainder of this book to examine the ways in
which electric machine theory may be developed from the most general and
comprehensive points of view, to reconcile the results, and to show how the
141
142 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 12 Art. 12-11 BASIC CONCEPTS I N ELECTRIC MACHINES 143

general solutions may be applied to special cases. To this end, certain The total flux linked with the coil a t any instant then is
simplifying assumptions need to be made in the interest of economy of time
and space. I n particular, the analysis will be idealized t o the extent that i t
will be assumed that:
in which K , = sin (pn/2) is the pitch coefficient. The average value of a
1. There is no saturation in the magnetic paths. sinusoid is 2/3r times its amplitude, and the area in this case is 71, so that
2. Hysteresis and eddy current losses in the iron may be ignored or else Eq. 12-2 may be expressed in terms of the flux @ = (2/3r)dB:
included in fictitious circuits.
3. Stray losses in the adjoining structures or frame may be ignored.
4. Space harmonics in the distribution of flux do not exist or may be
ignored. in which @ = @ ( t ) , xo = xo(t),and y = y(t) are all functions of time.
5. Time harmonics in the voltages, currents, and fluxes do not exist
under steady-state conditions or may be ignored.
6. The effects of armature reaction and of field flux distribution are
sinusoidally distributed in the air gap space. (This, of course, is equivalent
to assumption 4, but it is restated in this form for emphasis. This assumption
is essentially true in a properly designed machine in which the windings and
magnetic paths are properly distributed.)
7. The winding reduction factors, such as the skew, pitch, distribution,
and connection coefficients, are incorporated in the "effective" turns of a
winding and need not be shown explicitly.
Fig. 12-1.
8. The windings on a magnetic structure (the stator or rotor) are sym-
metrically placed with respect to a reference axis, and are balanced (that is, By Faraday's law the voltage induced in the coil is
each group of windings or phase is like the others).
12-1. T h e Fundamental Voltage E q u a t i ~ n . ~ ~The . ~ l form of the
equation of voltage and its physical interpretation depends on the choice of
the arbitrary reference axis. I n order t o obtain as general and versatile an
expression as possible, and one from which the process of induction in any
machine follows as a special case, i t will be assumed that with respect to the
reference axis :
1. The flux density, sinusoidally distributed in space, is varying in time This equation shows that a voltage may be induced in the coil in three
in any arbitrary manner. different ways :
2. The flux density distribution is moving. 1. By variation of the flux (the so-called transformer component), with
3. The winding is moving. both the coil and flux stationary in position, d@/dt.
Fig. 12-1 shows a coil of N turns, axial length I, and coil pitch p centered 2. By movement of the conductors (the so-called "cutting action"), with
a t xo(t),a function of time t, with respect to a n arbitrary reference axis, and the flux momentarily fixed and unvarying, dxo/dt.
moving with respect to an arbitrary reference axis with a velocity dxo/dt. 3. By movement of the flux, with its amplitude and the position of the
This coil is linked with a sinusoidal flux density distribution of wavelength coil momentarily fixed, dyldt.
27 given by It is obvious from Eq. 1 2 4 that, if the reference axis is taken as
/I = B sin (z
- y)
T
(12-1) fixed to the flux wave, then dy/dt = 0, and there is no component of
voltage induced by movement of the flux;
and whose amplitude B(t), and displacement y(t) from the reference axis are, fixed on the coil, then dxo/dt = 0, and there is no component of voltage
in general, functions of time t. due to cutting action.
 Art. 12-21 BASIC CONCEPTS I N ELECTRIC MACHINES 145
144 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. I 2

Thus the appearance or vanishing of a component of voltage can often be
made t o depend only on the arbitrary selection of the reference axi~,~Os~l
and
consequently the physical interpretation must change with the selection of
the axis.
Put 8 = r x 0 / r and p = dldt, and take the flux density distribution as
stationary with respect to the reference axis so that dyldt = 0. Then Eq.
1 2 4 reduces t o
axes. I t is clear that, if a current flows in a winding through the brushes in
the direct axis, the resulting axis of magnetization is also in the direct axis.
For a single stator layer and a single rotor layer let the currents be id', ids,
iQr,iqsand the self- and mutual inductances be L,,, Lds, La,, Lqs, Md, Ma.
This simplifying variation of tensor notation avoids a complicated ranking of
subscripts and superscripts. There is, of course, no mutual inductance between
windings in quadrature (90" apart in space), and for simplicity i t is assumed
that the mutual inductance in an axis is the same for all windings. Then the
resultant fluxes linked with the rotor in the two axes are

in which the effective turns N are now assumed t o include the effects of coil
pitch, skew, distribution, and connection of coils in a group.
12-2. Direct and Quadrature Axes. I n machine analysis i t is often
advisable, and sometimes necessary (as in the case of salient pole machines),
The positions of these two fluxes with respect to the reference axis are
indicated in Fig. 12-3, and by comparison with Fig. 12-1 the following
identifications are easily made :

y = -90" for q5dT

y = 0 for 4a,
8= 0 for coil (or brush) on d-axis
8= 90" for coil (or brush) on q-axis
p 8 = velocity of rotation from d- to q-axis
Inserting Eqs. 12-6 and 12-7 in Eq. 12-5, with due regard to Eqs. 12-8, the
voltages are found to be
Quadrature axis
___)

-
- +
- i r ) ( ~ ~ ~ i Mdids)
~' sin (0 + 90) + (Ld,idT+ Mjds)p8cos (0 + 90)]

u
= + lWqiqs)sin (0 + 0) + (L,,iaT+ 1M,iaJ)p8cos (0 + O)]
-[p(Lq,iqT

Fig. 12-2. Direct and quadrature axes and coil designation. .'. ed, = -Li)(LdTidT+ Mdids)+ (LqTiqT + MqiqS)p8]
t o select a pair of axes centered on the field poles (or main axis of magnetiza-
= -Li)4dT + +gT~el (12-9)

tion in the machine) and in quadrature (half a pole pitch) therefrom. These e,, (due to 4dT)

two orthogonal axes are called the direct (d) and quadrature (q) axes, respec- = -@(Ld,idr + Mdids)sin (90 + 90) + (Ld,idT+ Mdids)p8cos (90 + go)]
tively.
Fig. 12-2 shows a symmetrical machine t o which are attached direct and
quadrature axes, labeled d and q, respectively. The stator (or stationary)
coils are designated by s l , 82, etc., counting from the air gap outward. The
= +
--[p(Lq,iQT MaiaS)sin (90 + 0) + (LaTiar+ M,iaS)p8cos (90 + o)]
rotor (or moving) coils are designated by r l , r2, etc., counting from the air .'. ear = -[p(Lq,iqT + MaiaS)- (LdridT+ Mdids)p]0
gap inward. To fix ideas, brushes are shown on the rotor windings in both = -[PA' - 4dTp81 (12-10)
146 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 12 Art. 12-31 BASIC CONCEPTS I N ELECTRIC MACHINES
147
The first term in Eq. 12-9 is a n induced voltage due t o the variation of the Hence the torque on the coil of Fig. 12-1, if the air gap radius is R,is
flux. The second term is a generated voltage due to the movement (PO) of the
rotating conductors cutting the flux. The corresponding (space) vector
diagram shown in Fig. 1 2 4 follows directly from Eqs. 12-6, 7, 9, and 10.

But 27rR/r = P, the number of poles, and, as before, (2/7r)71Bis the flux per
pole. Therefore Eq. 12-13 becomes, putting 8 = (7rx0/r)and absorbing the
pitch factor K, in t,he "effective" turns I?,

Fig. 12-3. Fig. 12-4. Components of induced and The machine torques on the rotor for the several fluxes (Eqs. 12-6 and
generated voltages. 12-7) and rotor currents (per pair of poles and in terms of flux linkages)
then are: for &,, y = -90°, and iqT,8 = 90°,
These equations may be arranged as matrices (taking for simplicity a single
stator layer and a single rotor layer of windings), and including the resistances f - z'" ( L id'
-- + Maids)cos (90 + 90) = --iW(LdTidr+ 1%faids)(12-15)
of the windings : for #,,, y = 0, and idT,0 = 0,

ds dr Pr P
+
fi = idT(LgTiqrMgigs)cos +~
(0 - 0) = idT(Lqriqr & f ~ (12-16)
j ~ ~ )
for y = -90, and id', 8 = 0,
-Tds - Ld# -"d~ 0 0

-Mdp -rv - Ldrp -L W P ~ -Mope

f3 = idT(Ldjdr + Naids)cos (0 + 90) = 0 (12-17)
for #,,, y = 0, and igT,8 = 90,
&PO Ldr~e -rv - lor^ -%P

0 0 -Map -'US -L08~

+
f4 = igT(Lq,ig' .&fgigs) cos (90 - 0) = 0 (12-18)
Thus, as could have been anticipated, no torque is developed between fluxes
+ gene + gen. ind. t
( ind. 7
ind.
I
Y 4
ind.
J.
gen.
+
gen.
and currents in the same axis. There are, of course, torques on the stator
also, but these do not produce power and are ignored.
(12-11) The torque equations may be arranged in matrix form:
Thus the voltage equation takes the matrix form

but now the impedance Zaphas been generalized to include not only resistances
and inductances but also the effects of rotation.
12-3. The Fundamental Torque Equation. The force on a current-
carrying conductor of length 1in a magnetic field of density and a t a n angle
1therewith, by the law of Biot-Savart is
P = Bli sin 1
Although the torque is an invariant (tensor of zero valence), nevertheless
i t may be considered a vector in the direction of the machine shaft if a
suitable index is attached. The same index may be used with angular
velocity vectors. This artifice will permit the consolidation of the torque
and voltage equations into a single equation of motion, as will be shown in
(12-12) subsequent chapters.
1 48 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 12

12-4. The Energy Relationships. The stored magnetic energy in a

system with self- and mutual inductance Lab is
W, = +La,i"ip (12-20)
The electric energy dissipated in the resistance is
W e = Ra,iai@ (12-21) THE QUASI-HOLONOMIC
The kinetic energy stored in the rotating parts of moments of inertia Jab GENERALIZED MACHINE
and angular velocities o" is
W o = &JaSoad (12-22)
The mechanical energy dissipated by friction will be taken as
Of the three methods of analysis which will be discussed in detail in
Wf = raPw"oB (12-23) Chapter 16, the approach which is the most easily set up and which best lends
These quadratic functions will be made use of in subsequent work. itself to a simple physical picture is through an application of the Maxwell-
Lorentz equations in a quasi-holonomic reference frame. The Maxwell-
PROBLEMS Lorentz equations are the extension of Maxwell's equations (which are true
only for stationary media) to moving electrodynamic media. I n fundamental
12-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail every step in machine theory they are Eqs. 1 2 4 and 12-5, which are simply Faraday's
the derivations. law extended to the case of moving conductors in a moving and varying
12-2. Identify the separate terms of Eq. 12-4 in the following mechines and field. The quasi-holonomic reference frame uses as coordinates the direct
circumstances: and quadrature (d and q) axes attached to the machine field. The correspond-

I Voltage ing generalized (or primitive) machine has multilayer windings on both stator
Machine .Reference Axes on Desired and rotor, as indicated in Fig. 12-2. The resulting equation of voltage is of the
type given by Eq. 12-11, and the equation of torque is of the type given by
Transformer Core Winding Eq. 12-19. These developments will now be described in greater detail.
D-c generator Field Armature
Field Armature 13-1. The Generalized Machine (Primitive Machine of the First
Syn. generator
Syn. generator Armature Armature Kind).7@923~~~ The generalized machine with quasi-holonomic reference axes
Induction motor Stator Rotor consists of a cylindrical stator with salient poles and a cylindrical rotor, each
Induction motor Rotor Rotor with any number of concentric layers of windings. I n each winding layer
Induction motor Rotating field Rotor on the stator there are separate coils centered on the direct and quadrature
axes. I n each winding layer on the rotor there is a pair of brushes (hypotheti-
cal perhaps) centered on the direct axis and another pair of brushes centered
on the quadrature axis. Currents idflow in the direct axis coils or brushes,
and currents iqflow in the quadrature axis coils or brushes.
It is assumed that the windings are so designed (coil skew, pitch, and
distribution) that the mmf produced by a current through a brush axis is
sinusoidally distributed in space and centered on the brush axis. The signi-
ficance of this assumption is that the mmf along any brush axis may then be
resolved into components along orthogonal directions upon multiplying by
cos a: and sin a:, where a: is the angle of brush shift. Likewise, a voltage
existing along a brush axis may be resolved into components. Only in this
way may voltages, currents, and mmf's be conceived of as space vectors
resolvable into direct and quadrature components; see Pig. 13-1.
149
 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 13 Art. 13-21 THE GENERALIZED MACHINE 151

A rotor winding layer may be represented by any of the diagrams in Fig.

L id
Fig. 13-1. Current and voltage components as space vectors.
Fig. 13-2. Different representations for a rotor winding layer. (The brush is
the axis of magnetization.)
13-2, but in the interest of simplicity the last one will be used hereafter.
Brushes are shown on both the direct and the quadrature axes. Actual
brushes are used only on commutating machines, but hypothetical brushes
are imagined to permit visualization of the axes along which voltages and
currents are defined.
A generalized (or primitive) machine with two layers of windings on both
the stator and the rotor is illustrated in alternative forms in Fig. 13-3. The
case of a machine with more layers is obvious. The direct and quadrature
axes are as shown, and rotation is clockwise (c.w.). Equations will be set up
originally for a generator. The generalized machine described here is identical,
as a matter of fact, with the machine envisaged by the two-reaction theory
of synchronous machines as developed by Blondel, Doherty and Nickle, and
by Park. But Kron extended the concept to include a large variety of
machines-synchronous, induction, and commutating.
13-2. The Equation of Voltage. There is no loss of generality in
restricting the analysis to one winding layer on the stator and one on the
rotor, for additional layers merely add additional terms of an obvious nature
t o the analysis. If needed, the equations for a multilayer machine may be
written by inspection and without difficulty. The voltage equation for this
case has already been derived in Eq. 12-11, and the various generated and
induced voltage components, shown in Fig. 1 2 4 . But in commutating
machines the proportionality factors (inductances) between currents and
generated voltages due to rotation are somewhat different from the propor-
tionality factors between currents and induced voltages due to transformer
action, because the assumption of pure sinusoidal distribution in space is
not exact. For this reason, in the interests of accuracy, a distinction needs
t o be made in the inductance coefficients of Eq. 12-11 by priming those
associated with generated voltages. Eq. 12-11 may then be rewritten:

This equation was set up for a generator with rotating armature, C.W.
jdrl
rotation, and q-axis ahead of the d-axis. It is now necessary to see what
changes need t o be made for a motor instead of a generator, if the direction
(a) (b)
of rotation be reversed, if the field instead of the armature is the rotating
Fig. 13-3. The generalized machine with t w o stator and t w o rotor winding element, or if the q-axis is behind the d-axis.
layers.
152 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 13 Art. 13-21 THE GENERALIZED M A C H I N E 153
I n the case of a motor, either the voltages are reversed (that is, impressed The modifications in the basic impedance tensor for a generator (Eq. 13-l),
voltages are substituted for output voltages) or the currents are reversed occasioned by changing the direction of rotation p8, the position of the d-
(for given terminal voltages the currents flow in the opposite direction). and q-axes, from rotating armature to rotating field, or from generator to
Thus the equation of voltage for a motor becomes
TABLE 13-1
Changes Effected by Reversal of Direction of Rotation,
Axes, or Currents
and, therefore, all that is necessary is to change the signs of all terms in the
Member Axes
- Change in Zap
Field / Armature
-
2'
of Eq. 13-1

Stationary Rotating C.W. Right No change.

-
If the direction of rotation is reversed, i t is only necessary to substitute Stationary Rotating C.C.W. Right Change
terms.signs of pi
-p8 for p8 in the impedance matrix.
--
If the q-axis is reversed, then the direction of rotation is reversed and i t
is necessary to change the sign of p8 in the impedance matrix. Thus Eq. Stationary Rotating C.W. Left Change signs o f p ~
terms.
13-3 would become
--
de dr qr 'P
Change signs of ;o(
ds rd8 + L d 8 ~ M d ~ 0 0 Stationary Rotating C.W. Down Right
terms.

-
d+
.
MdP r, + LdVP -L;d -M;pe
Zmotor - (134)
qr M;Pe Lkpe r, + LavP Map Change signs of p(
terms; see Eq
Rotating Stationary C.W. Right
q* 0 0 Map + L,,P 13-5 for a

-I
T,. motor.

If the field is the rotating element and is rotating c.w., then relative to
the field the armature is rotating counterclockwise (c.c.w.), so that in Eq. Change signs of
Any of above all terms; see
13-1 for a generator, or in Eq. 13-3 for a motor, i t is necessary to substitute Eq. 13-3.
-p8 for p8. For example,
motor, are given in Table 13-1. For example, what changes are necessary
in Eq. 13-1 to adapt i t to a revolving field motor, C.C.W.
rotation, and q-axis
t o the left ?

1. Change signs of p0 terms for a revolving field. ( -)

2. Change signs of p e terms for C.C.W. rotation. (+I
3. Change signs of pe terms for q-axis to left. (-)
4. Change signs of all terms to convert to a motor. (-)
where now df and qf have replaced ds and qs for the field, and da and qa have
replaced dr and qr for the armature. The net result then is: change signs of all terms except the p8 terms.
154 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 13 Art. 13-31 THE GENERALIZED M A C H I N E

The impedance matrices for machines with more than one winding layer in which the $us-linkage vector is

R +
on the stator and on the rotor, as well as for the case of zero sequence currents, ds LdsidS Mdid7
will be introduced under appropriate machine headings. For example, a
synchronous generator may have several amortisseur windings in both the dr Mdida+ Ld7idT
+a = Lapis =
direct and the quadrature axes, and zero sequence currents may flow in
addition to the d- and q-component currents.
qr Lqliqp+ Mqigb
For certain reasons it is sometimes advantageous to rearrange the rows
and columns of the impedance ma,trix. Where this is indicated in the analysis
qsI Mqiqr + LqsigE 1
and the cross-flux vector is
of particular machines, the changes will be made without apology.
13-3. Components of the Impedance T e n ~ o r . ~ A 2The ~ J ~impedance
matrix of the generalized machine may be broken down into three component
matrices :

1. The resistance matrix, comprising all resistance terms.

2. The inductance matrix, comprising all terms having p as a coefficient.
3. The torque matrix, comprising all terms having p0 as a coefficient.
The torque equation becomes, as seen from Eq. 12-18,
Thus Eq. 13-3 becomes

However, since ya has zero elements in its ds- and qs-axes, i t must be multi-
plied only by rotor currents in Eq. 13-12, so that if indices (r, m ) refer to the
rotor and (s)to the stator,
T = iaG
aS
ip
= ir(Grm + Grs)(im+ is)
= irGr,jm + irGrsis (13-1 3)
in which

Qap =
d
ds

/
qr - M :
r
--
dr

-hir
m
-
-
dr
qr
l

qr - M &
qs

rlrl
ds qs

dr

9.
dr

--Ad,
qr

= Q,, + Q,, (13-14)

The reaction torque of a salient pole machine is

so that the impedance tensor may be written

zap = Rap f Lapp f Gap~e (13-7)

But, if the air gap is smooth (non-salient poles), Lir = LA,. and the reaction
The voltage equation for a motor then is torque reduces t o zero. The only torque in the smooth air gap machine is
then
Tsmooth= irGrsis
= idrlviiqS -
iqrMP (13-16)
156 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 13 Art. 13-41 T H E GENERALIZED M A C H I N E 157
I n the case of non-commutating machines, the primes may be omitted Multiplication of a vector in the moving reference frame ( a , b)-say the
in the torque matrix, and i t is then seen that this matrix may be obtained current vector ia'-by Eq. 13-20 expresses this vector in the stationary
&om the inductance matrix by the following changes: reference frame ( d , q) without changing its direction or magnitude; thus
1. The dr row of Gap is the same as the qr column of L,,. ia = C,".ia'= (iacos 8, - i bsin 8,)d + (iasin 8, + i bcos 8,)q
2. The qr row of Gd is the negative of the dr column of L@. = idd + iqq (13-22)
This is equivalent to rotating the pertinent columns of the L,, matrix counter- On the other hand, multiplication of the vector by Eq. 13-21 gives
clockwise 90" so that
c a p = Y;% (13-17)
where

Comparison of Eqs. 13-22 and 13-23 clearly shows that the q component
of ia has become the negative d component of ia, and the d component of ia
has become the q component of iu; that is, the vector ia has been rotated in
the positive direction of 8, by 90" (Fig. 1 3 4 ) .
If, now, Eq. 13-21 is multiplied by the inverse of Eq. 13-20, there results

Similarly,

The tensor y z is the rotation tensor. It rotates a vector with which i t is

and multiplication by this matrix will also rotate a vector by positive 90'.
multiplied by 90' in space. It possesses the group property, as shown in The inverse of Eq. 13-24 is
Table 9-2 on p. 108.
It will be shown directly (in Eq. 13-32) that the transformation from
stationary ( d , q) to moving ( a , 6 ) reference frames is effected by a transforma-
tion tensor,

which is the matrix of Eq. 13-18 and rotates a vector with which it is multi-
CI = (13-20) plied in the negative direction by 90".
q sin 0 , cos 0 ,
The matrices (13-24) and (13-25) are elements of the group

in which 8, is the angular displacement, as a function of time t, of the moving

axes with respect t o the stationary axes. The angle of the moving axes is
not necessarily the same as the angular displacement, 8, of the rotor. The
derivative of CE, is
13-4. Transformation of the Primitive Machine.698s23924 There are
* a number of routine transformations to which the primitive machine is
ac;, subjected in passing to particular machines in its group. They are assembled
- - (13-21) in this chapter for ready reference. Each such transformation attracts a
a01
transformation tensor C:, to the voltages, currents, and impedances of the
 158 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 13 Art. 13-81 THE GENERALIZED MACHINE

.:,
equation of performance so that The transformation tensor therefore is
ia = cz,ia' (13-27) b

ea, = C:,e, (13-28) =

=C ; , ~ . Z = ~ (13-29) (13-32)
q sin 0, cos 0,
13-5. Turn-Ratio Transformation. The constants of the primitive
machine may have been calculated, or determined experimentally, for certain The current vector ia in the stationary reference frame has the same
turns on each winding (say, equal turns for all windings). The connections magnitude and direction as the current vector ia' in the moving reference
frame, but of course the components are different in the two frames. Indeed,
the components (id,iq) are constant if ia is constant, whereas the components
(ia,i b ) change with time in accordance with the relationships
ia = ia cos (u - 01) (13-33)
i b = i a sin (U - el) (13-34)
13-7. Slip Rings. Slip rings are connected t o fixed points on the
revolving armature. If the armature is rotating with a n angular displace-
ment 0, a function of time, the projections of the current vector ia on the d-
and q-axes give the transformation tensor :
a

Fig. 13-4. Fig. 13-5. Stationary and moving refer-

ence axes.
of the windings of a n actual machine will then require that the turn ratios
be taken into account. If the windings are (a, b, e, d, . . . ) and the turns are This may be regarded as a special case of moving reference axes (Eq.
---
in the ratio ( 1 :n, :n, :n, : ), the appropriate transformation tensor is 13-32), in which the a-axis is attached t o the slip ring connection and rotates
with it, so that O1 = 8. If there is an additional set of slip ring connections
a' b c' d' in quadrature, then the transformation tensor is identical with Eq. 13-32
(upon putting O1 = 8 ) .
13-8. Brush Shift. The brushes of the primitive machine are on the
d- and q-axes. I n an actual machine the brushes may be shifted by some
angle a or /3. Since the fundamental assumption of sinusoidally distributed
currents and voltages was put down a t the outset, the component of current
in any axis is simply the projection of the space current vector on that axis.
Thus in Fig. 13-7 the current i m through brushes shifted a t an angle a from
13-6. Moving Reference Axes. The primitive machine has stationary the d-axis has components
d- and q-axes. Let a new set of orthogonal moving axes, (a, b), be chosen and if = i m cos u
let the displacement of the new axes from the stationary axes be 8,(t), a i: = i" sin u
function of time t. Since the voltages, currents, and fluxes in the ideal
generalized machine are assumed to be sinusoidally distributed in space, a
and the current i n through brushes a t a n angle (90' + /3) has components
component in any direction is simply the projection of the space vector on i,d = -in sin /I
that direction. Thus in Fig. 13-5 the current ia has components (id,67 on ,
a - - i n cos
the stationary axes and components (ia, ib) on the moving axes, and these' The total direct and currents therefore are
are related by id = i m cos u - i n sin
id = ia cos 8, - i bsin 8,
iQ= ia sin 8, +
i b cos 8,
(13-31) iQ= i m sin u + i n cos /I
160 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 13 Art. 13-12] THE GENERALIZED M A C H I N E 161

and the transformation matrix is 13-1 1. Successive Transformations. Any number of transformations
m "n may be made in succession-turn ratios, brush shifts, coil displacements,
- sin

If the pairs of brushes are a t right angles,?! , = a.

If there are brushes only on the a-axis, the n-column may be deleted.
If there are several pairs of brushes a t angles a,, a,, a,, . . . , the trans-
formation matrix is

(13-37)
sin a, sin cc, Fig. 13-8. Displaced stator coil. Fig. 13-9.

interconnections, etc.-and the effects of each may be considered separately;

or an over-all transformation tensor may be established in accordance with
the group property :
q,"= c:,c$?$ . . - (1340)
13-12. Steady-State Calculations. Under steady-state a-c conditions,
certain substitutions are made in the impedance matrix of the generalized
machine. I n particular, iff is the fundamental machine frequency, w = 2rf,
and
actual speed
v=
synchronous speed
Fig. 13-6. Slip rings. Fig. 13-7. Brush shifts. then
d
jw replaces p = - (1342)
13-9. Displacement of a Stator Coil. The current of a stator coil dt
displaced by a n angle a from the d-axis (Fig. 13-8) has components given by vw replaces pB
the transformation matrix and
8 pL = j w L = jX

,C
: = (13-38)

13-10. Interconnection of Coils. Stator and rotor coils may be If the a-c currents are given as rms valnes, the torque, in synchronous
interconnected in any fashion. New currents may be selected and the trans- watts, is
formation matrix set up in the usual way. For example, in Fig. 13-9
T,., = ~ . e (~LGJ) (1345)

and the torque, in pound-feet, is

33,000 (No. of poles)
T= Tm (13-47)
4rf60 x 746
162 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 13 Art. 13-14] THE GENERALIZED M A C H I N E 163

13-13. The Equation of P o ~ e r . ~ 9 The~ . ~electric

~ $ ~ power
~ input to 8. The steady-state analysis based on stationary axes, and the derivation
the machine (motor) follows from Eq. 13-8 as of the equations of performance (voltages, currents, torques).
9. The elimination of short-circuited axes.
di fl 10. The elimination of axes by the polyphase mairix.
P = eaia = Rafliaifl+ LaBia- + pOGa8iaip (1348) 11. Transformation to moving axes.
dt
The stored magnetic energy is 12. Transient analysis based on moving axes.
13. Steady -state analysis based on moving axes.
W, = &La,iaip (1349) 14. Transformation by symmetrical components (revolving field theory).
15. Equivalent circuit of revolving .field theory.
Since the inductances are constant in a quasi-holonomic system, and sym-
16. The motional impedance matrix.
metric (Lao= LBa),the rate of change of the stored magnetic energy is 17. Oscillations and hunting.
18. Interconnection of machines with other machines and networks.

All the machines discussed in succeeding chapters develop from a primitive

generalized machine with stationary axes having two layers of winding in
Then the terms of Eq. 1 3 4 8 are identified as both the stator and the rotor and representation in both the direct and
quadrature axes; but for any particular machine certain layers of winding
RaSiaiS= resistance losses
and certain axes may be missing. I n such cases the corresponding elements
dip of the general impedance and torque matrices are deleted. The impedance
LaSia- = rate of change of stored magnetic energy matrix, Z,, for the double-layer generalized machine is (for a motor)
dt

PBG,BiaiB= (speed) (torque) = mechanical power output ds2 ds 1 drl dr2 qr2

e,ia = electric power input

13-14. Classification of Machines. There are a great variety of
machines, both a-c and d-c, which permit analysis starting with the quasi-
holonomic generalized machine (the primitive machine of the first kind with
stationary reference axes). A number of such machines are considered in the
following chapters, but primarily from the point of view of showing how
tensor methods may be used in establishing the machine equations, and not
with any intention of exploring their detailed performance characteristics.
The derivations for some machines will be carried further in a particular
direction than for other machines, because repetit,ion of an obvious procedure

1 1
would demonstrate nothing new. I n general, however, a complete analysis
I
of any machine would include the following steps (but not necessarily in
this order) : L
I?. +~ P M.11~ M.1.P

1. A brief description of the particular machine, including its salient , --

features, purpose, advantages, and uses.
2. The diagram of connection and its transformation matrix.
M.11~ s.1
L.81~
+ 11 MqsP

3. The R,,, L,,, G,, Z,,, em, and inof its primitive machine. -I
4. The transformed L,,,,, G,,,,, Z,,,,, em,, in' corresponding to its diagram
of connections and transformation matrix.
5. The transient analysis based on stationary axes and the derivation of the
equations of performance (voltages, currents, torques).
6. The steady-state Z,,,,, G,,,,, em,, in'. The inductance matrix, L,,, comprises all terms in the impedance matrix
7. The equivalent circuit of the cross-jield theory. having p as a coefficient, and the torque matrix, G,, comprises all terms in
164 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 13 Art. 13-14] T H E GENERALIZED M A C H I N E 165

the impedance matrix having p% as a coefficient; thus other combinations of stator and rotor windings, brush and slip ring arrange-
ments, salient poles, and polyphase coils are possible and have been employed.
ds2 dsl drl dr2 qr2 qrl qsl qs2
Rotating brushes open up additional possibilities, and rotating magnetic
poles or teeth, with or without windings, still others.20

TABLE 13-2
drl Winding Stationary
layers axes Special cam
or
Machine Stator combinatioi
Stator of

Generalized
Salient pole
synchronous
Round-rotor
synchronous
Reactor motor
Salient pole
synchronous
Single-phase
ds 1 drl dr2 or2 arl as1 us2 alternator
Slip ring
induction motor
ds2 Asymmetrical
-- induction motor
cis 1
I I Squirrel-cage
induction motor
Single-phase
induction motor
Shaded pole motor
Compound-wound
d-c motor
Polyphase
commutator motor
Leblanc advancer
scherbius advancer
DBri motor
Repulsion motor
squirrel-cage
repulsion motor
Fynn-Wcichsel motor
lchrage motor
lynchronous
converter
Frequency converter
I n general, voltages and currents may be assumed to exist in all axes,
although in any particular case many of them are zero.
Any winding (axis) may be considered non-existent either by deleting PROBLEMS
the entire row and column in the general matrices given above, or by putting
the corresponding current equal to zero in all equations and ignoring the 13-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail every step
corresponding voltage. in the derivations.
Some machines may be regarded as special cases (or simplified editions) 13-2. If the q-axis is reversed, the text states that the direction of rotation
of other machines, and some are combinations of others. I n any event they is reversed and it is then necessary to change the sign of p0 in the impedance
may be classified by groups as shown in Table 13-2 (in which S, I , and C matrix. Show that this is consistent with changing the signs of the q-axis
refer to synchronous, induction, and commutator, respectively). Numerous voltage8 and currents.
166 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch.13
13-3. A commutating machine is equipped with two pairs of brushes rotating
at constant speeds in opposite directions. The pairs of brushes are connected in
series. What is the transformation tensor for this arrangement?
13-4. Verify, from f i s t principles, the voltage in the qr2-axis in the matrix 14
of Eq. 13-51.
13-5. Why is the conjugate of iu taken in Eq. 13-45, and why the conjugate
of GBorin Eq. 13-46? U S E OF THE LAGRANGE EQUATION

14-1. The Plan of Attack. Before proceeding with the analyses of

particular machines, and in order to have available the tools provided by
all methods of attack, three general methods will be developed in the next
few chapters and the necessary relat,ionships established. The steps are
somewhat analogous to those encountered in military operations :
Strategic Objectives
The derivation of the equations of performance (voltage, torque,
motion, small oscillations, and power) for holonomic, non-holonomic,
and quasi-holonomic reference systems
Major Tactics
1. Lagrange's equation of motion for holonomic systems
Transformation to non-holonomic systems
Establishment of the Boltzmann-Hamel equation
Transformation to quasi-holonomic systems
2. Maxwell's equation of voltage for a holonomic system
Independent equation of torque
Combination to form the equation of motion
Transformation to non-holonomic systems
Transformation to quasi-holonomic systems
3. Maxwell-Lorentz equation of voltage for a quasi-holonomic system
Establishment of the generalized machine
Independent equation of torque
Combination to form the equation of motion
Transformation to non-holonomic systems
Transformation to holonomic systems
Organization and Equipment
The laws, symbols, operations, and concepts of dyadics, matrices,
vector analysis, and tensors
Minor Tactics
The analyses of particular maqhines, to include
Performance equations
Equivalent circuits
Vector and circle diagrams
168 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 14 Art. 14-11 USE OF T H E L A G R A N G E E Q U A T I O N 169

Each of these points of view has certain advantages and each has a different The transformations may proceed from 1 to 4 and 1 to 7 with 5 and 6 as
physical interpretation, but all of them give the same numerical results. special cases of 4, and 8 and 9 as special cases of 7 ; or alternatively from
By each method there will be derived: 2 to 5 and 2 to 8, and 3 to 6 and 3 to 9.
1. The equation of voltage. 2. Maxwell's equation for stationary circuits (Faraday's law) is used to
2. The equation of torque. establish the equation of voltage in a holonomic reference frame. An indepen-
3. The equation of motion (combination of voltage and torque). dent equation of torque is established and combined tensorily with the equation
of voltage to establish the equation of motion. These equations may be
I n each method of attack these equations will be derived and transformed transformed t o non-holonomic and quasi-holonomic reference frames in
to three reference systems : accordance with the following scheme :
1. Holonomic reference system, in which the axes are fixed t o the con-
ductors, and there are Holonomic Non-holonomic Quasi-holonomic
n unknown variables xa 4
Voltage Maxwell 1
n equations of motion --
Independent 2 5
Lagrange's equation of motion and Maxwell's equation of voltage for station-
ary circuits apply to a holonomic reference frame. Motion Combine 1 and 2 3 9
2. Non-holonomic reference system, in which the axes are free and moving,
and there are The transformations may proceed from 1 to 4 and 1 to 7, from 2 to 5 and
n old variables xa 2 to 8 ; then 4 and 5 may be combined to give 6 , and 7 and 8 may be combined
2n unknowns
n new differentials ia' = dxd/dt to give 9 ; or alternatively from 3 to 6 with 4 and 5 as special cases, and from
n equations of motion 3 to 9 with 7 and 8 as special cases.
2n equations 3. The Maxwell-Lorentz equation (Faraday's law extended to moving
n equations of transformation
circuits) is used to establish the equation of voltage in a quasi-holonomic
3. Quasi-holonomic system, which is a special non-holonomic system reference frame. An independent equation of torque is established and com-
which can be treated as a holonomic system, and there are bined tensorily with the equation of voltage to establish the eqwation of
motion. These equations may be transformed to non-holonomic and holo-
k variables identical in old and new axes
n unknowns nomic reference frames in accordance with the following scheme
(n - k ) new differentials
n equations of motion Holonomic Non-holonomic Quasi-holonomic

The three methods of analysis are 7 4 I Maxwell-Lorentz 1

1
- -- --

1. Lagrange's equation, based on energy considerations, is used to establish

the equation of motion in a holonomic reference frame. The equation of voltage
Torque

-1 I 5 Independent
--
2

and the equation of torque are then special cases of the equation of motion.
These equations may be transformed to non-holonomic and quasi-holonomic
Motion
1 6 Combined 3

reference frames in accordance with the following scheme: The transformation may proceed from 1 to 4 and 1 to 7, from 2 t o 5 and 2 to
8; then 4 and 5 may be combined to give 6, and 7 and 8 may be combined
Holonomic Non-holonomic Quasi-holonomic to give 9; or alternatively from 3 to 6 with 4 and 5 as special cases, and
from 3 to 9 with 7 and 8 as special cases.
Motion Lagrange 1 Boltzmann-Hamel 4 7
Each method of procedure yields various interesting by-products, such
Voltage Special case 2 5 8 as the Christoffel symbols, the affine connection, the torsion tensors, the
--
Torque 1 Special case 3 6 9
field tensor, the torque tensor, the rotation matrices, and the non-holonomic
objects.
170 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 14
14-2. The Idealized Model. I n Fig. 14-1 is shown a machine having
stationary (d, q) axes, a rotor rotating a t speed p8 = is, a magnetic pole
(without any winding) rotating a t speed p8, = iP, and a moving axis a
rotating a t speed pel = i t The indices (p, T , s) represent mechanical coordin-
ates, so that xP, xT,xSare particular values of xu, and the velocities ip, iT,is
are particular values of iu. I n such a machine the inductances L,, are not
constant but are functions of 8, = xv. If the moving reference axis is fixed
Fig. 14-1. Generalized machine with moving conductors, pole, and axis.
t o the rotor, then 8, = 8; or, if the moving pole is fixed to the rotor, then
8, = 8; but, in general, 8, 8,, 8, are all different and are assumed t o be
orthogonal to each other and t o all electric variables xm.
14-3. The Lagrangian Equation of Moti0n.~498 The energy in a
magnetic field and the energy in a rotating body are given by the quadratic
forms
Wm = iL,,imP (12-20)
Wo =~ J u u ~ U ~ u (12-22)
The energy losses in an electric circuit and in a rotating mechanical system
are also given by quadratic forms :
We = Rmnimin (12-21)
W, = R U u ~ U ~ u (12-23)
Since Eqs. 12-20 and 12-22 have identical forms, they may be combined
to give the total kinetic energy in the electromechanical system, and similarly
the energy loss equations may be combined; thus
T = 1,aa8iai8 = kinetic energy function (14-1)
F = :R,,+"ia = Rayleigh dissipation function (14-2)
Art. 14-41 USE O F T H E L A G R A N G E E Q U A T I O N 171
in which indices (a, /?) include the electric coordinates (m, n) and the mechan-
ical coordinates (u, v), and where now ia represents an electric current if
u = m, n, or a n angular velocity if u = u, v. Likewise xu will represent a n
electric charge, xm, or an angular displacement, xu, and ea will represent a
voltage, em, or a torque, e,. With this understanding, Lagrange's equation is
Lagrange's equation is valid only in a holonomic reference system in which
the coordinate frame is rigidly attached to the conductors.
From Eqs. 14-1 and 14-2, assuming that aa8 is a symmetrical function of
the coordinates xu (actually, only of the mechanical coordinates xu), and not
a function of the currents or velocities ia (that is, no saturation),
Substituting these values in Lagrange's equations yields the equation of
motion :
I n this equation the first term includes the electric resistance drops and
mechanical friction torque; the second term includes the flux linkage
induced (variational or transformer) voltage drops and the torques of
angular acceleration; and the final term includes the generated (motional
or cutting action) voltage drops.
14-4. Significance of the Holonomic Christoffel Symb01.~~?8 The
Christoffel symbol appearing in Eq. 1 4 4 includes all the electric and mechan-
ical coordinates. However, as will be shown, most of its elements are zero,
and only three orthogonal "slices" of its representative cube have any
172 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 14 Art. 14-51 USE OF T H E L A G R A N G E E Q U A T I O N 173

significance. The inductance coefficients a,, = a,, = Lmn=f (xu) are The equation of torque is
functions only of the mechanical angle, xu = e2. The mechanical moments of di "
inertia a,, = J,,, are constants, and valid only for u = v (there is no such e, = RuViv a,, -
at
+ + [mn, u]imin (14-9a)
thing as a "mutual" moment of inertia). Also, the Christoffel symbol is
div 1 aamnimin
symmetric, so that = R,,iv + a,,, -
at
- --
2 axTL
[UP,Y] = [ h 71 (14-5)
and

It will be convenient a t times to put

Since the aWp
are either constants (moments of inertia) a,,, or functions of
the mechanical coordinates only (inductances) a,,, it is clear that Nmn = aamn = motion matrix
- (14-10)
ae

must include a t least one mechanical index, u. Furthermore, since there can
machine, u -
The mechanical coordinate may be taken along the shaft of the rotating
s. Then it is seen that the Christoffel symbol has zero elements

be no hybrids between the moment of inertia and an inductance (that is,

no terms like a,,), it follows that when u = u,

when P=

and when

It follows that the equation of voltage is

din
d q
-
B
a b s

+
em = Rmnin a,, - + [un, m]i"in + [ku, m]iki" Fig. 14-2.
,at
except for the three parts given in Eqs. 14-8a and 14-9a and shown as the
shaded parts of the cube in Fig. 14-2, in which (d, q) are the direct and
quadrature axes of the stator, (a, b) the rotating axes of the rotor, and s the
mechanical axis of the shaft. Moreover, many of the elements in each of
these slices are zero, and consequently the equations are not so complicated
as might be supposed.
14-5. T h e Non-holonomic Equations.24,8 It is required to transform
from a holonomic system in which there are n unknown variables xu and n
equations of motion t o a non-holonomic system in which there are 2n
Expression of Eq. 14-8c follows upon substituting the scalar mechanical unknowns (the n old variables xa and n new differentials ia') and 2n equations
angles 8 and e2 for the mechanical coordinate xu. (the n equations of motion and the n equations of transformation). The
174 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 14 Art. 14-63 USE OF THE LAGRANGE E Q U A T I O N 175

reference axes in the non-holonomic system are no longer fixed to the con- The equation of torque in a non-holonomic system follows from Eq. 14-12
ductors but are in any position and may move a t any velocity. Let the upon substituting y' = u' for the free index; then
transformation tensor be C:,--a function of the old coordinates. Then div' 8~:'
Q, = + a,,,,
RutV,iv' - + [m'n', u']im'in' - C=,GE.- .n, .mp
ak,,,% z
ia= cz,ia' at axu
and, transforming Eq. 14-4,

This equation could have been found directly upon transforming Eq. 14-9.
14-6. The Quasi-holonornic equation^.^^.^ I t is required to transform
from the holonomic system in which there are n unknown variables x" and n
and, by identity Eq. 10-61, equations of motion to a quasi-holonomic system in which there are n
unknowns [the k mechanical variables xu" = xu which are identical in the
old and new coordinates, and the ( n - k) new electric variables xm"] and
n equations of motion which are functions of the old mechanical coordinates
= R ,.,.ia'+ did'
- + ([af/?',y']
at
- Qp.,.,,. + Q,,a.,fl. - Qatfl,,,,)ia'is'
xu and the new electric variables. The transformation tensor is a function
only of the mechanical coordinates xu. The quasi-holonomic system is thus
a special case of a non-holonomic system in which certain coordinates do not
transform; for this reason it may be treated, in a sense, as though it were
holonomic.
By comparison with Eqs. 1 4 4 , and with Eq. 14-3 from which it came, the Let the transformation tensor be
last expression may be written C:,, = f ( x U ) and C;,. = a:,, (14-18)
Then
im= CK,,~"" (14-19)
i u = c;,,iu"= ,j;,,iu" = iu"
in which By virtue of Eq. 14-18,

Eq. 14-13 is therefore the generalization of Lagrange's equation to non- and therefore the non-holonomic objects in Eq. 14-12 may be considered as
holonomic reference systems. It is called the Roltzmann-Hamel equation tensors :
and is of great importance in analytical dynam'ics.
The equation of voltage i n a non-holonomic system follows from Eq. 14-12 This tensor is skew-symmetric in its first two indices.
upon substituting y' = m' for the free index and using the same arguments The quasi-holonomic equation of motion follows from Eq. 14-12 as
which preceded Eq. 14-8. Then
din'
em, = Rm,,.in' + a,,,, - + [u'n', m']in'iu' + [k'u', m']ik'i"'
dt

din' aamtn,.n,.ur ac~

= Ilm,,,in' + a,.,. - + -- z z + CK, -
at axu axu'
This equation defines the torsion tensor, skew-symmetricin its first two indices :
This equation could have been found directly by transforming Eq. 14-8. = Sat,B,,,,,+ SBrTyrra,,
Ta,.B,,Y,, - Sv,ja3y (14-24)
176 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 14 ch. 141 U S E O F THE L A G R A N G E EQUATION ~n
Since i t occurs in the equations of the other methods of attack, a discussion
PROBLEMS
of its characteristics is postponed to Chapter 16.
The eqmtion of voltage in a qwi-holonomic system follows from Eq. 14-23 14-1. Confirm all the equations in the chapter and verify in detail every
upon substituting y" = m" for the free index: step in the derivations.
14-2. Identify the three slices in the matrix cube of Fig. 14-2 with the
din'' aam..n.. .,,l .u"
+
em,, = ~ ~ , , , , , i " " am,,,,.,- +- in"iu"+ T u n z equations.
at axuw 14-3. Substituting Eqs. 14-14 and 14-15 in Eq. 1 6 1 3 , show that Eq. 14-12
results.
14-4. This chapter is concerned with the development of the equations of
motion, voltage, and torque for holonomic, non-holonomic, and quasi-holonomic
systems, starting with the Lagrangian equation. Prepare a comprehensive chart
or, substituting the scalar mechanical angle 0 for xu" and iu' = deldt and on a large piece of paper showing the appropriate equations in each box of the
observing that chart, in accordance with the following scheme:

Eq. of Holonomic Non-holonomic Quasi-holonomic

the voltage equation becomes Motion (14-11, (14-21, ( 1 1 2 ) (14-13) (14-18), (14-19), (14-21),
(14-3), (14-4) (14-14), (14-15) (14-23), (14-24)
+ dtd +
em,, = ~ , , , ~ , , i " " - (am,,n,.in") Gm.,n,,in'~e

Torque 1 (14-go, b, C) 1 (14-28), (14-29)

14-5. Obtain the quasi-holonomic equations of motion, voltage, and torque

in which G,",. is the torque matrix of Eq. 13-17 : by transforming directly from the corresponding holonomic equations.

The eqmtion of torque in a qwi-holonomic system follows from Eq. 14-23

upon substitution of y" = u" for the free index:

If the scalars B and 8, are substituted for xu., and pe and p8, for iv', t h e
-torque (now a scalar) becomes
1 aLrn,,,,,,.mrp
+ ~ "- -2 2
T = Rpe JP2e - ~ , , , , , , i ~ ' ;- .,,,,
(1629)
2 ae,
in which the first term on the right is the frictional torque, the second term
the acceleration torque, the third term the electric torque, and the last
term the torque due to moving magnetic paths.
 Art. 1 5-41 USE O F M A X W E L L ' S E Q U A T I O N 179

and the rate a t which this is varying with respect to 13 and 8, is the electro-
magnetic torque :
15
U S E O F MAXWELL'S EQUATION This torque, plus the mechanical torque T applied to the shaft, is consumed
by friction (assumed proportional to the velocity) and the inertial torque,
so that

15-1. Equation of V0ltage.7~~ Maxwell's equation of voltage (Faraday's T = R p e + J p 2 8 - - - 1 aLmn imp 1 aLmn 2.m.n
2 (15-6)
2 ae 2 ae,
law) applies to stationary circuits, that is, to a holonomic reference frame
in which the axes are fixed to the conductors. If the inductances are functions Let the torque be considered as a vector, e,, along the shaft with a mechanical
only of the mechanical coordinates xu and not of the currents (no saturation), index u, and let the angular displacements 0 and 8, be considered as a vector,
the equution of voltage in a holonomic system is xu, along the shaft, and their derivatives p8 and p8, as a velocity vector, iu.
Then Eq. 15-6 may be rewritten

15-3. The Combined E q u a t i ~ n .As

~~a~
final step, let aaBrepresent an
inductance Lmn when electric indices (m, n) are employed, and a polar
moment of inertia Juv when mechanical indices (u, v) are employed. With
this understanding Eqs. 15-1 and 15-7 may be combined into a single tensor
equation :

Since the only mechanical coordinates are the angular displacements of the Obviously, when the free index is electric, y = m, this equation reduces t o
rotating armature and magnetic paths, xu = 8, 8, and i u = p8, PO,, so that Eq. 15-1, since a,, is not a function of the electric coordinates. And, clearly,
when the free index is mechanical, y = u, this equation reduces t o Eq. 15-7,
since a,, = Juv is a constant. Eq. 15-8 may be rewritten
dim
+
e, = RYaia a,, - +
dt

in which the motion matrix is defined by

dia
= R,,ia + a,, - + [ap, y]i"is
at
Equations 15-1 and 15-2 are seen to be identical with Eqs. 1 P 8 a to 14&,
This equation is identical with Eq. 1 4 4 . Thus Maxwell's equation (really,
derived Gom other considerations, and the definition of Eq. 15-3 is the same
Faraday's law) yields equations identical with those given by Lagrange's
as for Eq. 14-10.
equation. Transformation to other systems-non-holonomic and quasi-
15-2. Equation of Torque.7~8 The electromagnetic energy stored in the' holonomic-would therefore be the same.
field is
We = QLmnimin (15-4) 15-4. Transformation of the Equation of V ~ l t a g e . ~Let ? ~ the
equation of voltage be transformed directly to the quasi-holonomic system.
I78
180 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 15 Art. 15-51 USE OF M A X W E L L ' S E Q U A T I O N 181

I n the new system the mechanical coordinates are the same as in the holo- 15-5. The Transformation of the Equation of Torque. The equation
nomic system, xu" = xu(8, O,), and the transformation tensor C$ = f(xu) is of torque (15-7) may be transformed directly from rotating (holonomic) to
a function only of the mechanical coordinates. Then stationary (quasi-holonomic) axes upon substituting Eq. 15-10.

Substituting in Eq. 15-lb, there results the equation of voltage in the quasi-
holonomic system :

= + L,,,,.,
Rm,,,.,in"
din" a
-+ Cz,, -( L k n X ~ ) i u " i n "
at axu"

=
.d
dt
+ +
Rm,,n.in" - (Lmttn,,in") ym,,pO= Rm,.,,in'' + d$m"
-+ ym,,p6
dt
(15-11)
Substituting f3 and 6, for xu", and p6 and p6, for iv"(and since Lmmn.is a
The PO, term vanishes if the magnetic paths do not move. In these equations function of 8, only), then by Eq. 15-12 the scalar form of the torque equation
becomes
., ,,, 1 aLm..,..
+
T = Rp6 Jp20 - Gm,rnr,.t.t - - -i ""in" (15-15)
2 ae,
is recognized as the rotation matrix y ~ of
k Eq. 13-18, and consequently, by
There is no need to show the transformation of the equation of motion
the definitions of the torque matrix Gmngiven in Eq. 13-17, and of the cross- because it would be exactly like that carried out in Chapter 14.
flux y m given in Eq. 13-19, there have been substituted The equations developed in this chapter, starting with Maxwell's equation,
can be further discussed in terms of their physical significance and of the
construction of certain matrices and tensors, but, as these same ideas are
presented more explicitly in the next chapter, consideration of them is
deferred.
182 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 15

PROBLEMS

15-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail every step in
the derivations.
15-2. What is the torque equation for a, machine having a salient pole rotor
without windings?
15-3. What is the electric torque on a salient pole machine whose inductance
varies as
L = +(Ld + L,) + 4(Ld - L,) cos 28 + AL cos so2
15-4. Show a side-by-side comparison, including all essential steps, of the
derivation of Eqs. 14-4 and 15-9. In your opinion, which method of approach
is shorter and simpler? Is one approach more "general" than the other?
15-5. What cardinal assumption was made with respect to the inductances
in writing Eq. 15-4? (Recall that all subsequent equations are valid only to the
extent that this cardinal assumption holds.)
USE O F T H E MAXWELL-LORENTZ
EQUATION
16-1. The Equation of Voltage.7.8 The generalized machine described
in Chapter 13 has stationary d- and q-axes with respect to which the rotor
windings are moving. As shown in Chapter 13, there are two components
of voltage : the induced voltage due to the variation of the flux in each axis,
and the generated voltage due to the cutting of these fluxes by the rotating
conductors. A coordinate frame of this type is called quasi-holonomic.
There are n unknowns : the k mechanical variables xu = (8, 13,) representing
the angular displacements of the rotor and the magnetic paths, and the
( n - k) electric currents im. There are (n - 1 ) equations of voltage and one
equation of torque.
The equation of voltage for a motor (Eq. 13-10) is given by the Maxwell-
Lorentz equivalent of Faraday's law:

,
= Rmnin + L,, din
at
aLm,
- + -i p6,
ae, + T,,,,% w'u
% (16-1)
I n this equation the term

is due to the movement of magnetic paths (Fig. 14-l), such as might be caused
by the rotation of a magnetic mass other than the field poles. For the sake
of generality, the angular posit~on8, and velocity p0, of this mass have been
taken as different from the rotor position O and velocity p0. I n most com-
mercial machines the magnetic paths, except for the effect of the rotor teeth,
I83
184 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 16 Art. 16-31 THE MAXWELL-LORENTZ EQUATION 185

are stationary, and L,,, # f(f3,) but is a constant, and the term (16-2) path, O,, be considered as components of a mechanical vector xu. Then the
vanishes. corresponding velocity is pxu = i u , and Eq. 16-7 may be written
The term T,,,,i21 = GmnpH (16-3)
div 1 aamn ;mjn
e,, = R,,,iU + J,, - + Tm,,,i'"in - - -- (16-8)
defines one component of the torsion tensor T,!,,, which was encountered in at 2 a ~ ' ~
Eq. 14-24. The torque matrix G,, was given in Eqs. 13-6 and 13-14 for a in which

-
machine with one stator and one rotor winding layer.
Eq. 16-1 exhibits four distinct voltage drops in the quasi-holonomic a,, -- L,,,, the inductance considered as a component of the metric tensor
machine : J,, J , the moment of inertia considered as a tensor of valence 2
R,, r R,the frictional resistance considered as a tensor of valence 2
1. The resistance drops Rmnin
= --Gm,, the negative torque matrix considered as a tensor of valence 3
TnLn,,
2. The induced (transformer action) voltages Lmnpin
3. The generated (cutting action) voltages GmninpB Thus each term of Eq. 16-7 has been endowed with an extra index.
4. The generated (moving flux) voltages
aLmn .n
-2p 2
16-3. The Equation of M o t i ~ n . ~If,. ~now, indices (a, 8, y) are con-
802 sidered to include all electric indices ( m , n , k) and all mechanical indices
The last voltage is usually zero, although it is possible t o build a machine (u, v, w), the equation of voltage (16-1) and the equation of torque (16-8)
(a revolving iron pole without windings) which will develop such a voltage. may be combined into a single tensor equation:
16-2. The Equation of The stored magnetic energy is
e, = R,,ia + a,,
dia an,,
- + -iais- - -- 2
1 asap ., L.B + Tasyiais
at ax8 2 ax?
and, if the inductances Lmn are functions of 0, only, the rate a t which the
stored magnetic energy is changing due to the movement of the magnetic
path is
dia
= R,,ia + a,, -
dt
+ [ x p , y]iais + F,,ia ( 16-9)

and this results in equal and opposite torques on the moving magnetic mass
and the rotor.
I n addition, there is the torque due to the interaction between the rotor
currents and the stator cross-fluxes, as given in Eq. 13-12 by
in which a new entity, the field tensor, is defined:
Upon substitution of y = m for the free index, the term aa,g/axm vanishes
because the a,l, are not functions of the electric coordinates, and

The sum of the applied torque T, the torque (Eq. 16-5) due to varying
magnetic paths, and the torque (Eq. 16-6) due to the interaction between
the rotor currents and the cross-fluxes is consumed by the frictional torque
and the inertial torque, so that the equation of torque is since the inductances Lmn are functions only of 8,. Ordinarily this term
vanishes because the L m n are constant. Finally, if the torsion tensor is
T = R p e + J p 2 8 - y n i n - - - 1 a'mn 2 2
.m.n restricted to only two components in the quasi-holonomic reference frame,
2 ae, then
Tasy = Tunnt, Tmnu
= Rp8 + Jp28 - G,,,i"in -
1 aLmn
-- .m.n
2 r
2 ae, f Gmn,-Gmn (16-12)

Let the torque be considered as a vector e,, along the shaft with a mechanical and Eq. 16-9 reduces to Eq. 16-1 for y = m. And, upon substituting y = u
index u, and let the angular displacen~entsof the rotor, 13, and of the magnetic for the free index, Eq. 16-9 reduces to Eq. 16-8.
186 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 16 Art. 16-41 THE MAXWELL-LORENTZ E Q U A T I O N 187

The Christoffel symbol has only three components in the quasi-holonomic
reference frame :
[up, yl = [un, ml, [nu, ml, Cmn, ul
The pictorial representations of Eqs. 16-12 and 16-13 are shown in Fig.
16-1. The bulk of these cubes have zero elements, and even the slabs which
are present have many zero elements, as will be seen when particular machines
are analyzed.
in which the afine connection is defined :
r a . S . , y=
t c:,c;q.[~rp,
ac:, + T ~ , ~ , , ,
+ c ; , u , ~- (16-16)
axst
The first two terms of Eq. 16-16 are the transformation of the holonomic
Christoffel symbol.
Eq. 16-15 may be regarded as the most general equation of motion in
non-holonomic reference frames. I t gives the same numerical results as
Eq. 14-12. I n a holonomic reference frame the affine connection becomes
the Christoffel symbol.
The equation of voltage in non-holonomic systems may be found as a special
case of Eq. 16-15 upon substituting y = m for the free index and properly
identifying the resulting terms. It will prove more instructive, however,
to transform directly the quasi-holonomic equation of voltage (Eq. 16-1) :

Fig. 16-1. Components of the torsion tensor and of the Christoffel symbol
i n the quasi-holonomic reference frame.

164. Transformation to Non-holonomic Frarne~.~ssThe trans-

formation tensor C$ is a function of the mechanical variables xu and, more
specifically, of the angular rotation 8, of the reference axes (in general,
different from either the conductor parameter 8 or the magnetic path
parameter 8,).
c : . = ~ ( x u=
) f(el) (16-14)
Then Eq. 16-9, the equation of motion, transforms as I n the development of this equation these points were taken into account:
the L,, as defined in the quasi-holonomic frame are functions only of xu = O,,
the coordinate of the magnetic path; and the CE, are functions only of
xu = el, the coordinate of the rotating axes, and therefore

Then the Christoffel matrix is defined; it is also reducible from the second
term on the right of Eq. 16-16:
= +
~ , . , , i ~ ' a,.,. -
dt
+ I'a.S,,,.ia'iS'
dim'
(16-15)
1 88 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 16 Art. 16-61 THE MAXWELL-LORENTZ E Q U A T I O N I89
where Vmn = 0 in the quasi-holonomic system. However, V,, is inserted 16-5. Equation of Voltage in Holonomic I n a holonornic
on the right side of Eq. 16-18 in order to show its law of transformation. frame the reference axes are attached to the moving conductors so that
This is easily verified by transforming Eq. 16-17 with C$ and associating pel = PO, and Eq. 16-22 becomes
with C $ V ~ . ~ , ~ : ~the
~ "term
~ B ~

contributed from

which defines the motion matrix,

The torque matrix Gmn is related to the inductance matrix L,, in the
quasi-holonomic reference frame by the rotation matrix, Eq. 13-25 or 15-12:

Transforming to a rotating reference frame, as in Eq. 16-17, there results

This agrees with the definition arrived a t in Eq. 15-3 by a different approach.
Eq. 16-23 may then be further condensed to
Comparing Eqs. 16-20 and 16-18, it is seen that
vmtn.
= G,.,.
Eq. 16-17 therefore becomes

which is the Maxwell equation used as a starting point in Chapter 15.

16-6. Explicit Reference System. Eqs. 16-17 and 16-22 are associated
Eq. 16-22 exhibits four different voltages, in addition to the resistance with an implicit stationary reference system (the quasi-holonomic) to which
drops RrnTn,in'(see Table 16-1). the velocities pe, pel, and pO2 are referred. If there are no moving magnetic
TABLE 16-1 paths, so that the p8, terms may be ignored, Eq. 16-22 may be written
I Considering (instantaneously)
Type of Voltage I
1 Reference Axes
I Induced ~,,,.~.~i"' 1 Stationary
aL,,,, .,,,
Generated -z pB,
II Stationary Stationary I Moving
3% I
i
Generated V,,,,,.in'pB,
Generated C7,,,,in'p0 Stationary Moving Stationary
190 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 16 Ch. 161 THE MAXWELL-LORENTZ E Q U A T I O N 191

where p8' = p(8 - 8,) is now the velocity of the moving conductors with PROBLEMS
respect to the reference axes. If the reference system is holonomic, 8' = 0 ,
the final term vanishes. But in all non-holonomic systems the voltage 16-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail every step
equation is now the same as in the quasi-holonomic system. in the derivations.
16-2. Why is there no term involving O1 in Eq. 16-l?
16-7. Transformation of the Equation of Torque t o a Holonomic
16-3. In a quasi-holonomic reference frame why are the L,, functions of
Transforming the quasi-holonomic equation of torque Eq. 16-8, O2 only?
and remembering that = 6:,. 164. Why are there only two components of the torsion tensor Tab?and
only three components of the Christoffel symbol [ap, y ] in the quasi-holonomic
frame?
16-5. Justify the equivalence indicated in Fig. 16-lb.
16-6. Obtain Eq. 16-17 as a special case of Eq. 1616.
16-7. In this chapter the equations of motion, voltage, and torque were
developed for holonomic, non-holonomic, and quasi-holonomic systems, starting
with the Maxwell-Lorentz equation in the quasi-holonomic system. Prepare a
comprehensive chart on a large piece of paper showing the appropriate equations
in each box of the chart in accordance with the following scheme:
But a,, is a function of 8, only, and c,
is a function of 8 , only and not of
I /
Eq. of Aolonomic 1 Non-holonomio 1 Quasi-holonomic I
8,. Therefore
I Mobion 1 1
I
( 1 - 1 ) ( 1 1 5 )( 1 - 1 )

Also, by Eqs. 16-12 and 16-20 and by making use of the fact that am, = a , , ; I
Voltage / (16-231, (16-24),
(16-25) i (16-171, (16-IS),
(16-22), (16-26) (lo-1), (16-2), (163)
is a symmetric tensor,

T,,,,.,,,.z
.
.7nll ac:,,
= -Gmvn,.z.m,,z.,,,,= -c;, - .mrr
Torque 1
,
(16-27), (16-30),
i
zn" am,' ' (16-31)
I
881
16-8. In the chart of Problem 16-7 fill in the blank spaces ( a )by combining
the voltage and torque equations to give the equation of motion for the holonomic
frame, and ( b ) by finding the equation of torque as a special case of the equation
of motion for the non-holonomic frame.

-
- 1 aam-,.. im"in"
2 ae,
Substituting Eq. 16-28 and identity (16-29) in Eq. 16-27,
did' 1 aamrTn.. 1 aam-,.. .,.,.
+
e , , = Ru..v,.iv" J,,,,., -- - -
imr,in,,
z an" (16-30)
at 2 ae, 2 ae,

Eq. 16-31 agrees with Eq. 14-9c, since 19, = 8 for holonomic frames.
 Art. 17-51 COMPARISON OF SOLUTIONS 193

17-2. Equation of Voltage. The equation of voltage as developed in

Eqs. 14-8, 15-1, and 16-25 by any of the three methods reduces to

COMPARISON O F THE GENERAL

SOLUTIONS

Thus all three methods of attack yield the same equation of voltage, and there
Three general methods for establishing the general equations of rotating
is no distinction. This is Faraday's law. The inductances may be functions
machines were given in Chapters 14, 15, and 16. Although each of these
of the rotor displacement 8 and of the magnetic path displacement 8,.
methods yields the complete solutions, they are in somewhat different forms
and subject to different physical interpretations. I n this chapter they will 17-3. Equation of Torque. The equations of torque as developed in
be compared and their implications discussed. This comparison involves Eqs. 14-9, 15-7, and 16-30 have the identical form :
three equations (motion, voltage, and torque), three reference frames (holo-
nomic, non-holonomic, and quasi-holonomic) and three methods of attack

Equation Method Frame T = Rye + J p 2 e - 1aaR^ imin - -1-

aamn imp

-
Motion +Lagrange- Holonomic
/ Nan)-h!lonomic
2 ae 2 ae,
Thus all three methods yield the same equation of torque and there is no

-
Voltage Maxwell distinction. The inductances may be functions of the rotor displacement 8
Maxwell-Lorsntr
t. 4
4-Quasi - holonomic
and of the magnetic path displacement 8,.
I n the holonomic frame, Eqs. 17-1, 17-2, 17-3, and 1 7 4 are identical for
Torque Energy all three methods.
Fig. 17-1.
Quasi-holonomic Reference System
(Lagrange, Maxwell, and Maxwell-Lorentz). It will probably be most
illuminating to examine each equation and each method for each reference 17-4. The Equation of Motion. Both the Lagrange equation and the
frame in succession, and to number the equations as in the previous chapters. Maxwell-Lorentz equation lead to an identical form (Eqs. 14-23 and 16-9),
The interrelationships are shown in Fig. 17-1. I n this chapter, unprimed, for the quasi-holonomic equation of motion. Also, since the Maxwell equation
primed, and double-primed quantities refer to holonomic, non-holonomic, in the holonomic frame is the same as that from the Lagrange method, all
and quasi-holonomic reference frames, respectively. three methods may be said to give the same quasi-holonomic equation of
motion : dia"
Holonomic Reference Frame + +
e,,, = R,.,a,.ia" a,..,, - [ ~ " b "y"]ia"ifl"
, + Ta,.s,.y,.i""ifl"
dt
17-1. Equation of Motion. The equations as developed in Eqs. 1 4 4 , &a"
15-9, and 16-15 all reduce to +
= R,,,,,,.ia" a,,,,., - + [ul',Y"'r"]i""ifl"
+ Fy,,,,,iu'' (17-5)
dt
dia
e, = R,,iU + at
+
a,, - [up, y]i"is (17-1) 17-5. The Equation of Voltage. The Lagrangian method led t o the
equation
for a holonomic system, since the affine connection as given by (10-61) and
Eq. 16-16 for a non-holonomic system becomes the Christoffel symbol in e
holonomic system. Thus all three methods of attack yield the same equation
in the holonomic frame, and there is no distinction.
192
1 94 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 17 Art. 17-81 COMPARISON OF SOLUTIONS

The Maxwell method led to the equation Also, for the same reason, and upon interchanging dummy indices,

em..= Rmnn,,in"+ am,,,,,,-

dt
+-aarnptn,, + y,-pe
din''
a02
in'p02 (15-11)

The Maxwell-Lorentz derivation started from as in the final expression of Eq. 14-12.
But the CE, included in the non-holonomic objects of Eq. 14-12 refer to
em. = Rm.,,.,in"+ d+m.
-+ y m 4 d = . .
dt
- (16-1) the transformation from the holonomic frame and are not the same as the
C: included in Eq. 16-16, which refer to the transformation from the quasi-
and in its development embraced Eqs. 14-25 and 15-11. holonomic frame. Consequently, it is not possible to make a direct compari-
Therefore all three methods yield identical equations of voltage, which son between Eqs. 14-12 and 16-16, and the proof that they give identical
take on a variety of forms as shown in Eq. 16-1. results must rest on the argument:
17-6. The Equation of Torque. The Lagrangian method led t o the 1. The holonomic equation (14-4) transforms to the quasi-holonomic
equation equation (14-23), which is identical with Eq. 16-9.
1 aL,.,. .,-.,st
+ - - -2 z
T = RpO Jp20 - Gm,,n,.im"in" (14-29)
2 ae,
The Maxwell method led to an identical equation (15-15).
The Maxwell-Lorentz method established an independent equation of
Holonomic

Eq. 14-4
Non- holonomic

-- 14-213
Quasi- holonomic

Eq
torque (Eq. 16-7) of identical form.
Thus all three methods yield the same equation of torque. \ Eq. 16-15
Eq. 14- 12
Fig. 17-2.
Eq. 16-9

Non-holonomic Reference Frame

17-7. Equation of Motion. Each method of attack gives the solution 2. The holonomic equation ( 1 4 4 ) transforms to the non-holonomic
in the form equation (14-12), and the quasi-holonomic equation (16-9) transforms to
the non-holonomic equation (16-15).
3. Therefore Eqs. 14-12 and 16-15, although different in form, must
give identical results.
but the affine connection has a different definition for one of the methods
than for the other two: This can be diagrammed as illustrated in Fig. 17-2.
Lagrange : ra,p,,y, + Qy,a,,p,- Ra,p,,yt
= [ a l l l ,yl] - Rpry.,a. 17-8. Equation of Voltage. The equations of voltage developed in
Eqs. 1 6 1 6 and 16-17 from the holonomic and quasi-holonomic frames,
respectively, have the forms

Maxwell : derivable from the same holonomic equation

+ din'
em, = Rmjn.in' a,,,, -
aamtn,
+- .n,.u,
2 '8 + CE. ~3aktn.t
C Z . n t .u,
1 (14-16)
a s in the Lagrange method and therefore the at axu'
same as (14-12)
em. = Rm.,.in' + a,.,. din'
- ac::'i n k e l
+ CE:'am,,n..-
Maxwell-Lorentz : I'.r,pt,yr= C$C$Z$[~",!?",
y"] + Ta,B,yr dt 801

+-aamTnP
802
in$& + Gm,,.inpO (16-17)
However, since the non-holonomic object is skew-symmetric in its first two
indices, Here, again, the E,is different from the E:and a direct comparison be-
!&p.,yia'iB' = 0 (17-7) tween Eqs. 1 6 1 6 and 16-17 is not possible. However, by letting zu' in
196 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 17 Art. 17-10] COMPARISON OF SOLUTIONS 197
Eq. 14-16 take on the particular values 8, €4, 8, and defining G,.,. in Eq. Each observer measures exactly the same total voltage, but the compon-
16-17 as in Eq. 16-20, the two equations become ents into which i t is divided are quite different for the two observers. Indeed,
the moving observer measures a component of voltage V m t n . i n ~ Owhich 1
din' aa,,,,
em, = Rm,,.in' + a,.,. - + -i n'p8 the stationary observer does not see a t all. If the magnetic paths (iron
at ae masses) move a t the same speed as the rotor, p8, = p0, the two voltage
components involving p02 and p8 cannot be separated by either observer.

TABLE 17-1

Voltages measured by observer

Induced Generated Generated Generated

Lrnnpin
II)
d Q

Thus both equations present the same type of terms. By the same argument 3 2 Axes in which Stator and
Rotor axes
measured: rotor axes rotor axes
as for the equations of motion, the two equations must give identical results. p
8 2 Consider:
Stationary Stationary
17-9. Equation of Torque. The equations developed in Eqs. 14-17 and Ref. axes Stationary
Conductors Stationary Moving Stationary
16-27 have the forms )
Stationary Moving
Magnetic path1 Stationary

e,. = R,.,.iV' + a ,,,, div' 1 aarn,,,,,.

- - - -2
.n, ack,'
- C : , - axu,akpm,"
.,, .n. Currents Varying Constant Constant
2 (14-17)
at 2 axu' -

aL,.,.
pi"' a,.,.in'pO -
1 aarn,,,,,. ., a,*
e,, = R,,,,iU' + a,,,, dig'
-
at
- --
2 axu'
2
.n,
z + T,,,.,,z,,. 2
Stator and Stator and
Rotor axes
Stator and
measured : rotor axes rotor axes rotor axes

But, by the definition of the torsion tensor (Eq. 14-24), and in terms of the Stationary Moving Stationary Stationary
non-holonomic objects (Eq. 14-22),
1 Magnetic pathi
Currents
Stationary
Stationary
Varying
Stationary
Stationary
Constant
Moving
Stationary
Constant
Stationary
Moving
Corstant

Thus Eqs. 1 6 1 7 and 16-27 are identical in form and give the same results.
Or, as shown in Chapter 16,
t7-10. The Components of Voltage. A comparison of the equations
of voltage for stationary axes (Eq. 16-1) and moving axes (Eq. 16-17) brings
t o light two different physical interpretations, although both equations give
identical numerical results. The different components of voltage, other than
resistance drops, as measured by an observer on stationary (quasi-holonomic)
axes and an observer on moving (non-holonomic) axes, and the corresponding
physical interpretations, are given in Ta.ble 17-1.
And, if the magnetic paths, rotor, and reference axes all move a t the same
speed, pB2 = pel = p8, both observers measure a single generated voltage,
but neither is able t o separate i t into its parts. The four voltage components
of the moving observer and the three voltage components of the stationary
observer add up to exactly the same value, but the way in which this total
voltage is distributed among the components is quite different for the two
observers, and i t can be changed a t will merely by changing the arbitrary
speed, pel, of the reference axes. Whether a voltage is induced by a varying
flux, or generated by a moving flux, or generated by moving conductors,
or generated by moving reference axes is to a certain extent a matter of
the selection of the reference frame, and one type of voltage when viewed
from one frame is an entirely different type of voltage when viewed from a
different frame.
200 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 17 Art. 17-1 21 COMPARISON O F SOLUTIONS

17-1 1. Recapitulation of the Basic Concepts. The different concepts The inductance of the holonomic machine therefore is
introduced by the three methods of analysis used in deriving the equations
of voltage, torque, and motion are recapitulated here in Table 17-2 for ready
reference, and classified with respect to their origin, equation of definition,
and law of transformation. The = H Q means that the relationship is true
or =
only in a holonomic or quasi-holonomic system, respectively.
17-12. The Two Preferred Generalized Machines. In the great
b -Mdsint9 -LDsin28 L , - LD cos 28 M , cos 8
majority of practical cases, the analysis of a machine is the simplest and
most clear-cut if referred to either a holonomic or quasi-holonomic reference
qs 0 M , sin 8 M, cos 8 1
I
Lo,

where Ls = (L,, +
L,,)/2 and LD = (L,, - L,,)/2.
The impedance matrix is

ds n b PS

+
r , ~ pLd, ~ , cos
p o I
I - ~ , psin o 1 o
a M d p cos 8 r. + p ( L , + LD cos 2 8 )- 1/ - LDp sin 28 filQpsin 0

h - M d p sin 0 I -L,p sin 28 I r, + p ( L , - L, cos 20) I M Q pcos 8

-
( a ) Quasi holonomic ( b ) Holonomic !la 0 ~ M Q psin 8
--

&fopcos 8
1
+L ~ P
.Fig. 17-3. The two preferred generalized machines. (17-13)
where p = dldt refers to both the 8 terms and to the currents. For example,
frame. There are a few cases, however, in which more general non-holonomic
frames are of advantage, either because of construction details or because Z,,,,ib' = - LDp(sin 28 ib') = -LD(2ib'cos 26pO + sin 20pib')
of special operating conditions in a machine. But, for most cases, one or the
Eq. 17-13 may be verified by the general transformation formula (in
other of the two generalized machines shown in Fig. 17-3 can be adapted.
which p refers only to the currents),
The equations of either may be converted to those of the other by the
transformation tensor, and i t *is immaterial which machine is used as a
starting point. The conditions affecting a choice will be made clear in
Chapters 20 through 23. That Eqs. 17-13 and 17-14 give identical results is easily shown by expanding
The transformation matrix between the two machines and the inductance as follows (see Eqs. 16-23, 16-24, 16-25) :
matrix (Eq. 13-6) of the quasi-holonomic machine are (for 8, = 8):

= + ~ , , , , p + Gm.,,p8 + vrn.,,pe)in'
(R,,,.
= Rm,,,in' + p(L,,,tin') (17-15)
L,, =
Therefore

Z m t n= [ C,m.C~.Zmn LrnnC,m. +
p refers only to in'
m +P
p refers to 8 and in'
 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 17

PROBLEMS

17-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail every step in
the derivations.
17-2. Check every entry in Table 17-2 against the chapter and equation
in which it first appeared.
17-3. Prove that the a f i e connection as given in Eq. 1 6 1 6 reduces to the THE RAISING A N D LOWERING OF INDICES
Christoffel symbol in a holonomic system.
174. The voltage in the brush axis of any machine contains a "generated A N D GENERALIZED PER-UNIT CONCEPTS
voltage" term which depends upon the velocity p6 of conductors$xed in position.
Discuss the philosophical implications of endowing a stationary conductor with
a velocity. There is more to this than meets the eye.20
18-1. The Raising and Lowering of in dice^.^ The metric tensor g,,
was defined in Eq. 9-59, and its inverse gap in Eq. 9-65, such that the invari-
ant infinitesimal distance between two points in general curvilinear space is
given by
= gas dxb dxB = gas dx, dxs = dxs dxs (9-6 1)
It was also shown that the metric tensor has the property of raising or
lowering indices; thus
g,As = A, (9-73)
I n an electric machine the stored magnetic and kinetic energy is given by

and by analogy with Eq. 9-61 the asp, which include both inductances L,,
and moments of inertia J,,, may be adopted as the metric tensor with the
property of raising and lowering indices.
The definition of the flux linkage (Eq. 13-11) may be extended to include
mechanical as well as electric variables (that is, 4, represents both flux linkage
and momentum) by
4, = aasis = i , (18-1)
This relationship shows that the covariant form of the current ia is the $uz
linkagf 4,. The energy may then be written in the following equivalent
forms :
2T = a,,ibifi = i,ia = aaB4,4, = 4,y = 4,ia (18-2)

38-2. The Generalized Per-Unit Equation of M o t i ~ n .The

~ equation
,of motion in its most general (non-holonomic) form is

Let i t be multiplied by the inverse of the metric tensor:

204 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 18 Art. 1841 T H E RAISING A N D LOWERING O F INDICES

The inverse of the metric tensor a,, is

in which

--

The terms of Eq. l P 1 2 represent voltages and torques, but the terms of in which appear
Eq. 18-3 represent rates of change of currents and accelerations. The latter
equation greatly simplifies calculations, since the inductance and inertia
L: = (LsLp- = short-circuit inductance (18-8)
coefficients have disappeared, leaving the coefficient of piY simply unity. LT
Moreover, as will be shown, the resistance coefficients have been replaced by
reciprocal time constants, and the aEne connection is made up of inductance mutual inductance
il = = leakage coeflcient
ratios only, self-inductance
18-3. Conversion of the Equation of V ~ l t a g e . ~ The equation of
voltage for the quasi-holonomic generalized machine, if there are no moving
magnetic paths, is
The mixed tensors R: and G.2 are
Substituting
i n = ank$k
and remembering that the a,, are constant, and that amnank= d:,

in which appear the decrement factors

resistance
6 =
short-circuit inductance
18-4. The Mixed Design constant^.^ The a,,, R,,, and G,, for the
simple (quasi-holonomic)generalized machine were given as
ds dr qr qs da dr qr qe and
206 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 18 Art. 1841 THE RAISING A N D LOWERING OF INDICES 207

in which G: is seen to be the same as the rotation matrix y: upon comparison in which appear the coupling coeficients in place of the leakage coefficients:
with Eq. 13-18. Consequently, by Eqs. 18-12 and 13-19,

and Eq. 18-6 may be rewritten

A comparison of the impedance matrices Z,,, 22, and 22; discloses the
The mixed impedance tensor, for pB = constant, follows from Eq. 18-14 as following :
ds dr qr Pa
,Z
, has 9 design constants: r,,, r,,, r,,, L,,, L,,, L,,, L,,, Md, M,, and
ds +P -&,6,* 4 zero components, and the coefficients of p and p8 are not unity.
2 2 has 8 design constants: A,,, Ad,, A,,, A,,, d,,, d,,, d,,, d,,, and 6 zero
- s,, +p PO
components, and the coefficients of p and p8 are unity.
z: = R: + + aipe=
!IT -PO +P -&Jar 22: has 6 design constants: l;ld, q,, dds, Bar, d,,, 6,,, and 6 zero components,
and the coefficients of p and p8 are unity.
- 6,. +P
!
Moreover, the design constants in 22 and 22: are all ratios which have
(18-15) the following considerable advantages over actual resistances and inductances :
This impedance can be expressed in terms of other design constants, and
further simplified, if it is transformed by 1. These ratios are of the same order of magnitude for machines of all
sizes, and consequently in design or performance calculations there is less
ds' dr' qr' qs' chance of making a decimal error.
2. These ratios are not nearly so sensitive to the effects of saturation as
are the inductances themselves.
3. Within reasonable design limits, the decrement factors depend only
on the copper in the windings, and the coupling factors only on the iron in
the magnetic circuits, so that the effects of design changes are more easily
anticipated and determined.
4. Graphical performance curves are more naturally and simply plotted
whereupon the new voltage, flux, and impedance matrices become for a whole line of machines in terms of 6 and as parameters.
5. A unified graphical analysis (vector and circle diagrams) can be
established corresponding to the concepts of Eq. 18-19 and using only the
6 and q as constants.

PROBLEMS

18-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail every step
in the derivations.
18-2. Are the Christoffel symbols shown in Eq. 18-4 non-holonomic or
holonomic?
18-3. I n the matrix of Eq. 18-7 show that the following mutual terms are
equal.
- A d ~ / L A ~= - A d s / L A ~
-'w/Lis = -'qs/L&
208 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 18

184. Complete the following tabulation:

( Impedance 1 Design Constants I Zem Components Coefficients of p and p0 I

I ~ ounity
t I
SMALL OSCILLATIONS A N D HUNTING

18-5. Are the corresponding mutual terms of Eq. 18-19 equal?

19-1. The Equation of Small Oscil la ti on^.^.^ The general equation

of motion, applicable to machines with either stationary or moving reference
axes, is
dip
+
ea = RaSiS a,, -
dt
+ r,,,,iSiY (19-1)

I n general, the design constants Rap and a@, as well as the transformation
matrices C:. included in the affine connection rSr,a, are functions of the
mechanical coordinates xu.
Suppose, now, that for a machine or a group of machines there suddenly
is superimposed on a condition of steady motion or of uniform acceleration
abrupt changes in the applied torques and voltages, Ae,. As a consequence,
corresponding changes hia occur in the currents and velocities of the rotor.
If the reference axes are attached to the rotor, or move a t a speed depending
on the applied frequency, they too will oscillate about their instantaneous
mean position.
The first-order variation of any quantity (ia, e,, Rap,aa8, rS,,,) in Eq.
19-1 is of the form

The first-order terms in the Taylor series expansion of Eq. 19-1, that is, the
first dqrivatives, become

Ae,
sea AxS = RaSAiS+ a,, -
+-
axs dt + r,,,,(iflAiY + hi%,)
d Aib

= RaSAib + a,, d-
Aib
dt
+ rsY,,(isAiY+ iYAiS)
210 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 19 Art. 19-31 SMALL OSCILLATIONS A N D H U N T I N G 21 1

I n this equation, Ae, represents a suddenly applied external voltage or torque ; The equation of small torques follows from Eq. 19-5 upon substituting
(aea/ax@)Ax@represents the variation in voltage or torque brought about by mechanical indices for the free index, u = u,so that
the oscillation of the reference axes. The f i t four terms on the right repre-
d hiv
sent the changes due t o the oscillating currents and velocities. The last Ae, = RuVAiv'+a,, -
dt
+ l?,,,,Ainim + rmn,,inAim
three terms on the right represent the changes due to the oscillating reference
axes. (or, if the magnetic paths do not move)
In a quasi-holonomic reference frame (stationary axes), the design par-
ameters remain constant and the last three terms of Eq. 19-3 vanish.
I n a holonomic reference frame, the affine connection becomes the Christof-
= R,,AiV + a,, -dAiv
-
dt
+ AFd,im + F,,Aim
fel symbol, which is symmetrical in its &st two indices, so that (and, if there is only one machine)
+
rSy,a(iDAiY AiW) +
[By, a](i@AiY AiSiY) = 2[&, a]iYAiS

and the equation of small oscillations becomes

Eq. 19-5 defines the motional impedance:

A number of special cases arise, depending on the reference frame and

(or, separating the electric and mechanical axes, neglecting R, and if the
the underlying assumptions.
magnetic paths do not move)
19-2. Stationary Non-oscillating Axes. I n this case put Axa = 0 in
Eq. 19-3; i t reduces to

The equation of small voltages follows upon substituting electric indices for
the free indices, u = m, so that

he, = +
RmnAin a,,
dAin
-
dt
+ l',,,,AiniU + l',,,,inAiU
(or, if the magnetic paths do not move) The changes in the currents and velocities are

dAin
= +
RmnAin a,, -+ ARp,iu
dt
+ FIm,,Aiu
The motional impedance transforms from the quasi-holonomic system in
(and, if there is only one machine) accordance with the law

d hin
= RmnAin + a,, -+ GmnAinptl+ Gmnin(ApO)
dt
19-3. Classification of Comp~nents.~For the affine connection
dA4m + Aymy,pB+ V,(AP~)
= RmnAin +-at
substitute (Eq. 1 P 2 3 )
rpy,a '
[ P Y ~a] + Tpya (19-13)
212 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 19 Art. 19-41 SMALL OSCILLATIONS A N D H U N T I N G

in Eq. 19-3, which then becomes Substituting Eq. 19-18 in Eq. 19-17,

he, +-
8%
axS AxS = Rap hiS+ a,, - + ([By, + TSy,)(iSAiY
d Aip
at
+ hi%?)LX]

Multiplying both sides by C:., there results, since C Z , ~=' 65,

Ae,, + C,",AC,Y'ey,= C,",9,&C$,AiS'+ AC$ifl') (19-19)

But, since
If for the free index is substituted electric ( a = m ) and mechanical
( a = u ) indices, respectively, and if the magnetic paths do not move or
+
A(C;C:') = C,".ACz' C:'AC:, =0

oscillate, the equations of small voltage and torque result: i t follows that
C,",AC,Y'e,,= -C,Y'AC:,e,, = -AC:.e, (19-20)
Ae, + axu
aem Ax" =
-
~ , , , i ~ ~ i ~
+oscillating conductors+ 1 Since the mechanical coordinates are not transformed,

RmnAin a,, + -
dt
+ [nu, m]iYAin+ TunmiYAin
oscillating currents-

["-.
I axtL
i n Ax" + --
aamndin Axu + [nu, m]inAiu
axu at 1 and therefore Eq. 19-19 becomes

oscillating reference axes-

(19-15) ac:,
+ Z,, - -;
ae,
Ci.iS'AxY' -Ax7
-
,
and (neglecting R,,) ax? ax?'
dAiv
+
Tmn,jmAin Tmn"Aimin The last term of Eq. 19-22 was added to allow for the possibility that the
voltage is a function of the coordinates and changes even though there is no
conductors oscillating currents oscill. ref. axes change in the applied terminal voltage.
If Air is split into electric current changes Aim' and mechanical velocity
changes Aiu', and dummy indices are changed, Eq. 19-22 becomes
I n thkse equations the terms which are due t o oscillating conductors, oscillat-
ing currents, and oscillating reference axes have been segregated or grouped
together in that order inside braces. The oscillation of the impressed voltage
is due to the oscillation of the reference axes.
19-4. Transformation of the Equation of O~cillations.~For the
generalized machine with stationary axes the equation of oscillations is
(from Eq. 19-8)
Ae, = 9'aSAiS (19-17)
Let the currents and voltages be transformed as in which Axw' has been substituted as the variable in place of hiu' = p AxzL'
ib = Cj,i@' and e, = C,"'e,, (19-18) by transferring the p to the last (geometric) column of sap.
If p = dldt
 214 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 19 Art. 19-51 SMALL OSCILLATIONS A N D H U N T I N G 215

refers only to hia, this equation takes the form (since only the a,, terms of
Tap have p coefficients and C;,Z,,iy' = e,)
19-5. The Generalized Machine (Stationary Axes).7*8 The motional
impedance for a single machine with stationary (quasi-holonomic) reference
axes was given in Eq. 19-10. Evidently, this matrix consists of the transient
impedance matrix Zmn bordered by the matrices Gmnin,-(Gmn +G,,)i*,
and Jp. For the simple generalized machine (by Eqs. 13-3 and 13-14),

Equation 19-23 may be expressed in the form

Ae,. =Ct,TdB~i,hin' (oscillating currents)
+ Qc,T&.,~!~Ax"' (oscillating conductors)
+ C:.TaBAC$iV' (oscill. ref. axes, currents oscillating)
+ AC,",Z,,C~iY' (oscill. ref. axes, voltages oscillating)
ae,.
-- Axv' (forced oscill. of impressed voltages) (19-25)
axv3 By Eq. 19-10, the motional impedance is
From Eq. 19-9

3 4 , = Zmn + + FTVp+ Jug2

(rmn,,im + Fun)

+ Fbn+ PIm3,p+ JUvp2(19-26)

= Rmn+ Lmnp+ Gmnpe+ rmn,,im

Substituting this in Eq. 19-25 and rearranging the terms, there results the
classification

oscill. steady- change in torque due to change in voltage,

state voltage oscill. of currents oscill. conductors
k

change in torque, torque due to oscill. ref. axes

oscill. rotor mass

ir ' forced oscillations of currents

+ C:,Rm,Ct,Ain' + C:,Lm,Cl,pAin' + C:.Lm,pC~.Ain' + Cz,Omnp0C,".Ain'
f

resistance drop, inductance drop, voltage due to voltage due to

(
cI oscill. currents currents varying moving ref. axes moving conductors The steady-state currents in the bordering row and column are those
E forced oscillations of reference axes f existing a t the instant of disturbance and are found from the solution of the
+ C~,R,,AC:,i'" + Cz,LmnAC,",pin'+ ~ , 7 , L , , ( p A q , ) i " ' + C ~ , O m n p 0 A C ~ , i d
3g ' resistance drop currents varying moving ref. axes moving conductom
transient impedance equation,
em = Zmnin or in = (Zmn)-le, = Ynmem (19-29)
m + AC:.RmnC:,in' + AC:,L,,,,C;,pin' + AC:.L,,(pC;,)in' + A C ~ , O , , , , p O ~ , i d
resistance drop currents varying moving ref. axes moving conductors The velocitypfl is the constant speed vo existing at the instant of disturbance.
I
216 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 19 Art. 19-61 SMALL OSCILLATIONS A N D H U N T I N G 217

For any machine with stationary reference axes, The equation of small orjcillations (19-3) is then equivalent to

de, 3% d 2 = d(RaBip)+ d
+- (19-36)
a2
For any machine with holonomic reference axes, But, as was pointed out, this is not an invariant equation. However, by
replacing the ordinary differentials with absolute (intrinsic) differentials,
there results a n invariant form for the equation of small oscillations :

I n either case, the steady-state currents in the bordering row and column
must be replaced by
i m = C;,im' (19-32) Now, remembering that the intrinsic differential of a product follows the
same rules as ordinary differentials,
so that only the new currents im' for the particular machine will appear in
its motional impedance.
19-6. Invariant Form of the Equation of Small oscillation^.^^ The
equation of small oscillations (19-3) was obtained by taking the ordinary
derivative of the equation of motion (19-1). But in this form no single term
of Eq. 19-3 is a tensor, nor can any combination of the terms be found which
is a tensor. Moreover, the transformation to other reference frames becomes
complicated and involved. It is therefore desirable to set up the equation since 6aap = 0. The (6/6t)6isterms were added and subtracted arbitrarily
of small oscillations in an invariant form such that all its terms are tensors for reasons which will soon become apparent.
and transformations may be effected by simple tensor transformations. Substituting Eq. 19-34 in Eq. 19-38, th2re results
The intrinsic derivative for a holonomic reference frame was defined in
Eq. 10-19 in terms of the Christoffel symbols. This definition is extended
to nonholonomic reference frames upon replacing each Christoffel symbol
d!( with the corresponding affine connection FtY. The two are equal in a
in which the quantity in parentheses defines a new "resistance tensor of rank
holonomic frame. I n general then, from Eqs. 10-19 and 10-24, the absolute 3" designated Rvpa.
or intrinsic derivatives and differentials are defined as Applying the definition (Eq. 19-33) t o the terms of Eq. 19-39, there
results
dip -
-dip
-+ r:,i" dxy dip
-
6t
-
dt
- = -+
dt dt
rS imiy
by

It is left as an exercise to show that the absolute differential of the metric

tensor is zero, Baas = 0.
The equation of motion (19-1) may be rewritten in terms of the intrinsic
derivative as

= R,$ + a,, -
6ip
6t
218 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 19 Art. 19-71 SMALL OSCILLATIONS A N D H U N T I N G 219

The difference between Eqs. 1 9 4 1 and 1 9 4 2 is 19-7. Sinusoidal disturbance^.^.^ Suppose that the disturbance is a
sinusoidal variation ho, where h is its ratio to normal frequency. Such
a disturbance may be due to a variation of shaft torque in a motor driving a
reciprocating compressor, or to the variation of terminal voltage on a motor
= ~,;;&'i&
dxY (1943) connected to a power source containing harmonics.
in which there has been defined a new tensor, KGifl, called the "generalized Where the currents in the bordering row and column are constant (this
Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor." Its covariant form is case includes all d-c machines, synchronous machines with stationary axes,
aU S K &YA
" . @ = K&Y .la (1944)
and induction or commutator machines whose reference axes move with the

Substituting Eq. 1 9 4 3 in Eq. 19-39 and then substituting Eqs. 19-39 TABLE 19-1
and 19-40 in Eq. 19-37, there finally results as the invariant form of the
Fundamental, w Hunting, o h Double, w ( l f h)
equation of small oscillations
em, im

Oscillating

rotating air gap field), the current and velocity changes Aia are all of hunting
Now in rotating electric machines the affine connection is a function
frequency h o corresponding to the torque and voltage changes Ae, of the
only of the mechanical variables, and therefore i t can be differentiated only same frequency. Then in the motional impedance matrix the following
with respect to the mechanical variables, xu = 8. changes are made :
The curvature tensor (Eq. 1 9 4 3 ) is skew-symmetric in its f i s t two indices
as can be seen by interchanging E and y in its definition; that is, 1. p = jho where
oscillation frequency
h=
Moreover, must always be a mechanical index, u, as can be seen by writing fundamental frequency
out the affine connections in full, according to identity 10-61, remembering 2. Multiply all terms in the bordering column by w and compensatingly
that the metric tensor ampis a function only of the mechanical variables. divide the velocity change Ape by o so that
Furthermore, either E or y must be a mechanical index for the same reason.
From the observations above i t is found that the only curvature tensors
A @ = ~ 2 ) 0 =v =
~ speed variation
which need t o be calculated are w o synchronous (or average) speed
3. Multiply all terms in the bordering row by w so that the torque change
AT is measured in synchronous watts :

w AT = A ( o T ) = AT,,,,.,
The equation of small voltages then is (putting u = m) I n those cases where the steady-state torques and velocities are constant
and the voltages and currents are of fundamental frequency, the torque and
velocity changes will be of two different frequencies, m(1 f h) (see Table
19-1). Therefore the motional jmpedance equation must be solved by separat-
The equa,tion of small torques then is (putting u = u) ing the electrical and mechanical quantities:
de, 6% dxu = Ruv 6iV+ a,,
+-
6x"
-
6t
+
6 6iv RyuuiSdxY f Keyu,iEiu
dzy (1948)

Invariant forms will not be discussed further here.

220 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 19 Ch. 191 SMALL OSCILLATIONS A N D H U N T I N G
22 1
From Eq. 1 9 4 9 , the current changes are 19-2. Derive Eq. 19-3 by substituting (ifl + Aifl), etc., in Eq. 19-1, multiply
out, drop product terms of higher order such as A@ Aiv, and subtract the original
h i n = (Zrnn)-l( h e , - Gmninhi") = Ynm(Aem- ym Ape) (19-50) equation (19-1).
19-3. Starting with the equation Ae, = f aS Aip, show that the transformation
and therefore the equation of small currents is the same as the current of the motional impedance given in Eq. 19-8 is indeed fa,B' as given in
equation if the voltage is replaced by the sum of the applied voltage variation Eq. 19-12.
he, and a generated voltage ( - y , Ape) due to the oscillation of the con- 1 9 4 . Reconcile Eq. 19-31 with Eq. 19-12.
ductors. The frequency of the flux y, is w, and that of the oscillation Ape 19-5. Verify the entries in Table 19-1 and the various frequencies described
is h o , and there are therefore two product frequencies, (h f l ) o , of the in the paragraph following Eq. 19-50.
current. Each frequency component of current must be calculated separately 19-6. Show that Eq. 19-53 does imply Eq. 19-54.
+
by replacing p in Zmn first by p = ( h l ) w and then by p = (h - 1 ) ~ .
Then for each h i n as found from Eq. 19-50 the change in torque is calculated
by Eq. 1 9 4 9 . But in the equation of small torque the current im is of
frequency o and its product with Ain of frequencies ( h f 1)w yields resultant
+
frequencies o [ ( h&- 1 ) f 11 = o ( h 2), oh, o ( h - 2 ) . Ordinarily the
(h f 2 ) o frequencies will be ignored.
19-8. Damping and Synchronizing T0rques.7~~The equation of
small oscillations may be split into its voltage and torque components as in
Eq. 1 9 4 9 . If the terminals are short-circuited, Ae, = 0, and if the inertia
is ignored, J = 0 , these equations may be solved to give the electric torque

Under oscillating conditions a t one frequency, h o , upon substituting p = jho,

Eq. 19-51 is a complex number :

AT', = ( T s + jhoT,) A0 (19-52)

in which T D is called the damping torque and Ts the synchronizing torque.

The machine will hunt when T D is negative.
I n terms of ' T and
~ T s the equation of small torque is

where the approximation holds for small values of TD/Ts.

These equations are solved by successive trials, starting with an assumed
value for h and ending with a calculated value of h in Eq. 19-54. When the
two values are substantially equal, the calculation is complete.

PROBLEMS

19-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail each step
in the derivations.
 Art. 20-31 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 223

An inJinite bus is defined as a d-c excited fundamental frequency generator

having zero armature resistances and inductances, and no amortisseur
windings. Putting

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES7*' in Eq. 20-1, i t is seen that the only armature voltage is

20-1. The Transient Impedance (Stationary Axes). The analysis for along the q'-axis of the infinite bus, and i t is constant.
a synchronous machine may start from either the first (quasi-holonomic) or If this voltage lags the generator q-axis by an angle 6 , the voltage matrix
second (holonomic) kind of generalized machine, but it is generally simpler of the generator is
to start with the first kind. The impedance for a generator with C.W.rotation,
direct axis salient pole field (df), amortisseur windings on both axes (dk, qk),
and stationary armature (da, qa) is found from Eq. 13-5 by changing all
signs (to convert from motor to generator) and adding additional terms for
the amortisseur windings, thus : Thus the voltages along the d- and q-axes are constant, or d-c voltages, if 6
df dk qk da '?a is constant.
f
L

1 If the machine is running below synchronous speed, so that pe = vw,

I-
L P ~ ~ f k p --"fd~
f -
I- where v is a fraction less than unity,
dk -"fk~ -'kd -Lkd~ -"kd~

Zmn = qk -rk, - L,P -M,P

da -Mfdp -Mkdp lnhpe

--
I -r I
- L d ~ LQ~B and the voltage matrix becomes

qa -MfdpB -MkdpB - M ~ P I
- L , ~ B - r - Lap df dk qk da !?a

The matrix has been arranged differently from that of Eq. 13-5 in order to E 0 0 - e sinsot e cos sot (204)
facilitate a future elimination of axes. If there is no amortisseur winding in
an axis, the corresponding row and column are deleted. If a current is Under sudden short-circuit conditions, the cancellation of the armature
known t o be zero (for example, an open-circuited winding), the corresponding voltages by the short circuit is equivalent to the application of unit functions
column is deleted. (in the Heaviside sense), and the voltage matrix is
/d'
df 20-2. The Steady-StateVoltages. Under
steady-state conditions, the voltage on the field
winding is d-c, and the voltages on the short-
circuited amortisseur windings are, of course,
zero. It is customary to refer the armature 20-3. Subsynchronous Speed. If a machine is connected to a n infinite
voltages t o an injnite bus, assuming the field bus but is running below synchronous speed, its speed is p0 = vw, where
of the alternator to be ahead of the bus field v is a fraction (v < 1.0). The fundamental frequency currents applied t o the
$q'
U by the torque angle 8. The angle 6 is positive armature develop an mmf rotating in the forward direction a t synchronous
for a generator and negative for a motor, and speed with respect t o the stationary armature. But, since the field poles
its magnitude is proportional t o the load on (and therefore the d-, q-axes) are rotating forward a t speed vw,the armature
Fig. 20-1. Machine on an
infinite bus. the machine.
 [Ch. 20 Art. 20-51 S Y N C H R O N O U S MACHINES 225
224 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS
That is, there are no currents or voltages in the amortisseur windings, and the
mmf is rotating forward a t speed (w - vo) = s o , or slip frequency (s < 1.0),
corresponding rows and columns of Eq. 20-1 may be deleted. The equation
with respect to the d - , q-axes. Therefore the voltages induced in these axes
of voltage is simply
by this armature mmf are a t slip frequency, and in all hp terms of the
da
transient impedance matrix i t is necessary to substitute

and for the speed voltages, represented by the Lp6 terms, i t is necessary t o
substitute
Lpe = Lvo = v x

The a-c phasor quantities, a t slip frequency, corresponding to the voltage

terms in Eq. 2 0 4 are
d - -e sin s o t - j B = e cos s o t
If the field is short-circuited, the equation of voltage is found by making the The last term (-XfdI) is the open-circuit induced voltage, ef. The terms
above substitutions in Eq. 20-1, which then becomes (putting X , = o M d k , Xaiqand -Xdid are speed voltages (not reactance drops) generated by rotation
etc.) of the conductors of one axis through the armature reaction field in the

1
df dk qk da other axis.
df - r f - jaX, -jaXfk -jsXfd The admittance matrix is

dk -jaXfk -rkd - jaXkd -jsxod

-rh - jaXm -jaX, 9

'
= qk

da -jaXfd -jaXad vx, -r - jaXd vX,

-jax,q -vXd -r -jax, a

,:

(20-6) and the currents are

If the field is open-circuited during subsynchronous speed, the df column
df da
in Eq. 20-6 is deleted.
20-4. Synchronous Speed and Steady State. At synchronous speed
v = 1.0, and in all speed voltage terms p6 = o. All armature currents in
the d- and q-axes are a t zero frequency, so that p = 0 in the da and qa
columns of Eq. 20-1. The field voltage, E, and current, I, are d-c, so that 20-5. Elimination of Axes. The rotor axes (df, dlc, qk) of Eq. 20-1 may
p = 0 in the df column. The amortisseur voltages are zero, since these are be eliminated by any of the methods of Chapter 11, or simply by solving the
permanently short-circuited windings. Then from Eq. 20-1 the voltage first three rows for the currents in these axes and substituting them in the
equations for the amortisseur windings are last two rows. Regardless of the method, the reduced voltage and impedance
matrices become

-- -- (20-12)
from which i t is seen that
idk - %.ak = 0
-
226 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Art. 20-61 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 227

in which there are the operational inductances and the torque is

Solving Eq. 20-19 for the currents by multiplying both sides by the
inverse of the impedance matrix,

When the resistances are neglected, the operational impedances are called
the direct and quadrature subtransient reactances. 204. Equivalent Circuits of the Operational Impedances. If all
The terminal voltages, by Eq. 20-12, are mutual inductances in an axis are equal, and self-inductances are expressed

ed =G ~ LrE
( ~ )- + f Lg(~)~8ig
L d ( ~ ) ~ l i d
(20-14)
eg = G(pIp8E - Ld(p)p0id- [r L9(p)plia +
The torque exerted on the stationary armature is then the sum of the
products of the p8 voltage terms and the corresponding currents ; thus

( a ) Direct axis
When t,here are no amortisseur windings, the inductance expressions
reduce to

( b Quadrature axis
Fig. 20-2.
in which is defined the Jield time constant,
as the sum of leakage and mutual inductances, then Eqs. 20-13 may be
To=- bf expressed in the form
rf
and the short-circuit inductance,

'J f

Under steady-state conditions, putting p =0 and pe = w ,Eqs. 20-13 give

Ld(0) = Ld, LQ(0)= L,, G(0) = M f d h where
and Eq. 20-12 becomes Lad = Mfd = Mkd = M f k are mutual inductances of the d-axis.
Laa = Mkg.
L,, L f , Lk,, Lk, are leakage inductances of armature, field, and amortisseur.
(20-19) These expressions are now seen to correspond to the equivalent circuits of
e cos 6 - EXfd/rf -xd -r Fig. 20-2.
228 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Art. 20-71 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 229

20-7. Equivalent Circuit of the Synchronous Machine (Steady-

If it is assumed, as in the preceding section, that all mutual
inductances in the d-axis are equal to Lad and all mutual inductances in the
q-axis are equal to La,, the impedance matrix for a motor-reversing all signs
in Eq. 20-6-becomes

in which ef = (e, +
je,) and eb-= (e, - je,). The torque matrix follows from
Eq. 20-19 upon transforming the terms having v as a coefficient; i t is
This matrix can be converted t o a symmetrical form by the following
substitutionls of forward and backward current components (if, ib)

idf - 8' 'df

- dj

idk = (jfk + jbk)/2 dk

(20-28)
jqk - 1
- -j(ifk- ibk)/2 0, c;, = - qk The cross-flux matrix then is
2
id"= (ifa+ jba)/2 do 09#,. = OGmtn,in'=

=B
= +(;fa 3
iqa - ba
i )I- Q" fa +j(Xod+Xw)ifk+j(Xod-Xw)ibk+
2jXadidf j ( X d + X u ) i f a +j ( X d - X u ) i k
4
ba -2jX,idf - X u ) i f a - j ( X d + X , ) i b a-
-j(X,-X,)ifk-fiX,,+X,,)P-j(Xd
This is the rotating field, or 2-phase symmetrical component, transformation
of synchronous machine theory. * (20-29)
If the impedance (Eq. 20-23) is transformed by Eq. 20-24 as c , Z m n C , . The torque, per phase, is
and a t the same time the voltage equations (rows of Zmtn,)are divided by s
+
for t,he df, fk, and bk, by (s v) for the fa, and by (s - v) for the ba rows,
Since the impedance matrix of Eq. 20-27 is symmetrical, i t may be
represented by the equivalent circuit of Fig. 20-3a. This may be verified by
tracing through the meshes in accordance with Kirchhoff's second law (after
putting Xd = Xad
and Xf = Xu, +
xf).
+ +
X,, Xq = Xuq Xt, Xkd = Xad f Xkd, Xk, = Xaq Xkq, +
df fk bk fa ba
The cross-flux (Eq. 20-29) is represented in this equivalent circuit by the
idf I jfk jbk j jfa jba (20-26) voltages E; and Ei, as can be verified by tracing out on the diagram.
I
230 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Art. 20-a S Y N C H R O N O U S MACHINES 231
In addition to the currents flowing in response to the applied voltages ef
and e,, there are the currents flowing in response to the d-c excitation E. The
amortisseur currents ifkand ibkare zero, and the other currents are constant
under this condition. Therefore, putting 8 = 0 in Eq. 20-23, deleting the
k-axes, and transforming by Eq. 20-24,
df fa ba

Eliminating the df-axis,

( a ) Equivalent circuit for armature voltages

( b ) Equivalent circuit for field voltage
Fig. 20-3. Equivalent circuit of the salient pole synchronous machine at
non-synchronous speed.
(20-34)
The equivalent circuit for the d-c excitation is shown in Fig. 20-3b.
The torques (in synchronous watts) which would be measured by watt-
meters in the equivalent circuits with armature applied voltages (W, and
W,), and with field voltages (W, and W,) are given in Pig. 20-3, and their
sum is the total torque. When both field and armature are excited, the two
sets of fluxes and currents produce slip-frequency torques, given by the
watts and vars W, + jQ5, etc. The crest of the oscillating torque per phase
is To.
In machines with smooth air gaps, X,, = X,,, the capacitance element of
Fig. 20-3 becomes a short circuit.
232 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Art. 20-81 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 233

At synchronous speed, s = 0, three of the branches in Fig. 20-3 become By the general transformation formula for the impedance, and for 8, = 8,
open circuits, and the two circuits may be combined as shown in Fig.. 2 0 4 .
The presence of a negative resistance in this network does not permit a
direct representation on a calculating board.
The elimination of the field axis in Eq. 20-31 and the elimination of the
amortisseur windings lead to more simplified equivalent circuits, but the ds a b q8
matter will not be pursued further here. rd, + Ld,p M,(cos 8 p - sin 8 p8)
1 -Md(sin8p+cos8p8)
0 I

+ 2(Ld. - L.,) sin 8 cos 8 p 8

i Ma(sin 8 P + cos 13P O )

The V,,,, matrix comprises all terms having p8 as a coefficient.

Eq. 20-37 may be brought into simpler form by the substitutions
Fig. 20-4. Fig. 20-5. Two-phase machine.
(COS Op - sin 8 p8)i = p(cos 8 i)
20-8. Two-Phase Alternator Referred to Moving Axes.8 The
impedance and inductance matrices of a synchronous machine with rotating (sin 8 p + cos 8 p8)i = p(sin 8 i )
armature referred to stationary axes are
[sin 8 cos 8 p + (cos28 - sin28)p8]i = p(sin 8 cos 8 i)
(cos28 p - 2 sin 8 cos 8 p8)i = p(cos28 i)

(sin2 8 p + 2 sin 8 cos 8 p8)i = p(sin28 i)

Hebce, with the understanding that p refers to both the currents and 8 terms,
The transformation matrix to rotating holonomic axes fixed to the slip
ds a b 'P
rings, and its derivative are ,
czs rds f L d s ~ pMd cos 8 - p M d sin 8 1 0
ds a b US cls a
a p M d cos 8 r + p ( A + B cos 28) - p B sin 28 p M , sin 8
z,,,, = .
b -pMdsin 8 - p B sin 28 + P ( A - B cos 2 0 ) P M , cos 8

'P 0 p M , sin 8 pM, cos 8 1 pas +L ~ P

234 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Art. 20-101 S Y N C H R O N O U S MACHINES 235
The new inductance matrix L,,,, comprises all terms having p as a
coefficient, the new resistance matrix comprises all r terms, and the new
is therefore second harmonic. Let Ll = (La, LqT)/2be the average and+
L, = (La, - LaT)/2 be the variation of the inductance. Then the rotor
voltage equation becomes self-inductances take the form
La = Ll + L, cos 28
The saliency of the poles gives rise to the second harmonic term of Eq. L, = Ll + L, cos 2(8 + 120") (2042)
20-38. For a machine with smooth air gap, L,, = LdT,B = 0, A = Ldrt L, = Ll + L, cos 2(8 + 240")
and all the double-frequency terms in Eq. 20-38 drop out.
The torque matrix is found by transforming the p 8 terms of Z,, (the G,,
matrix). It is
ds a b 98

A - B cos 20 M , cos 0
a,.,. = c:,c;,a,* =
b - M d cos 0 - A - B cos 20 B sin 20 -M , sin 0

20-9. Single-Phase A l t e r n a t ~ r .The

~ single-phase alternator may be
regarded as a 2-phase machine with one phase opened. Hence, deleting the b
column a,nd row of Eq. 20-38, the single-phase impedance matrix is seen to be
( a ) Quasi - holonomic ( b ) Holonomic ( c ) Variation of
inductance
Fig. 20-6.

The mutual inductance between a phase and a stator (d or q) axis varies

sinusoidally, causing flux linkages
pM, sin 0 r,, + LWP
4d = Ldsids+ MdS[cos8 iQ+ cos (8 + 120")ib+ cos (8 + 240")iC]
Under steady-state conditions when ids= I (d-c field current) and (2043)
m t current in the slip rings), it is necessary to substitute p = 0
i a = ~ a ~ i (a-c 49 = LQSias+ +,,[sin 8 ia + sin (8 + 120")ib+ sin (8 + 240")iC]
in the ds and qs columns, and p = jw in the a and b columns. Then the terms The mutual inductances between phases are determined by finding the
jwL may be replaced by corresponding reactances j X if desired. flux linkages of one phase due to a unit current in another. Using the
notation for the flux linkage of a due t o a unit current ib,
20-10. Three-Phase Synchronous Machine (Holonomic Axes).24
Either the inductance matrix may be set up directly from physical considera- 1q,, = +,(,) = 4 d ( b ) COS 6 + 4db) sin 8
tions pertaining to the holonomic frame, or else transformed from the = MdTcos + 120") cos 8 + MqTsin (8 + 120") sin 8
(8
quasi-holonomic frame. Since the latter procedure was employed in the
case of the2-phase machine in the preceding section, the first procedure will be
= -MI + M , cos 2(8 + 60")
followed in the present case and then i t will be confirmed by the other method. = +a(c) = +d(e) cos 8
Jloc + 4qcc) sin 8
Fig. 20-6b shows an ideal 3-phase machine in which the a, b, c phases = Ma, cos (8 + 240") cos 8 + M,, sin (8 + 240") sin 8 (2044)
are 120" apart and phase a is centered a t an angle 8 ahead of the d-axis. = -M, + M, cos 2(e + 120")
Owing to the saliency of the poles, the rotor inductances will vary (sinu-
soidally, by assumption) from a maximum value L,, when the phase is
= +b(c) = 4d(c,cos (8 + 120") + +g,c,
sin (8 120") +
centered on the pole to a minimum value L,, when the phase is centered on +
= iM,, cos (8 240") cos (8 120") +
the interpolar axis (Fig. 20-6c). Thus the inductance passes through a + +
M,, sin (8 240") sin (8 120") +
complete cycle for every 180" rotation of the armature phase, and its variation = -MI +
M, cos 2(8 180") +
236 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Art. 20-1 I] S Y N C H R O N O U S MACHINES

ds a b

The holonomic inductance matrix then is

~ f , ,cos (6 + 1
240')

a1 Mds c o s 0 1 Ll +
4 cos 26

Ll +
L, cos 2(0 + -MI +
M , cos 26
/1 A&, sin (6 +
120") I

.I;II '
where
Jfd, cos (0 + -MI + Ll + I M,,, sin (0 +
L , cos 2(0 + ! 240') The holonomic inductance matrix checks (Eq. 2 0 4 6 ) exactly when
M 2 cos);:2: 240') computed by
DlQ,sin (6 + I M,. sin (6240')
120°) I
+ 1 L,, L,.,, = C,".CEfLrnn (20-48)
Comparing the two methods, it is evident that the transformation from
the quasi-holonomic frame required little thinking beyond establishing the
Now let this be confirmed by a transformation from the quasi-holonomic transformation matrix and leads to the final result by a routine process.
frame. I n that frame the three phases must be represented by three separate Moreover, the second harmonic terms came in automatically, But setting
rotor windings, as shown in Fig. 20-6a. The inductances are all constants, up the inductance matrix directly in the holonomic frame required consider-
and the transformation matrix follows upon comparison of Figs. 20-6a able appeal to the physics of the situation and, in particular, careful deter-
and 20-6b. Thus mination of the stator and rotor mutual inductances and recognition of the
second harmonic variation of the rotor self-inductances. I n all machines
ds drl dr2 dr3 qr3 qr2 qr1 qs whose analysis permits a quasi-holonomic reference frame, it is generally
simpler to start from that frame.
I n treatises on synchronous machines,14 it is customary to replace the
self- and mutual inductances by "3-phase" values, or some other combina-
tions, but no purpose is served here by making these substitutions.
I
?he holonomic torque matrix is

-- I _ _ _-- --
I
The holonomic impedance matrix and voltage equation are
z,, = +
(Rrnpn, PL,,,,) (20-49)
e m , = R,,,,in' + p(Lrn,,.in') (20-50)
From here on, the analysis of a synchronous machine follows the pattern
first formulated by R. H. Park and given in detail in Concordia's book.14
20-1 1. Interconnection of Synchronous Machines.'y8 When two or
more synchronous machines are interconnected, a transformation matrix
238 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Art. 20-1 I] S Y N C H R O N O U S MACHINES 239

may be set up from the diagram of connections representing the intercon- It is to be noted that this final result could have been written directly
nections in terms of the slip ring currents, that is, referred t o holonomic axes: from Fig. 20-7 by placing the (dr,, qr,) axes of the first machine on the sketch
im= C'",jm' (20-51) of the second machine an angle 6 ahead and reversing the currents.
The same matrix results for rotating field machines if the poles of the
Both the old currents im(comprising all currents in the group of machines)
first machine are an angle 6 ahead of those of the second machine.
and the new currents im'are with respect to moving axes. Each of them may
be referred t o stationary axes by appropriate transformations :
c;,,jm"
jm = (20-52)
cr'p
im3= (20-53)
Then
jm" = c;"jm = c;"c;,jm' = c,rn"c~,cr';a
= c,mP'ja (20-54)
,4s an example, consider the two simple synchronous machines, say a
generator and a motor, of Fig. 20-7. The second machine is running a t a n
angle 6 = 0, - 0, ahead of the first machine. The transformation matrices
of Eqs. 20-51, 20-52, and 20-53 are then (only the rotor axes need to be
considered in these transformations, since the stator currents are independent
in the two machines and do not change to new values)
Fig. 20-7. T w o synchronous machines.
machine axes,
c;, = The voltage and impedance matrices for two machines, after the field and
stationary axes amortisseur axes have been eliminated, follows from Eq. 20-12 :
\ mf \ m/!
cr,] cos 0, sin 13, I I
bl 1- sin 0, cos B,
8
1
I I
(1, I cos 0 , 1 sin 6 , I

C,"' i'"'paxes,i
moving to
stationary
= ;:t cos
--
-sin 0,
el sin

cos 0,
1 d l edl - G,(p)pEl - ed2cos 6

q~ egl - G,(p)pO,E,
+ G,(p)pE,cos 6
+ ed, sin 6 - G,(p)pE2sin 6
-

-
eq2sin 6

e,, cos 8
+ G Z ( P ) P ~sin~ E6Z
+ Gz(P)P&Ezcos 6
The transformation matrix of the interconnection in terms of stationary (20-58)
zap= c;"c;"z,," =
axes then is (by Eq. 20-54) dl u1

-,7
-cos 6 sin 6
240 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20
Art. 20-131 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 24 1
However, in Eq. 20-58 e,, cos 6 = e,, and e,, sin 6 = -e,, so that some with stationary reference axes the transformation matrix has constant
terms are canceled. elements Cz, = 6:, so that Eq. 19-23 reduces to
If the machines are similar and running a t the same speed, so that Gl(p) =
G,(p), L,, = L,,, r, = r,, and pel = PO,, the equations simplify considerably.
20-12. Ignoring the Quadrature Axes.8 For balanced voltages and During hunting, the angle 6 varies, and, since 8 = ot + 6,
smooth air gap machines the armature voltages and currents in the q-axis are
identical with those in the d-axis, but occur 90' later in time. The q-axis
may then be eliminated by the polyphase matrix of Eq. 11-17:
The transient impedance matrix for a synchronous machine with rotating
field and amortisseur windings is given in Eq. 20-1. The torque matrix
comprises the terms in Eq. 20-1 having p 8 as a coefficient:

da
Gmn = --- (20-65)
The voltage, current, and impedance matrices for a simple synchronous qa -"df -"dk -L d
motor then become
elf da The bordering column and row of the motional impedance matrix (Eq.
19-28) then are, respectively,

The motional impedance (Eqs. 19-10 and 20-1) then is (using s for the he

.
coordinate)

The same result may be obtained by simply noticing that the currents in the
q-axes are the same as those in the corresponding d-axes but lagging by 90".
Hence -j times a q-column is subtracted from a d-axis.
20-13. Hunting and oscillation^.^^^ The motional impedance for the
simple generalized machine is given by Eq. 19-28'. The steady-state voltage
a t synchronous speed is (from Eq. 20-3),

The law of transformation for the motional impedance from a quasi-holonomic

reference frame is given by Eq. 19-23. But for the synchronous machine
242 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Art. 20441 S Y N C H R O N O U S MACHINES 243
while the changes in voltage and current are The motional impedance (Eq. 19-24) in this case reduces to

9a.B. = C:L';,9aB + C,".Sa, ac;.

- iy' + ac:,
ad
-
ad*
(20-72)

in which p refers only to Aia'.

The motional impedance for each synchronous machine is the same a s
that for the generalized machine of Eq. 19-28. If the last column of Eq.
If the rotor axes df,dk, and qk are eliminated, the equation of oscillations 19-29 is multiplied b y p and correspondingly A0 is substituted for Aia = Ape,
reduces to and if then the stator axes are eliminated, there finally results for the two
machines before interconnection
-'. -L d ( ~ l ~ Lal~)~O 1 ydp - 00s 4 dr1 qrl

--Ld(p)p0 / -r. - &(PIP i yhp + e sin d VdlP /

(20-70)
igLd(~) - yd -idLq(~) - ya Jp2

Aid° A84 A6
i
.!

in which G(p), L,(p), and L,(p) are as defined in Eq. 20-13. For sustained
hunting, substitute p = jhw in Eq. 20-70.
20-14. Interconnected Synchronous Machines Os~illating.'.~If
the rotors of both machines in Fig. 20-7 are oscillating, then AO, - AO, =
Ad. With respect to stationary axes, the reference axes of the first machine
may be considered fixed while the axes of the second machine oscillate by A6
The first term of Eq. 20-72 is
about their mean position. Then AC:, is not zero. Alsopd = p(02 - 8,) = 0
for the average velocity, and therefore c:,qpcg.=
dr1

Lblpel
and p Act, = 0. Since the steady-state currents along the stationary axes 6)p + (L;,, sin8 6 + L:,, cos8 6)p& ydlp
are constant, piy' = 0, and as there are no impressed voltages on the slip
+ (L;,, - L;,,) sin 6 cos 6 p02 + (L;,, Li,,) sin 6 cos 6 p
-

rings, ae,/aO = 0.
The transformation matrix is the same as in Eq. 20-56 with sl and s,
rows and columns added:

The transformatl'on matrix (Eq. 20-71) is a function of 6 = 8, - el,

and therefore
244 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 20 Ch. 201 S Y N C H R O N O U S MACHINES 245

Then, in the second term of Eq. 20-72, 20-4. The transformation matrix (Eq. 20-24), defines the old currents in

-
~1 82 terms of the new currents (if, ib). By reading the columns, does this matrix also
define the (if,ib)currents in terms of the (id,i q ) currents?
20-5. From Eq. 20-29 identify E; and Ei and from Eq. 20-34 identify E;
and El in Fig. 20-3.
20-6. Prove that T oin Fig. 20-3 gives the crest of the oscillating torque.
This result becomes evident without performing the matrix multiplications 20-7. Show that Eq. 20-38 follows directly from Eqs. 20-35 and 20-36 if
~ , the p in Z,, refers to both the currents and 6 terms.
Z,,,, = C ~ , Z m n Cand
if it is remembered that C$(aC$/aO) is the rotation matrix of Eq. 13-24.
20-8. If Ldr = Lqr, then B = 0 in Eq. 20-40 and the torque terms due to
Multiplying Eq. 20-76 by (C:,2YaB), the second term of Eq. 20-72 becomes
salient poles vanish. is cuss this reluctance torque.
s1 82 20-9. Check Eq. 20-46 by Eq. 20-47.
20-10. Verify Eq. 20-56 by following the suggestion given directly below
k 8 PO, - cos 6(r,, + L & r z ~ )-iq*[L&,,
i q T 2 [ Lsin l sin 6 p 8 , cos 6(r,, + L;,zp)]
-
that equation. Show the appropriate diagrams of connection.
+--ide[L;,2 cos 6 PO, + sin 6(rr2+ L ~ , , p ) l -id*[L& cos 6 p 8 , + sin 6(r,, + Li,,p)] 20-1 1. Simplify Eqs. 20-57, 20-58, and 20-59 for the case where the two
-
machines are similar and running at the same speed.
iqT2[L;,2~ 06sP ~ +Z sin 8(r,, + L&,ap)l -iqT2[L~,, cos 6 p 6 , + sin 6(r,, + L ; , , ~ ) ] 20-12. Obtain Eq. 20-61 without employing the polyphase matriu, but
-idr2[L;,2 sin 6 PO, - cos 4 r , , + L;,,p)l +ide[L,,, sin 6 p 8 , cos 6(r,, + L,,,p)]
-
justify the procedure.
--
ion ( iVTZ Lip, - yd2)+ idrZ(idr2L;,r+ yip,) -iq*(iq*L' dre - +
Y ~ Z-) id*(idr2L~12% a )
20-13. Is Eq. 20-64 true if ot is not constant?
20-14. Write out the complete motional impedance matrix of Eq. 20-80.
(20-77)
The last term of Eq. 20-72 contains the pre-oscillating steady-state
voltage,
drl qrl sl dr2 qr2 s2
e, = ~8,iS=
' O ed,2 em 0 (20-78)
aB B earl %I

Multiplying Eq. 20-78 by Eq. 20-75, the last term of Eq. 20-72 becomes

drl -ear, sin 6 + e,,, cos 6 I

e,,, sin 6 - e,,, cos 6
--- (20-79)
qrl -edT, cos 6 - eQ,, sin 6 e, cos 6 + e,., sin 6

The motional impedance for the two machines is then the sum of the
equations
TZ.,,
= (20-74) + (20-77) + (20-79) (20-80)

PROBLEMS

20-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail each step in
the derivations.
20-2. If the machine in Fig. 20-1 is running above synchronous speed and is
oscillating a t an angular velocity hw about its mean speed, what is the voltage
matrix corresponding to Eq. 20-3?
20-3. The equivalent circuits of Fig. 20-2 define the subtransient impedances
of a synchronous machine. What are the equivalent circuits for the transient
impedances of Eq. 20-169
 Art. 21-21 INDUCTION MACHINES 247

21-2. Two-Phase Symmetrical Comp0nents.~*8Let 2-phase sym-

metrical (revolving field) components (Fig. 21-1)
be introduced by the transformation matrix

INDUCTION MACHINES

21-1. Stationary Axes77* The equations of performance for both single

and polyphase induction machines are most easily derived by starting with Fig. 21-1. Two-phase
Ps symmetrical components.
the quasi-holonomic generalized machine. Induction machines have smooth Y
air gaps, and their impedance, torque, and voltage matrices referred to The steady-state matrices become (Z,.,, = CiTE,Z,,) :
stationary axes are 1s lr 2s 2r
ds dr ar as m-
1s 7, +jx, jXm

1 1 -v) T +jX,(l -v)

z,,,. =-
2s r, + jX, 5%
2r I jxm(l + V) 7 + jX,(l + v )
(21-4)

lr - j x m -jx,
warn,,, = -
I 2r
If the rotor is short-circuited (as in a squirrel-cage induction motor), or
closed through external impedances (as in a wound rotor induction motor
with external resistors), the applied rotor voltages vanish, e,, = e,, = 0.
If the motor is operating with a-c applied voltages and a t slip s = (1 - v),
the steady-state matrices are found by substituting p = jm and p8 = vw. Let the l r row of Z,.,, and em, be divided by (1 - v) = s and the 2r row
Then Lp = jwL = jX and Mp8 = vwM = v X m and
248 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 Art. 21-41 I N D U C T I O N MACHINES 249
Expressing the self-reactances as sums of leakage and mutual reactances of performance greatly simplified. Multiplying the impedance matrix by the
( X , = x,+ X , and X , = x, +X,), doubling the impedances, and halving polyphase matrix,
the currents, these equations correspond to the equivalent circuit of
Fig. 21-2.
The torque, in synchronous watts, is

and is given as the sum of the wattmeter readings for the rotor resistance
elements.
4 ixs ix,
-

I n the steady state, substituting p = j o , p0 = vo, and (1 - v) = s,

Fig. 21-2. Equivalent current of the induction motor.

For an applied voltage e,, = d the currents and torques are
The rotor axes are short-circuited and therefore may be eliminated by the
short-circuit matrix or otherwise. The impedance matrix (Eq. 21-5) then
reduces t o

in which 2, and 2, are, respectively, the positive and negative sequence
impedances.
21-3. Balanced Polyphase Voltages. When the applied stator voltages
are balanced (equal magnitudes and the q-axis voltage lagging the d-axis
voltage by 90' in time), the phenomena occurring in the q-axis are exactly
the same as those which occurred in the d-axis a quarter cycle earlier. Then
the polyphase matrix given by Eq. 11-17 may be employed and the equations
This motor is a special case of the double squirrel-cage induction motor
discussed later. I t s equivalent circuit is the same as that in Fig. 21-7 with
the r, and x, elements deleted. I t may also be regarded as a special case of
the split-phase motor of Fig. 21-10, where Z = 0, n = 1, and its equivalent
circuit is that of Fig. 21-11d.
21-4. Three-Phase Induction Motor.8 The stator phase windings
a, b, and c of a 3-phase induction motor are spaced 120' apart, and each phase
 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 Art. 21-41 I N D U C T I O N MACHINES

The impedance matrix referred to moving axes is

GJ ern.
eqr 9
( a ) Moving axes
qsl q s 2

( b ) Stationary axes
Fig. 21-3. Three-phase induction motor.
is assumed to belong to its own winding layer (Fig. 21-3), so that the trans- where
formation matrix between stationary and moving axes is A = ( -M p +& ~ p 8 ) / 2 B = ( -M p - A ~p8)/2

If the rotor axes (dr, qr) are eliminated,

Z,"," = e
(

in which
eos 30' 1 ! I
The impedance matrix, referred to stationary axes, is (putting Z =r + Lp)

Transforming to symmetrical sequence axes (0, 1, 2) b y

252 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 Art. 21-51 I N D U C T I O N MACHINES 253
there results The impedance matrix (Eq. 21-17) could also have been found by adding
0 1 2 t o the impedance matrix of Eq. 21-2 extra zero sequence rows and columns,

(21-16) 0s TO, + jXo8

(21-20)
Or To? + XW
in which and then transforming by the sequence matrix,

The steady-state matrix is given by substituting p = jw and pe =

(1 - s)w, in which s is the slip. If a t the same time 3-phase constants are
used by substituting

L, = jL, + JL,, M, = $L, - $Lo, QW = M 2

the steady-state matrix takes the form The voltage matrix is
0s 1s 2s

eo Hed, + je,J H e d s - je,.) (21-22)

21-5. Single-Phase Induction M o t ~ r The . ~ ~connection

~ diagram of
this motor, referred t o stationary axes, is shown in Fig. 2 1 4 . I t s transient
impedance and torque matrices are the same as for the generalized machine
with only three axes:

which is identical with Eq. 21-7, except for the zero sequence component Zmn= dr (21-23)
impedance.
The torque tensor comprises the terms involving s in Eq. 21-17 and is

For a smooth air gap, L, = L,, only the - M term of G,, contributes to the
toraue.
and the torque, in synchronous watts per phase, is The steady-state impedance follows upon substituting p = jo and pe =
* ," ," vw; or is the same as that in Eq. 21-2 with the qs row and column deleted.
T = Re (wGm,,,,-i i n ) (21-19) The applied voltage is e,,.
254 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 An2141 I N D U C T I O N MACHINES

If 2-phase symmetrical component's are introduced, then for a smooth The motional impedance Tap of the single-
air gap machine, as in Fig. 21-1, the impedance matrix becomes (after phase induction motor is the same as that of the
dividing the l r row by s and the 2r row by 2s) generalized machine (Eq. 19-29), after putting
Ld,=L,,=L,,Ldr=L,,=Lr,Md=M*=M,
deleting the qs column and row, and putting
iQs= 0.
or1
21-6. Double Squirrel-Cage Induction
Motor.8 The connection diagram of this motor,
referred to stationary axes, is shown in Pig. 21-6.
I t s impedance matrix is the same as that of the Fig. 21-6.
generalized machine with one stator and two rotor
layers of windings :

and
e,, = e,, = ed/2

It is simpler to apply 2-phase components to the rotor only, leaving the

stator axis ds unchanged.
r, ix, ix,

Under steady-state conditions, where p = jw and pe = vw, the q-axes

may be eliminated by the polyphase matrix, or simply by substituting iq =
-jid and combining columns with the same id :
Fig. 21-4. Fig. 21-5. Equivalent circuit of the single-phase

Hence
induction motor.

Z, = drl
+j
jsX,, r,
---
m

+
i jxmz
--
1
jsX, jsX,, (21-29)

I
The torque matrix is
+
Putting X, = X,, x , and X, = X , +
x,, where x, and x , are leakage I
impedances, the equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 21-5.
The torque is
* *
256 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 Art. 21-71 I N D U C T I O N MACHINES
If the rotor rows of Eq. 21-29 are divided through by the slip s, and if Then the impedance Z,, of (21-1) becomes

in which xr is the leakage reactance of both rotor windings and xl and x2

are the individual leakage reactances of the two rotor windings, the equivalent
circuit is then seen to be that of Fig. 21-7.
7.
ds

+ L8p
a l M p c o s 8 ~ r + ~ , 0

Pa
- M p sin 0

0
a

M p cos 8

M p sin 8
r
b

- M p sin 8

+ L,p
M p cos 0
1 1 '2s

M p sin 8

M p cos 8

r, + L,p
(21-34)

Under balanced conditions, when i b = -kia and i'JS= +ids, the matrix
reduces to
ds a

ds r~ + Lap Mp(cos 8 + k sin 8 )

-
r, + Lap ; MPE"
Fig. 21-7. Equivalent circuit of the double squirrel-cage induction motor. Z,.," =
a Mp(cos 8 - jsin 8 ) 7 + LTP M~E-'~ r + L,p
The torque is

in which j = 2/---I refers to fundamental frequency in the stator and k =

6 1 to slip frequency in the rotor.
The torque matrix comprises the p8 terms of Eq. 21-34, after differentiat-
ing the cos 8 and sin 8 terms ; for example, Mp cos 8 = (- M sin 8 p0 +
M cos 8 p). Then
ds a b 98

21-7. Moving Axes.8 Let the 2-phase induction motor (Fig. 21-8) be
referred to moving axes by the transformation
matrix
However, in a smooth air gap machine the a and b columns do not contribute
to the torque and may be ignored. Thus, under balanced conditions, all
that remains is

a,,:,. =a 1- -jM(cos 8 - j sin 8 ) = a ME-'^ (21-37)

The steady-state impedance follows from Eq. 21-35 upon writing id* =
Fig. 21-8. I d 8 P t and ia = I a & O t , putting the dWtand cksWtinside the impedance
258 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 Art. 21-91 I N D U C T I O N MACHINES 259

mat,rix, and operating on the products with p. The impedance becomes The law of transformation of the impedance to rotating axes gives
act.
z,,,, = c;,c,",z,, + C;,Lmn - pel =
,301

Also

21-8. Double-fed Induction M o t ~ r .If~ the stator of an induction

motor is supplied with voltages a t funda-
mental frequency, o , and the rotor with
OS
voltages a t slip frequency, s o , the rotor
will revolve a t a speed p 8 = (1 - s)o.
\pBIZu The impedance and torque matrices
referred to stationary axes are given in Under steady-state conditions, the impressed voltages are constant in Eq.
Eq. 21-1, and the inductance matrix, 2 1 4 2 , since 6 is constant, and, putting p = 0, p8, = o , and p(81 - 8) =
L,., is simply the coefficients of p the impedance becomes
us ar br bs
in Eq. 21-1. The air gap flux revolves
1
I !
a t synchronous speed, o , and the
X
voltage matrix therefore is (if 6 is
as rs
1 pp
-
--
-x,
----

\bs the angle between stator and rotor ar

z ,,,, = (21-45)
Fig. 21-9. fluxes)

ds dr qr P bs X,
em = -e, sin wt -e, sin (wt + 6) e, cos (at + 6) e, cos wt
21-9. The Capacitor and Split-Phase Motor.8 The capacitor motor
has a two-phase stator, one winding of which is supplied with single-phase
Select new axes ( a , 6) revolving a t synchronous speed and let 8, = o t
a-c voltage, and the other winding, having n times
be the instantaneous displacement of these axes. The transformation matrix
then is (Fig. 21-9)
as ar br bs
as many turns, has an impedance Z (usually a
capacitor) in series. The rotor has a closed winding
!sI'; &
!
or squirrel cage. Although the second stator phase
as cos e I
I
, -sin 0 , is usually closed through its impedance, for the sake
of generality it will be considered here as having iqs+
dr 1 cos 0 , -sin 8,

I3
c;, = (21-41) a n applied voltage. The diagram of connections is
1
-I--

qr sin 8, cos 9 ,
shown in Fig. 21-10. The impedance, torque, and

qs sin el I
i
I
I '
I
cos 0,
voltage matrices of the generalized machine are
given in Eq. 21-2, but this needs to be modified
by multiplying the qs row and column by n to
The new voltage matrix becomes account for the difference in turns between the Fig. 21-10.
qs- and ds-axes (which is all that a turn-ratio
transformation matrix would accomplish). Then in addition the series
impedance Z must be added to the stator impedance in the qs-axis.
262 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 Art. 21-1 I ] I N D U C T I O N MACHINES 263

If the rotor columns of Z,,,, Under steady-state conditions, substituting p = jo and p0 = vw, the
... .. are eliminated, the impedance matrix of
Eq. 21-49 reduces to impedance is
Is 2s

zm+,. =

jX,, cos u
rs + jXdscos2 a I
jXmdcos a jX,, sin a
+ jX,, sinZu I
in which the sequence impedances are

I jX,, sin a
I
I I

The equivalent circuits corresponding to Eqs. 2 1 4 9 and to Eq. 21-50 vxmdl 1 - flXmd cos a v X d I
' + jxgr
are shown in Fig. 21-11, together with two special cases. The E,, and E,,
of Eq. 21-50 are easily verified on the equivalent circuit.

21-10. Shaded-Pole Motor.8 The shaded-pole motor of Fig. 21-12 has The torque tensor is
a single-phase stator winding, ds2, and a short-circuited stator winding, a,
considered to be in a different layer. The squirrel-cage rotor is represented as2 dsl
by a pair of short-circuited brushes:

'
21-1 1. Motional Impedance of the Polyphase Induction M o t ~ r . ~
The motional impedance matrix of the genemlized machine, referred to
stationary axes (d, q), was given in Eq. 19-28. For the polyphase induction
motor with smooth rotor, L,, = La, = L,, M, = M, = M, L,, = La, = L,.

Fig. 21-12.
I sin a I
I
I
I Let moving axes (a,b ) , rotating a t synchronous speed,pe, = o,be introduced,
as in Fig. 21-9 and Eq. 21-41 :

The Gansient impedance matrix of this machine, which is the same as that

111,
of the generalized machine, is

dr 1 cos 0, -sin 0,

CE, = qr sin el cos el cos

qs sin el

8 1
 264 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 Art. 21-12] I N D U C T I O N MACHINES 265
The new motional impedance then is, putting 8, - 8 = 6, The rate of change, if 6 is varying, is

3?a.s. c,",~,,C',B~ ac;, pel

+ CK,Lmn- as ar br bs s
= (19-31)
ah -aea
=
as
-e cos 6 ; -e sin 6 '
I
0 0 (21-61)
as ar br bs s

When the applied voltages or torques are of hunting frequency, hw, the
currents and velocities are also of hunting frequency. Substituting p = jhw,
pel = w , p 6 = p ( 8 , - 8 ) = sw and multiplying the last row and column
by w , the motional impedance becomes
I n accordance with Eq. 19-3, the term appears on the left (or voltage) side
of the equation of oscillations. However, it may be transferred to the
right-hand side,
ae
Ae, = 3?,,Ai@ - -
' A6
as
and placed in the s column of the motional impedance matrix. Thus matrices
(21-58) and (21-59) are augmented in the s column by -e cos 6 in the a, row
and by -e sin 6 in the b, row.
21-12. Indhction Motor with Oscillating Load.8 Let the steady-
state veloci$y, v w , and torque, T , be constant and the applied voltages and
currents be of fundamental frequency, w . If the superimposed oscillatory
torque, AT, is of hunting frequency, hw, the corresponding velocity changes
Aiu will also be of this frequency, but the current changes Aim will have the
two product frequencies ( h f 1)w. That is, the frequencies involved between
the variables are as shown in Table 21-1.

TABLE 21-1

I 1
I
1
Steady State Oscillating
bs X, Xm + jhX. 0

1
T,

1
1
Mechanical vw, T Constant AN, A? Hunting ( h w )
s ibrXm -ia'Xm jhw3J
c t i c e, i Fundamental ( w ) Ae, Ai F'roduct ( h * 1)-
The currents in the bordering row and column are those corresponding to
the steady-state conditions prevailing before hunting. The transient imped- The motional impedance of the unbalanced induction motor is the same
ance matrix was given in Eq. 21-43, and the steady-state impedance in as that of the generalized machine (Eq. 19-28).
Eq. 2 1 4 5 , from which the prehunting steady-state currents may be found as Assuming the current changes to have frequencies ( h f l ) w , and the
in' = (Zmtn,)-lemf (21-59) average speed p8 = v w , the impedance matrix (Eq. 19-28), excluding the
and substituted in the bordering row and column. bordering row and column, upon substituting p = j(h f 1)w becomes
When fundamental frequency voltages are applied to the stator and slip
frequency voltages to the rotor, then both the stator and rotor air gap fields
revoke a t synchronous speed, but the stator field leads the rotor field by a n
angle
6=8,-8,-e
+
in which 8, is the position of the stator flux, ( 8 8,) the position of the rotor
flux, and 0 the displacement of the rotor. The applied voltages then are

The voltage changes have frequencies ( h f 1)w.

266 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 21 Art. 21-12] I N D U C T I O N MACHINES
I n the bordering row and column the steady-state currents are complex Likewise, the bordering row of Eq. 19-28 is taken as
numbers of fundamental frequency, w. If the s coordinate is taken as
ApO/w = A(vw)/w = Av and if the torque is measured in synchronous watts,
it is necessary to multiply the bordering row and the bordering column of
Eq. 19-28 by w. Then for current changes of frequencies ( h l ) w and +
( h - l ) w the products of these changes by the steady-state fundamental for ( h - 1 ) o frequency of AT
frequency currents yield torque frequencies

(h + l)w w = hco and (h + 2)co row: 1 i d-X ) - I

ig8Xmq idr(XdI- Xq,) I
+ idaXmd -CrXmq l(21-67)
for ( h + 1)ofrequency of AT
( h - l ) of w = hw and ( h - 2)w
If, now, the motional impedance equation is expressed in the form
of which the ( h f 2)w frequencies will be ignored. But the product of two n v
quantities of different frequencies,
(21-68)
A cos (wlt + a ) = Re ,4si("lt+") = Re Aei"lt A e a ' = 2 a8 A iu Ae,~ = m ~ l = ~ ~

B cos (w,t + B) = Re ~ $ ( " a ~ + ~ =' Re Bsi"zt the current changes hinfor each set of frequencies may be solved for sepa-
rately in terms of the voltage changes and then substituted in the torque
yields two frequencies ( w , f w,) : change :
AB Ain = (Zmn)-'(he, - Zm,Aiv) (21-69)
A B cos (w,t + a ) cos (w,t + B) = -2
+ co,)t + a + B]
cos [(o,
Ae, = Z,,Ain +Jo3Aiv (21-70)

PROBLEMS

21-1. Confirm all equations in the chapter and verify in detail every step
in the derivations.
21-2. Obtain Eq. 21-17 by using Eqs. 21-20 and 21-21.
21-3. Derive the motional impedance matrix for the single-phase induction
motor.
Hence the product having the sum of the two frequencies is found by multiply- 2 1 4 . Derive the motional impedance matrix for the double squirrel-cage
ing the two complex numbers together, while the product having the difference induction motor.
of the'two frequencies is found by multiplying one complex number by the 21-5. Derive the motional impedance matrix for the capacitor and split-phase
conjugate of the other. Accordingly, the bordering column of Eq. 19-28 is motor.
21-6. Derive the motional impedance matrix for the shaded-pole motor.
taken as
21-7. From its impedance matrix develop the steady-state equivalent circuit
ds dr P ' PS for the double-fed induction motor.
column: s 1
I
0
I
iarXqp+ iaaXmq - i d d
I
-
I
i d d1
I
0 II (21-64) 21-8. From its impedance matrix develop the steady-state equivalent circuit
of the polyphase induction motor.
for ( h + l ) w frequency of Ae, 21-9. Solve Eqs. 21-69 and 21-70 formally for the change in velocity.

* *
,I -idsXmd
* - idrXdr i
column: s 0 iqrXq, + iaSXma
* 0 (21-65)
for ( h - l ) w frequency of Ae,
 Art. 22-11 C O M M U T A T O R MACHINES 269

The torque tensor comprises the coefficientsof p0 in Eq. 22-3, or it can be

verified by direct transformation of a,, out of Eq. 22-1 :

-
ds dr

a
,, = c:,q.amn = c:.~,
COMMUTATOR MACHINES

8
1
The admittance tensor is the inverse of Eq. 22-3, or

4- L ~ P - M p cos u
There is a great variety of commutating machines of both the a-c and ym'n' = (k,)-l d8
7,
m1 (22-5)
d-c type. Since such machines have stationary brushes, their performance
equations are most easily found by starting with the quasi-holonomic
a - M ( p cos a - p0 sin a ) r. + Lbp
generalized machine (the primitive machine of the f i s t kind). The analysis where
for a number of such machines will be given in this chapter, but primarily D = (L,L, - M2cos2u)p2+ (r,L, + r,L, + M2sin u cos up8)p r,rr (22-6) +
from the point of view of using tensor methods for establishing the machine The only applied voltage is e,, = e, since e, = 0 for the short-circuited
equations and not with any intention to explore detailed performance brush axis, and therefore
characteristics.
id, - (rr L,p)e +
22-1. The Repulsion M o t ~ r . ~ * ~repulsion motor (Pig. 22-1) has
The
an a-c field on the d-axis, a smooth air gap, and a short-
ia
-M cos u pe + M sin a pee
ld circuited pair of brushes on the commutator shifted an D
angle u from the d-axis. The corresponding primitive
ids!
machine is that of Fig. 1 3 3 , having an impedance and for constant speed, p0, the explicit solutions are given by the rules of
(Eq. 1 3 3 ) with the qs column and row deleted: thus operational calculus (or Laplace transforms).
I
The instantaneous torque is
T = Q,,,,i""i'" = -M sin a id%" (22-8)
Under steady-state conditions, with an a-c voltage e applied, substituting
p = jo and p8 = v o in the previous equations gives the corresponding a-c
values. Then Eqs. 22-7 become
Fig. 22-1. -MP~ -&PO T, + L,P ids - (rr + jXJe
D
Its transformation tensor is
ia =
(-jXm cos cr + vX, sin u)e
(22-9)
ds a
D
D = (-XJr + X z cos2u + r,r,) + j(rJs + rJ, + vX; sin a cos u)
and the synchronous torque by Eq. 1 3 4 5 is

The impedance of the motor then is = Re [eX,(v sin u + j cos a) (-X, sin a)
ds a
D* D
e2Xk sin u(X, cos u - r,v sin a)
Z, =C:,C:,Z, =
ds ?a + Lap M p cos u -
(r,r, + X i cos u - X,X,) (rJS rJT + Xzv sin u + +
(22-3)
a M ( p cos a - p0 sin a ) T, + L,p (22-10)
268
 270 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 22 Art. 22-31 C O M M U T A T O R MACHINES
22-2. Repulsion Motor with Two Sets of Brushes8 Fig. 22-2 shows
a repulsion motor with two sets of brushes connected in series. The trans- 'P
formation matrix is if-

C$, = dr (22-1 1)

sin cc + sin 3j
The steady-state impedance then is
Fig. 22-2. Fig. 22-3.

I t s transient impedance f&lows upon transforming from the generalized

machine with stationary axes (Eq. 13-51) as

r8 + jx, 2 j X m cos y cos 6

a 2Xmcos y ( j cos 6 - v sin 6) 4(r, + jX,) cosay

=

'
in which I t s torque matrix comprises the terms in Eq. 22-14 having p6 as a coefficient,
d = - -a + - mean brush axis
2
2y =?!t - a = brush separation
If the brush separation is zero, y = 0, a = 8, and 6 = E, and Eq. 22-12 Under steady-state conditions, p = 0, the impedance matrix reduces to
reduces t o Eq. 22-3 if e, and i" are divided by 2 t o take into consideration
the fact that the rotor circuit is entered twice in Fig. 22-2 and only once in
w:- 00 1

22-3. Compound-wound D-C Motor.8 The compound-wound d-c

motor with interpole winding is shown in Fig. 22-3, and its transformation
matrix is
ds2 f , The impedance for a series motor is given by canceling the ds2 row and
column.
The impedance for a shunt motor is given by putting n,, = 0.
The impedance for a machine without a n interpole winding is given by
putting n, = 0.
The torque equation is
272 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 22
From a combination of Eqs. 22-14 and 22-17, the acceleration matrix
may be set up, using s for the p0 coordinate and transferring the p0 terms
to that column; thus
If i t is assumed that the currents in the s row and column are known and
remain constant during acceleration, this equation is readily solved. If the
actual variation of the current is to be taken into account, Eq. 22-18 can be
solved step by step.
The motional impedance of the d-c machine, by Eq. 19-10, is
For oscillations a t a single frequency, hw, upon substituting p = jhw and
p8 = w , and multiplying the bordering row and column by w , the motional
impedance matrix becomes
Art. 22-41 COMMUTATOR MACHINES 273
224. Schrage M o t ~ r .The ~ connection diagram of the 4-phase Schrage
motor is shown in Fig. 2 2 4 . This motor actually has a n inner rotor connected
t o slip rings, but the slip rings have been replaced by stationary brushes on
which slip frequency voltages are assumed to be impressed. The outer rotor
has a commutator on which bear two pairs o l brushes shifted angles a and
,fl from the d-axis and two pairs of brushes shifted angles a and ,fl from the
Fig. 22-4.
q-axis. These brushes are connected to the stator coils as shown. Assuming
that each stator coil has n turns for each rotor winding turn, and projecting
all currents on the d- and q-axes, respectively, the transformation matrix
is seen to be
Under steady-state a-c conditions the voltages induced in all stationary
axes by the C.C.W. revolving field due to the inner rotor currents will be of slip
frequency, and the voltages and currents in the quadrature axes will lead
those in the direct axes by 90". The polyphase matrix which eliminates the
274 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 22 Art. 22-51 COMMUTATOR MACHINES
quadrature axes then is The torque matrix is

Applying this to Eq. 22-21,

P$

7
=
f
dr2

k n'

ds
1

f
--

2n
f
q;l

dr2
;,
(22-22)
am,,,, =
dr2
f

El
j4nM sin y

2jnM'

in which only those terms which actually contribute to the torque have been
retained.

22-5. The Squirrel-Cage Repulsion Motor.8 This single-phase a-c

.5-j6

(22-26)

motor has a squirrel-cage rotor in addition t o the commutator winding of

drl + E-~B the simple repulsion motor (Fig. 22-1). Its circuit diagram is shown in
Fig. 22-5, and its transformation matrix is
dr2 1
P::Ci, =
qr2

+ E-@)
j
(22-23)

ds
ds

1
a dr2 qr2
E
@i
qr1 j(&ja -- dr2
dr 1 cos a
Ps j2n --
CE, = dr2 1 (22-27)
The impedance matrix for a generalized machine with two rotor layers and --
a smooth air gap is 1
qr2
ds dr 1 dr2 P.2 qr 1 qs --
ds r, + L,P Mp
--
M'P 1 0 0 0 qr 1 sin a
Fig. 22-5.
MP 1 r.1 + 4 1 ~ M.P M?PO
I
I L.,pO MpB The impedance matrix (Eq. 22-24), with the qs column
dr2 P 1 M.P r,, +
L,P 1 L,PO 1 M,~O
1 wo
and row deleted, is used as the starting point for this motor. In that
matrix, putting p = jco and p0 = vw for steady-state conditions, and
z,, =
~2

qrl
---Me

M P
I -M&

~ - L ~ ~ P -1wee
~
1
/
--
-Lr2p8

/
r., + Lap
M,P
1
rr1
M,p

+4,p /
1 M3p

~p
transforming by Eq. 22-27, there results

ds a dr2 qr.2
I
0 0 0 M'P
1 MP
T8 + &P
(22-24)
ds r, +jX, j X , cos a 9;

The transient impedance matrix is then a

Xm(j cos a
- v sin a )
T,I + jXvl X,,( j cos a
- v sin a )
Xm,( j sin u
+ v cos a )
*
z., = 6;,)2;?z,,c;c".P;:
Z,,,, =
Xm,(j cos a
dr2 jXk +
v sin a )
rrz + jXr2 v&2
The steady-state matrix follows upon substituting p = jsw, p0 = vw,
+
s v = 1, and putting (a - /3)/2 = 6, y = 90 - (a 8)/2; it is + X,,( j sin a
- -

qr2 -vx;
- v cos a )
-vx,2 rr2 + 5%
2jXm, sin ys-j8 (22-28)
Z, = (22-25)
dr2 2njXml + ZjX,, sin y d B rr2 +jx12 The only applied voltage is e,, = e, the other axes being short-circuited.
276 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 22 Art. 22-71 C O M M U T A T O R MACHINES

The torque matrix (of which only the first column contributes to the but the polyphase matrix (Eq. 22-22) is not applicable.
torque) is

COG,,,, = dr2 X,, sin u

The motional impedance of the squirrel-cage repulsion motor is

22-7. Frequency C o n ~ e r t e r . A
~ rotary converter armature inside a
smooth stator with no windings may be driven mechanically, and i t will
convert the frequency applied t o its slip rings t o some other frequency a t its
brushes. Its connection diagram is shown in Fig. 22-7, and its transformation
matrix is
d a b q
r, + Lap M cos u p

M,(cos u p M,(sin u p
iq*M, cos u c:, =
d 1

0
cOse -
-
sin 8
--sine
cos 8
I 0

1
(22-31)
-ideM, sin a q
- sin a p e ) + cos u p e )
-id8M sin a
The transient impedance
- and inductance matrices
M,(cos u p for the generalized machine with windings on the rotor
+

dGl
sin u p0) only and a smooth air gap are Fig. 22-7.
d d q

zmn= Lmn = d L O (22-32)

iaM sin u P -LP~ p . 0 L
id8Msin a 0 JP
+ i'=*M1
Referred to moving reference axes (by Eq. 16-17), the impedance matrix
becomes
(22-29a)
z,.,, = c:z,,q, + c:,L,, -aaec~, e =
22-6. Fynn-Weichsel Motor.8 This
motor has a double rotor, a commutator
with one pair of brushes feeding a stator coil
in the d-axis, and a short-circuited stator coil
in the q-axis. It is a simpler machine than
the Schrage motor, but it has similar
characteristics. I t s circuit diagram is given
in Fig. 2 2 4 , and its transformation matrix
in (22-30) below. I t s analysis proceeds along (r + L p ) sin 8 (r + L p ) cos 8
the same lines as for the Schrage motor, -LcosO~O +LsinOpO
Fig. 22-6. starting with the impedance (Eq. 22-24),
278 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 22 Art. 22-91 C O M M U T A T O R MACHINES 279
where p operates on terms to its right as well as on the column currents, I t s impedance may be referred t o moving axes, as in the case of the frequency
except for the velocity factor p0. converter, by the formula
Under steady-state a-c conditions with fundamental frequency applied
to the slip rings, the b- and q-axes may be eliminated by the polyphase
matrix :
d a b 22-9. Scherbius A d v a n ~ e r . ~This machine has a commutator rotor
and a smooth stator without windings. I t s connection diagram is shown in
(22-34)
a

in which j refers to a 90' phase difference a t fundamental frequency and k

refers t o a 90° phase difference a t slip frequency. The impedance matrix
then is
d a

d r + Lp + kLp8 I ( r + Lp)(cos 8 - j sin 8 ) + L(sin 8 + j cos 8 ) p e

Z,."" =
a ( r + Lp)(cos 8 + k sin 8)-/ + LP
7 Fig. 22-8. Fig. 22-9.
-

Fig. 22-9, and its impedance and torque matrices, referred t o stationary
axes, are
(22-35) dr 99.

To find the steady-state matrix put p€J= (1 - s)o and 0 = (1 - s ) o t +

6; then in the d column (where the current is of slip frequency) put id =
IdeksWt,
and in the a column (where the current is of fundamental frequency) Under balanced polyphase conditions the currents and voltages in the q-axis
put ia = ladut.Then, when all exponentials are placed inside the matrix
lag those in the d-axis by 90" in time, and therefore, putting iQr= -jidr and
and operated on by p, there results (after putting k = j and canceling the
then combining columns, there results
exponential time functions in the currents and voltages) dr

or in the steady state, putting p =j o and p0 = vw,

22-8. Synchronous C ~ n v e r t e r .The

~ synchronous converter diagram
of connections is shown in Fig. 22-8, and its transformation matrix is given by
1
Z,,,, = dr
0 T +jX(1 - v)
The torque is zero, as would be expected for a smooth air gap machine with
(22-41)

nu stator windings, and i t must therefore be driven by a n auxiliary adjustable

speed drive. When

v = 1 (synchronous speed), the advancer acts as a resistance

v < 1 (below synchronous speed), the advancer acts as a reactance
v > 1 (above synchronous speed), the advancer acts as a capacitance
I It may therefore be used to adjust power factor.
I
280 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 22 Art. 22-1 11 C O M M U T A T O R MACHINES

22-10. Leblanc A d v a n ~ e r .This

~ polyphase machine has a commutator
rotor, a smooth air gap, and polyphase stator windings. Its connection
diagram is shown in Fig. 22-10, and its transformation matrix is
a b

ds n 0

dr cos a -sin a

qr sin a cos u

P 0 n
Fig. 22-10. Fig. 22-1 1.
Applying Eq. 2242 to the impedance and torque matrices of the simpler
generalized machine (Eq. 13-3), and substituting p = jw and p0 = vw for Under balanced polyphase conditions, the voltages and currents in the
steady-state conditions, there results b- and q-axes are lagging those in the a- and d-axes, respectively, by 90' in
time, and therefore, substituting ib= -jia and iQa = -jid* and combining
a b
columns with the same currents, the transformation matrix becomes
+ + +
nVa jXJ (rv j X r )
+ n x m ( 2 j cos u - v sin u )
vxv + nvxm cos
I
+
n V , jXA + +
(rr jXT)
+nXm(2j cos u - v sin a ) cos a + j sin a = efu
-

a b

a -nM sin a L, + n M cos a

B,,,,, = (22-44)
b -L,-nMcosu -nM sin cx
>
Applying Eq. 2 2 4 8 to the impedance and torque matrices of the simpler
Under balanced conditions, where ib= -jia, upon combining columns, generalized machine (Eq. 13-3), and substituting p = jw and p8 = v o for
the steady state, there results

r, +%5 X m ( jcos u - sin a )

(22-49)
Obviously, the phase may be advanced or retarded by changing the brush r, + jsXr
shift a, by changing the slip s, or by both.
ds a
22-1 1. Shunt Polyphase Commutator Motor.8 The connection
diagram for this motor is given in Pig. 22-1 1. The transformation matrix is -M(sina+jcosa) -jL, (22-50)

ds 1
/ If the ds-axis is connected in series with the a-axis, and the qs-axis is
connected in series with the b-axis, this machine becomes identical with the
Leblanc advancer.
dr cos u -sin a
PROBLEMS
P7 sin u cos u
22-1. Confirm all equations in t h e chapter and v e r i f y in detail every step
q.3 1 in t h e derivations.
282 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 22

22-2. Carry out the steady-state analysis for the repulsion motor with two
sets of brushes (Fig. 22-2) in the same way as was done for the simple repulsion
motor (Fig. 22-1).
22-3. Carry out the analysis for a shunt-wound d-c motor, and check the
results a t each stage of the development as a special case of the analysis for the
compound-wound motor of Fig. 22-3.
2 2 4 . Carry out the same analysis for a series-wound d-c motor, and check
the results at each stage of the analysis as a special case of the analysis for the INTERCONNECTED MACHINES
compound-wound motor of Fig. 22-3.
22-5. Derive Eq. 22-23 without using the polyphase matrix in Eq. 22-22.
22-6. Why does only the Grst column of Eq. 22-29 contribute to the torque?
22-7. Show that the Scherbius advancer is a special case of the Lebhnc Machines of all types may be electrically interconnected, or operated in
advancer. combination, for such purposes as energy conversion, speed control, changing
22-8. Develop the impedance and torque matrices for the Fynn-Weichsel phase or frequency, and power factor correction. The interconnection be-
motor of Fig. 22-6. tween machines may also involve static networks as part of a combined
22-9. Will the L, term of Eq. 22-50 contribute to the torque? system.
22-10. At what angle of brush shift will the torque be a maximum for the If the transient impedance, inductance, and torque tensors of several
shunt polyphase commutator motor?
individual machines and networks are represented by lZmn, ,Z,,, . .. ,,L,,,
.. .
BLmn,. . . , and ,arnn, ,Gmn, , respectively, and are interconnected in such
fashion that the transformation matrix of the connections is q., then the
transient impedance and torque tensors of the entire group are

23-1. D-C M a c h i n e ~ . ~ 3Two compound d-c machines connected in

series are shown in Fig. 23-1, and the corresponding transformation matrix is
d h d ' ~
8'

d82 1

j
I
T-
- --
-
S
--- I l1
ds'2

f'
---
1
I
---
sf 1

The transient, acceleration, and motional impedance matrices for a single

compound d-c machine are given in Eqs. 22-14, 22-18, and 22-19, respec-
tively. Putting
+
= r, i- nzrdSl nirgs
+
L = La, n,2Lds1 n&,+
283
+
2ngM,
284 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 23 Art. 23-21 I N T E R C O N N E C T E D MACHINES

for the first machine and using primes for the corresponding quantities of the d
second machine, the impedances of the two interconnected machines may
be combined in a single matrix and transformed by matrix (23-3) to give the
impedance for the pair of machines. (In this simple connection the trans-
formation matrix multiplication may be dispensed with and columns

Fig. 23-1.
M' id'
a(
+ 2n;ih)
M;ih

U R' + J'p

I n matrices (23-5) and (23-6) the steady-state currents id, id', and ih must be
determined from the solution of
combined after putting if = if' = i h ) . The motional impedance transforms Eq. 2 3 4 . The applied voltages e,,,,
directly as 3a,p,= C ~ 2 2 ' ~ ~since
C j ~the transformation matrix contains only
constants. The transient, acceleration, and motional impedance matrices
e,&,,
--- and eh = e , + e,. are all -
constant.
for the interconnected machines then are L
P
23-2. Kapp V i b r a t ~ r . ' . ~The
Kapp vibrator consists of a poly-
phase slip ring induction motor with
------
each of its rotor phases connected
t o a d-c motor, as shown in Fig. 23-2
for one phase only. The rotor of the
d-c motor oscillates a t slip fre-
quency, but it does not rotate. The Fig. 23-2.
rotor of the induction motor rotates
at a uniform speed, but i t does not oscillate. The connection matrix is

M;(id'+ R' + J'p

n;ih)
286 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 23 Art. 23-31 I N T E R C O N N E C T E D MACHINES 287

The motional impedance of the d-c machine, as a special case of Eq. 22-19, If the s-axis is eliminated (the mechanical torque is zero), the motional
that is, without series or commutating field, is impedance reduces t o

Since the induction motor does not oscillate, its motional impedance is the
same as its transient impedance (Eq. 21-35), (23-12)
ds2 a
The oscillating d-c rotor introduces a capacitance in the rotor impedance
proportional t o the square of field flux idslMdl linked with the rotor, and'
inversely proportional t o the slip s and to the inertia J1.

23-3. Phase Advancer.73 Fig. 23-3 shows (for one phase only) a
Combining Eqs. 23-8 and 23-9 and transforming by Eq. 23-7, there results
polyphasefrequency converter fed from
the slip rings of a polyphase induction
motor. The connection matrix is dr2

dsl a1 a2

I
The pre-oscillating current of the d-c motor, appearing in the bordering
Fig. 23-3.
row and column, is idS1 = edsl/rdsland is constant. The current ids2 in the
stator of the induction motor is of fundamental frequency. The current if
is of slip frequency. Since the d-c motor does not rotate, the average velocity The impedance of the induction motor is given by Eq. 21-35, and that of
is zero, pOl = 0. Therefore the frequency converter by Eq. 22-35. The impedance of the group is
Jf2p(Ekez s ' " ~ = kmJf2 AIfskut
Aif) = M ~ ( ~ " ~ - AIfEkSut)
. M,p(E-iez Aids2) = ~ ~ ~ ( ~ - j ( l A- ~s d) sE~tjutt ) = jsmMZ AIds2&jsot
dsl a1 a2
Then, multiplying the bordering row and column by w , the steady-state
motional impedance is seen t o be
dsl f (792 s

The current in axes a1 and dr2 is of slip frequency, sw. Hence, putting
O2 = O1 +
6, ial = Ialdsot, ia2 = Ia2dwt,and idsl = Idsldot, there results for
288 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 23 Art. 23-51 I N T E R C O N N E C T E D MACHINES 289

the steady-state impedance of the group The currents in axes a1 and dr2 are of slip frequency, s = 1 - Plv, where v
is the ratio of the actual rpm to the 2-pole synchronous speed (3600 for 60
cycles). Since the two machines are on the same shaft, pOl/Pl = pO,/P, =
vw. Substituting idsl = IdS1dwt and ia = the steady-state impedance
becomes
Z,,,, =

23-4. Cascade Induction Motors.738 Two induction motors on the

same shaft, interconnected so that the stator of the second motor is fed from jXm2(1- P1v)
the wound rotor of the first motor, comprise a cascade set. The two motors
dr2 jX,,(l - Plv - P,v) r,, + jX& - P1v - P B )

(23-18)
The transient and steady-state torque matrices of the group are

23-5. Cascade Induction and Commutator motor^.^^^ Fig. 23-5

Fig. 23-4.
shows a polyphase series commutating motor fed from the slip rings of a
may have a different number of pairs of poles, Pl and P,, respectively. The
connection diagram is shown in Fig. 2 3 4 , and the connection matrix is
dsl a dr2

L 1

The transient impedance of the first machine lZm, is given by Eq. 21-35, Fig. 23-5.
and that of the second machine ,Zm, by Eq. 21-8. Then, for the group,
polyphase induction motor and on t h e same shaft. The connection matrix
is
dsl a

(23-20)
290 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 23 Art. 23-61 I N T E R C O N N E C T E D MACHINES 29 1

The transient impedance ,Zmn of the induction motor is given by Eq. The sum of the individual impedances of the two machines, referred t o
21-35, and the impedance ,Zmn of the commutator motor is their own axes, from Eq. 21-35, is
f
.

dsl

The transient impedance of the group is

z,,,, = C;,(,Zmn + ,Zmn)C;, =
dsl a

Assuming a different number of pairs of poles PI end P, for the two

motors, putting s = 1 - Plv, p8,/Pl = pO,/P, = v o = (1 - s)w, and
substituting ia = Iaajsmtin the a-axis, the steady-state impedance becomes

Fig. 23-6.

The impedance of the interconnected group (by Eq. 23-1) is

The transient and steady-state torque matrices of the group are

Transforming from rotating rotor axis a to stationary axis d by

23-6. Power Selsyns.7.8 Power selsyns comprise two polyphase dl d d2
induction motors running a t the same speeds and with a constant angle
6 = 8, - 8, between the positions of their rotors. The connection diagram
(for one phase only, assuming balanced conditions) is shown in Fig. 23-6,
and the transformation matrix of the interconnection is

there results
292 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch.23 Art. 23-71 I N T E R C O N N E C T E D MACHINES 293

Since p(~-jei)
=~ - j - ( ~ and 8, - 8, = 6, this matrix becomes
~jp8)i The equivalent circuit corresponding to (23-33) is shown in Fig. 23-7. The
torques a3.e

The motional impedance formula for oscillating induction motors, with

stationary axes, must include the terms for the time variation of the sinu-
soidal pre-oscillating currents, as derived in Eq. 19-24; that is

f~",,,. 2 c,~c,B.~Z",@
act, .,, + C:*Lap-ac;.P' .,. f ac:,
+ C:*SaP- 1
ax, ax,' ab
Under steady-state conditions all currents are of fundamental frequency
o,and, upon putting p = jw and p - jp8 = jo - j ( 1 - s)o = jso, there
The Zapfor two generalized machines with stationary axes is given in
results
Eq. 20-73. The transformation matrix for two oscillating induction motors

If the d 2 row is multiplied by ~ - j % n d the d2 column by d8, and if the

d row is divided by s, Eq. 23-32 assumes the diagonal form :
is the same as that given in Eq. 20-71 for two oscillating synchronous
machines. All except the penultimate term of Eq. 23-37 were calculated in
the case of the two oscillating synchronous machines in Eq. 20-80. This
I term gives
!

-L;?, cos 6 (piqTa) L;,, cos 6 (pigr2)

+ Lb,, sin 6 (pidr2) -L:12sin 6 (pidr2)
(23-38)
Lir2 sin 6 (piqra) -L;,, sin 6 (pigr2)
The torque matrices corresponding to Eqs. 23-27 and 23-33 are
+Li,, cos 6 (pidr') -Lb,, cos 6 ( p i d r 2 )

Hence the.motiona1 impedance for two oscillating power selsyns is the sum
of the four matrices :

23-7. Differential Selsyn~.~98Consider three polyphase induction

motors interconnected as shown in Fig. 23-8. Machines No. 2 and No. 3 are
driven a t different arbitrary speeds vz and v,, and machine No. 1 follows a t a
k
294 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 23 Art. 23-71 I N T E R C O N N E C T E D MACHINES

constant angle 6 such that 8, = 8, +

8, - 6. Under steady-state conditions, Then, transforming by Eq. 23-40,
fundamental frequency is applied to axes dsl and ds3, and slip frequency
dsl a ds2 ds3

Under steady-state conditions, putting id" = Idfl&jot, ia = laejslot,

jdd = 1d82Ejs~~t2 jdS3 = 1d83&wt , 8, = (1 - sl)mt - 6, 8, = (1 - s1)ot -
Fig. 23-8. (1 - s,)ot, and 8, = (1 - s3)wt, the matrix above reduces t o

currents slw flow in axis a, where sl = 1 - v, - v3. The connection matrix

for the group is
dsl a ds2 ds3

The torque matrices for the group are

The combined impedance of machines No. 1 and No. 2 has already been
giveh in Eq. 23-28; for all three machines it is
dsl a ds2 ds3 a3

~ , p ~ j ~ l 0 0 1
1
dsl ds2 ds3
I I
a - ~ x , ~ E ' ~jX,, 0
COG,,,, = (2345)
ds2 0 0 -jXrn3
296 M A C H I N E ANALYSIS [Ch. 23 Art. 23-81 I N T E R C O N N E C T E D MACHINES

23-8. Arnplidyne Voltage Regulator.' This regulator comprises an exciter, the impedance matrices for the three devices are
amplidyne, a stabilizing transformer, and an exciter, interconnected as
1 2 3 d Q

Fig. 23-9.

shown in Fig.,23-9. Its connection matrix is

By C$(,Zrnn + ,Zmn + ,Zrn,)q,, the impedance of the interconnected

The applied voltages are

f 2

Neglecting the induced voltage (Lp and Mp terms) in both the stator and The voltage equation may be rewritten by employing the identity
+
rotor windings of the amplidyne, as well as the (r, Lg)term for the
298 MACHINE ANALYSIS [Ch. 23 Art. 23-81 INTERCONNECTED MACHINES
in which Kkj is the inverse of R,,. Then in which p, is the over-all amplification factor and

in which
Ti, = KkiLmk= time constant matrix Eq. 23-53, a cubic (p3) in the time operator, gives the change in exciter
voltage Aef corresponding to a change hea impressed on the control field.
= KkiGm,= amplification matrix
The stability of the regulator may be determined by applying Routh's
Eq. 23-51 substitutes resistance drops for currents, and this form of the criterion, coefficients (11-32), or simply by solving for the roots of Eq. 23-53.
voltage equation is equivalent t o multiplying each current in each axis by
the resistance in the corresponding diagonal term of Eq. 2 3 4 8 , and then PROBLEMS
compensating by dividing the column of Eq. 2 3 4 8 by the diagonal resistances.
Then Eq. 2 3 4 8 becomes 23-1. Cordinn all equations in the chapter and verify in detail every step
in the derivations.
23-2. Develop the motional impedance matrix for the cascade induction
motors of Fig. 23-4.
23-3. Develop the motional impedance matrix for the cascade induction and
commutator motors of Fig. 23-5.
23-4. Develop the motional impedance matrix for the differential selsyns
of Fig. 23-8.
23-5. Set up the transformation matrix and the transient impedance matrix
for a synchronous generator connected to a polyphase induction motor.
23-6. Set up the transformation matrix and the transient impedance matrix
for a synchronous generator connected to a series-wounda-c commutating motor.
23-7. Set up the transformation matrix and the transient impedance matrix
for a shunt-wound exciter and a synchronous generator.

Upon elimination of the 3-, q-, c-, and p-axes (there are no voltages
impressed on these axes), there results
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. MCCONNELL, A. J. Applications of the Absolute Differential Calculus. Blackie & Sons,

Toronto, 1931. This book is unexcelled as a n aid in learning the elements of
tensor analysis and many of its applications. However, since the author assigns
the development of many of the principles to the numerous problems throughout
the text, it is absolutely necessary for the reader actually to do the problems if he
is t o achieve real familiarity with the material-and this is a long job.
2. SOKOLNIKOFF, I. S. Tensor Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1951.
The same kind of book as McConnell's. Well adapted for a one-semester course.
3. EDDINGTON, A. S. The Mathemtical Theory of Relativity. Cambridge University
Press, London, 1924. The first 75 pages of this book are devoted to tensor analysis.
Written by one of the great minds of our times, it is a lucid and clear exposition of
the subject.
4. LEVI-CIVITA, T. The Absolute Differential Calculus. Blackie & Sons, Toronto, 1927.
Written by the principal student and associate of Ricci, the father of tensor
analysis, this book is invaluable in presenting the pioneer point of view.
5. STIGANT,S. A. The Elements of Determinants, Matrices and Tensors for Engineers,
McDonald & Co., Ltd., London, 1959. This is an introductory textbook written
by an engineer for engineers, and can be perused with profit before studying the
application of the methods to circuits, networks, and machines.
6. KRON,G. Tensor Analysis of Networks. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1939.
A comprehensive and original source i n the application of matrices and tensor
algebra to electrical networks. It does not make use of the differential or integral
aspects of tensor analysis. As is true in all of Kron's work, the book employs a
special brand of matrix algebra which has its own form and which borrows tensor
rules. The writer favors this brand, as it is more versatile and flexible than
conventional matrix algebra. The book is long and somewhat repetitious, but it is
a classic.
7. &ON, G. A Short Course i n Tensor Analysis for Electrical Engineers. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1942. This little book of 250 pages is about half devoted t o
circuits and networks, and half to rotating machines. While it is essentially
based on matrices and tensor algebra, some differential calculus of tensors is
introduced. It contains many original ideas. This book has been reprinted (1959)
by Dover Publications, Inc., as Tensors for Circuits and includes a complete
bibliography of Kron's publications.
8. KRON,G. Application of Tensors to the Analysis of Rotating Electrical Machinery.
General Electric Review, 1942. This book comprises a series of articles published
by Kron in the Review from 1935 to 1938. It is mostly concerned with applications
t o rotating machines and covers just about every known machine in both the
steady and transient state. Because it was a pioneer effort in which the author
was developing his original ideas and concepts as he progressed, it is a difficult
text to use for classroom work or from which to gain a knowledge of the field, but
the material is all there for the reader who is willing to go after it.
9. &ON, G. Equivalent Circuits of Electric Machinery. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1951. While this is not a book on tensor analysis per se, the author uses the
basic philosophy of the tensor concept t o evolve the most complete and com-
prehensive development of equivalent circuits for electrical machines yet presented.
It is a n excellent example of the power and generality of the tensor approach.
10. GIBBS,W. J. Tensors i n Electrical Machine Theory. Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London,
1952. This British book is based closely on the publications of Kron, and covers
essentially the same ground as Ref. 7 above. However, it includes a few chapters
on the pure mathematics of tensors which are not present in Kron's books.
30 1
302 BIBLIOGRAPHY
11. KELLER, E. G. Mathematics of Modern Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New,York, 1942. Chapter I1of this book contains a readable and unified summary
of Kron's treatment of the tensor theory of circuits and machines, together with
some generalizations of the author's.
12. PEN-TUNGSAH. Dyadic Circuit Analysis. International Textbook Co., Scranton.
Pa., 1939. This book is concerned with the vector and dyadic point of view in
electrical machine analysis. Closely allied in concept and philosophy with the
tensor point of view, it would undoubtedly have made engineering history had
not Kron's more powerful approach quickly superseded it. Pen-Tung Sah must
be credited with having been the first to introduce many of the concepts which
are now the background of the "tensor point of view" i n electric circuit and
machine analysis.
13. LE CORBEILLER, P. Matrix Analysis of Electric Networks. Harvard University
Press, Cambridge; Mass., 1950. This little monograph makes pleasant reading,
but 'is not sufficient for a real understanding of the subject.
14. CONCORDIA, CHARLES.Synchronous Machines. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1951. A text on the advanced synchronous machine theory developed by R . E.
Doherty, C. A. Nickle, and R. H. Park, and which in effect is a generalized machine
approach although neither tensors nor matrices are employed. The author is a
recognized authority who has contributed many papers on synchronous machine
theory over the past quarter century.
15. LYON,WALDOV. Transient Analysis of Alternating Current Machines. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, 1954. A text on advanced machine theory based on
"instantaneous symmetrical components" which covers the subject of machines a t
a n advanced level.
16. WHITE, D. C., and WOODSON, H. H. Electromechanical Energy Conversion. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1959. This book on machine analysis uses matrices
and the concepts of the generalized machine, but it avoids the use of tensor
analysis. As a consequence the treatment is limited and restricted, the notation is
complicated, and the many interesting physical interpretations brought to light
by a tensor approach are lost.
17. TAKEUCHI, T. J. Matrix Theory of Electrical Machinery. The Ohm-Sha, Ltd., 1958.
This book by a Japanese author (in English) is an advanced treatment of all types
of electrical machines, including those with unbalanced windings, by matrix
methods. Instantaneous symmetrical components and "commutation" matrices
are used for each machine. The treatments of time harmonics and hunting are
part~cularlyinteresting.
18. Ku, Y. H. Electric Energy Conversion. The Ronald Press Co., New York, 1959. A
text on advanced machine theory by an author who has contributed much t o such
theory over the past thirty years. I n spite of the title, the treatment is based
essentially on circuit analysis rather than energy considerations. Matrices are
employed here and there.
19. ADKINS,B. The General Theory of Electrical Machines. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1951. This book by a British author introduces the generalized
machine concept, and uses matrices. I t is a n excellent text for a n undergraduate
course, but hardly advanced enough for graduate work.
20. BEWLEY,L. V. Flux Linkages and Electromagnetic Induction. The Macmillan CO.,
New York, 1952.
21. BEWLEY,L. V. Alternating Current Machinery. The Macmillan Co., New York,
1949.
22. BEWLEY,L. V. Traveling Waves on TransmissionSysten,~.John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1951.
PAPERS
AND ARTICLES
23. KRON,G. "Tensor Analysis of Rotating Machinery," 1932. Printed privately in
Rumania. This 29-page monograph (in English) is of historical significance
since it presents for the first time Kron's basic concepts of a generalized machine
matrix (which he then called "the iron tensor"), and the connection transformation
BIBLIOGRAPHY 303
tensor (which he then called "the copper tensor"), together with applications t o a
number of machines, and the formulation of one form of "the equation of motion."
I n spite of the title, it is based entirely on vectors, dyadics, and matrices, and
contains neither tensors nor tensor analysis.
24. &ON, G. "Non-Riemannian Dynamics of Rotating Electrical Machinery," Jou-1
of Mathematics and Physics, 13 (May, 1934): 103-194. This is a highly sophisti-
cated treatment of the subject, making full use of the advanced concepts of tensor
analysis and differential geometry. It should not be studied without a prior
knowledge of the mathematical aspects of tensor analysis, such as given in Ref. 1.
But for the initiated it will be found to be the most satisfying and consistent
treatment of machine theory in Kron's voluminous output.
25. KRON, G. "Tensor Analysis in Electrical Engineering," Bulletin Scientijque of the
Association Belge des Ingknieurs Electriciens, March, 1936. Upon the award of the
Fondation George Montefiore prize t o Kron.
26. KRON,G. "Quasi-Holonomic Dynamical Systems," Physics, 7 (April, 1936).
27. KRON,G. "Invariant Form of the Maxwell-Lorentz Field Equations for Accelerated
Systems," Applied Physics, 9: (March, 1938).
28. KRON,G. "Equivalent Circuit of the Capacitor Motor," G.E. Review, 44 (September,
1941).
29. KRON,G. "Equivalent Circuit of the Salient Pole Synchronous Machine," G.E.
Review, 44 (December, 1941).
30. KRON,G., CRARY,S. B., and CONCORDIA, C. "The Doubly Fed Machine," A.I.E.E.
Trans. 61 (1942): 286-289.
31. KRON,G. L'Equi~alent Circuits of the Primitive Rotating Machine with Asym-
metrical Stator and Rotor," A.I.E.E. Trans. 66 (1947): 17-23.
32. KRON,G. "Tensorial Analysis and Equivalent Circuit of a Variable-Ratio Frequency
Changer," A.I.E.E. Trans. 66 (1947): 1503-1506.
33. &ON, G. "Steady-State Equivalent Circuits of Synchronous and Induction
Machines," A.I.E.E. Trans. 67 (1948): 175-181.
34. KRON,G. "Stationary Networks and Transmission Lines Along Uniformly Rotating
Reference Frames," A.I.E.E. Trans. 68 (1949): 690-696.
35. KRON,G. "Equivalent Circuit of the Shaded-Pole Motor," A.I.E.E. Trans. 69
(1950): 735-741.
36. KRON, G. 'LC1assifi~ationof the Reference Frames of a Synchronous Machine,"
A.I.E.E. Trans. 69 (1950): 720-727.
37. KRON,G. "Equivalent Circuits for the Hunting of Electrical Machinery," A.I.E.E.
X Trans. 61 (1942): 290-296.
38. &ON, G. "Equivalent Circuits for Oscillating Systems and the Riemann-Christoffel
Curvature Tensor," A.I.E.E. Trans. 62 (1943): 25-31.
- 39. KRON,G., BODINE,R. B., and CONCORDIA, C. L'Self-ExcitedOscillation of Capacitor-
? Compensated Long-Distance Transmission Systems," A.I.E.E. Trans. 62 (1943):
41-44.
40. KRON, G. L'Steady-State and Hunting Equivalent Circuits of Long-Distance
Transmission Systems," G.E. Review 56 (1943): 337-342.
41. KRON,G., and CONCORDIA, C. "Damping and Synchronizing Torques of Power
Systems," A.I.E.E. Trans. 64 (1945): 366-371.
42. KRON,G. ",4 New. Theory of Hunting," A.I.E.E. Trans. 71 (1952): 859-866.
++ 43. KRON,G. "Tensor Analysis of Integrated Transmission Systems," A.I.E.E. Trans.
60 (1951): 1239-1246; 61 (1952): 505-512, 814-821; 62 (1953): 827-838.
44. KRON,G. 'LDiakoptics-The Piecrjwise Solution of Large-Scale Systems," Electric
Journal (London, 1957-58, a serial). These articles describe the theory and
applications of Kron's method of "tearing." This consists of analyzing a large
and complex system by breaking i t down into manageable parts, solving each
part in terms of the variables a t its terminals, and then matching the terminal
quantities of the parts to find the solution for the whole.
45. LAUDER,A. H. "Salient Pole Motors Out of Synchronism," A.I.E.E. Trans. 55
(1936): 636-649.
46. BEWLEY,L. V. "Resolution of Surges into Multivelocity Components," A.I.E.E.
Trans. 54 (1935): 1199-1203.
304 BIBLIOGRAPHY
47. BEWLEY,L. V. "Tensor Algebra in Transformer Circuits," A.I.E.E. Trans. 56
(1937).
48. BEWLEY, L. V. "Traveling Waves on Power Systems," Bulletin of the American
Illathematical Society, Vol. 48, No. 8, August, 1942: 527-538.
49. SHEN,D. W. C. LLOperational Impedance Matrices of n-Phase Partially Symmetrical
Machines," Australian J o u m l of Scientific Research, 4 (1951): 544-559.
50. Ku, Y. H. "Transient Analysis of Rotating Machines and Stationary Networks by
Means of Rotating Reference Frames," A.I.E.E. Trans. 70 (1951): 943-954.
51. Yu. Y. "The Impedance Tensor of the General Machine," A.I.E.E. Paper 56-122 Absolute derivatives; see Derivatives,
(May, 1956). intrinsic
52. Ku, Y. H. "Tensor Analysis of Unbalanced Three-Phase Circuits," A.I.E.E. Admittance, 4, 18, 83
Paper 52-126 (February, 1952). Affine connection, 129, 187
53. CONCORDIA, C. "The Use of Tensors in Mechanical Engineering Problems," G.E. Amplidyne voltage regulator, 296
Review (July, 1936). Apparent coils, 93
Axes
direct, 8, 144
elimmation of, 225
moving, 158, 256
quadrature, 8,144
Branches, 9
Brush shift, 159
Canonical equations, 5
Capacitor motor, 259
Cascade induction motor, 288, 289
Christoffel matrix, 187
Christoffel symbol, 120
holonomic, 171
quasi-holonomic, 183, 186
transformation of, 127
Classification
components of oscillation, 211, 214
concepts, 198
machines, 162, 165
networks, 13, 102
Commutating machines, 268
compound-wound d-c, 270
frequency converter, 277
Fynn-Weichel motor, 276
Leblanc advancer, 280
repulsion motor, 268
repulsion motor with two sets of
brushes, 270
Scherbius advancer, 279
Schrage motor, 273
shunt polyphase commutator motor,
280
squirrel-cage repulsion, 275
synchronous converter, 278
Complete (orthogonal) networks, 12, 92,
102
adjacent-terminals, 93
all junction-pair, 104
all-mesh, 95
analysis, 94
apparent coils, 93
INDEX
comparison, 104
conversion, 100
types of terminals, 93
variables, 92
Complex numbers
elimination of, 133
product frequencies, 135, 266
Compound-wound d-c machine, 270
Conjugate, 48
Connection diagram, 7
Constraints, 41
equation of, 6, 31
junction-pair networks, 86
Coupling coefficients, 207
Covariant and contravariant, 110
Curl, 125
Curvature tensor, 125, 218
D-c machines, 270, 283
Decrement factors, 205
Derivatives
covariant, 120, 121
higher, 123
intrinsic (absolute), 121, 216
time, 134
Design constants
mixed, 204
Differential selsyns, 293
Displacement of stator coil, 160
Divergence, 124
Double-fed induction motor, 258
Double frequencies, 135, 266
Double squirrel-cage motor, 255
Duals, 15
Dyadics, 6, 32
Energy relationships, 148
Field tensor, 185
Field time constant, 226
Flux
coil, 143
cross, 155
linkage, 145, 155
Forms, 30
differential, 30
invariancy, 31, 110
linear, 30
quadratic, 30
306
Frequency converter, 277
Fynn-Weichel motor, 276
Generalized (primitive) machines
basic concepts, 141
first kind (quasi-holonomic), 149, 200,
215
second kind (holonomic), 170, 200
Generalized per-unit concepts, 203
Gradient, 124
Group
of transformations, 50
property, 34, 156
theory, 107
Holonomic, 127, 167; see also Reference
frames
equations, 171, 172, 178, 189, 192
Hunting ; see Oscillations
Hurwitz's criterion, 137
Idemfactor (Kronecker delta, unit ma-
trix), 19
Impedance, 4, 18
branch, 61
driving point, 38
leakage. 60
matrix
holonomic, 201
quasi-holonomic, 152, 154, 163, 222
mixed design constants, 206
motional, 211, 215, 241, 244, 263, 273,
284, 286, 293
synchronous machine, 222
transfer, 38
transformation of, 31
Indices, 105
covariant and contravariant, 31, 110
dummy, 20, 106
free, 106
raising and lowering, 118, 203
subscripts, 4, 105
superscripts, 4, 105
upper and lower. 31, 110
Induction machines, 246
balanced polyphase voltages, 248
capacitor motor, 259
double-fed, 258
double squirrel-cage, 255
equivalent circuit, 248, 254, 256, 261
motional impedance, 263
moving axes, 256
oscillating load, 265
shaded pole, 262
single-phase motor, 253
split phase, 259
stationary axes, 246
three-phase motor, 249
INDEX INDEX
two-phase symmetrical components, skew-symmetric, 24 invariancy of, 31, 84
247, 251, 260 solution of equations, 27 selsyns, 290
Interconnected machines subtraction, 19 Primitive
amplidyne voltage regulator, 296 symmetric, 24 machines; see Generalized machines
cascade induction, 288 transpose, 24, 26 networks, 13, 44, 53, 83, 102
cascade induction and commutator unit, 19
motor, 289 Maxwell-Lorentz equation, 183 Quasi-holonomic, 149, 167; see also Ref-
d-C, 283 Maxwell's equation, 178 erence frames
differential selsyns, 293 Mesh network, 9, 12 equations, 151, 175, 176, 180, 183, 193,
Kapp vibrator, 285 Motion, equation of, 141, 171 204
phase advancer, 287 generalized per unit, 203 Quasi-holonomic machine, 149
power selsyns, 290 holonomic, 171, 179, 192 equation of voltage, 151
synchronous, 237, 242 Lagrangian, 170 impedance matrix, 151, 152, 163
Interconnection matrix, 173, 178, 189 components, 154
coils, 160 Maxwell-Lorentz, 185 modification, 153
networks, 88 non-holonomic, 174, 186, 194, 203 induction matrix, 154, 164
subnetworks, 35 quasi-holonomic, 175, 185, 193 resistance matrix, 154
Invariant Motional impedance ; see Impedance torque matrix, 154, 155, 164, 188
form, 31, 110 transformation, 157
power, 31, 84 Networks, 3, 9, 12 brush shift, 159
Invariancy, 31, 84, 107, 110 classification, 102 displaced coil, 160
Inverse, 22 complete, 12, 92 interconnected coils, 160
conversion, 100 moving axes, 158
Junction pairs, 9, 12 junction-pair, 9, 12, 83, 102 slip rings, 159
change of variables, 88 mesh, 9, 12, 101, 102 successive, 161
constraints, 86 open, 10 turn-ratio, 158
definition, 12 orthogonal, 12, 92 two stator and two rotor winding lay-
interconnection, 88 primitive, 13, 44, 53, 83, 102 ers, 150
networks, 83, 104 sub-, 9, 35 voltage and current components, 150
selection, 84 symmetrical components, 53 winding layers, 150
Junctions, 9 topological considerations, 9 Quotient law, 113
types, 12
Kapp vibrator, 285 Non-holonomic, 127, 167; see also Refer-
ence frames Raising and lowering indices, 118, 203
Kirchhoff's laws, 6 Reference frames (systems, axes)
equivalence of, 44 equations, 173
objects, 129 explicit, 189
Kronecker delta, 19 holonomic, 127, 168, 171, 172, 178, 189,
Notation, 3
matrix, 17 190, 192, 234
Lagrangian method, 167 tensor, 4, 105 moving, 156, 158
equation of motion, 170 non-holonomic, 127, 168, 173
Laplacian, 124 Orthogonal (complete) networks, 12, 92, quasi-holonomic, 149, 168, 175, 181, 183,
Lauder's rule, 131 102 184, 193
Leakage coefficient, 205 Oscillating load, induction motor, 265 rectilinear, 115
Leblanc advancer, 280 Oscillations, small Repulsion motor, 268, 270, 275
equation of, 209 Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor,
Magnetizing current, neglect of, 8, 42, 60 classification of components, 211, 214 126, 218
Matrices, 17 invariant form, 216 Routh's criterion, 136
addition, 19 transformation, 212
compound, 25 generalized machine, 215 Scherbius advancer, 279
conjugate, 48 motional impedance, 211, 215 Schrage motor, 273
diagonal, 23 sinusoidal disturbances, 219 Sets, 30, 31, 105
differentiation, 25 stationary non-oscillating axes, 210 Shaded pole motor, 262
inverse, 22, 24 Short-circuit inductance, 205, 226
multiplication, 20 Phase advancer, 287 Short-circuit matrix, 131
n-way, 17 Polyphase matrix, 134 ' Short-circuit theorem, 130
polyphase, 134 Postulates, generalization, 11 Shunt polyphase commutator motor, 280
product, 26 Power Single-phase induction motor, 253
rotation, 156, 180 equation of, 162 Sinusoidal disturbances, 219
308 INDEX INDEX
Slip rings, 159 analysis, 105 Transformers, multiwinding, 60 transition points, 77
Split phase induction motor, 259 associated, 118 basic definitions, 60 Turn-ratio transformation, 158
Squirrel-cage repulsion motor, 273 composition, 111 coupling windings, 65
Stability criteria, 135 conjugate, 48 delta-quadruple-zigzag, 70
Hunvitz's, 137 contraction, 111 Vectors
extended data, 74
Routh's, 136 contravariant. 110 forked auto-, 67 angle between, 117
Steady-state covariant, 110 magnitude, 117
group of, 68
calculations, 161 covariant derivative, 121 impedance, 60. 61 Voltage
cascade induction motors, 289 curvature, 125, 218 inscribed delta, 74 components. 196
differential selsyns, 295 definition. 109 load ratio control circuit, 66 equation of, 141, 142, 145
induction machines, 246. 247, 249, 252, differentiation, 115, 120 parallel windings, 64 holonomic, 172, 178, 189, 193
254, 255, 257, 259, 260, 263 field, 185 series windings, 62 non-holonomic, 174, 187, 195
Kapp vibrator, 286 fields, 119 stub delta, 74 quasi-holonomic, 151, 161, 180, 183,
Leblanc advancer, 280 group property, 109 voltage equation, 61 193, 204
phase advancer, 288, 289 higher derivatives, 123 wyedelta-zigzag, 69 generated, 146
polyphase commutator motor, 281 indices, 105, 118 Traveling waves, multivelocity, 75 induced, 146
power selsyns, 292 intrinsic derivative, 121 differential equations, 75
repulsion motors, 269, 270, 275 invariance, 107, 110 impedances, 78 Winding layers, 150
Schrage motor, 274 inverse, 112
synchronous machine, 222, 224, 228 magnitude, 117
Subnetworks, 9, 35 metric, 116
Subscripts, 4 mixed, 110
Successive transformation, 109, 161 multiplication, 111
Summation convention, 5, 106 quotient law, 113
Superscripts, 4 rotation, 156, 180
Symmetrical components, 8, 48, 49 summation convention, 5, 106
basic networks, 53 torsion, 175, 180. 184, 188
transformation, 4 transformation, 3, 108, 109, 113
two-phase, 247 weighted, 114
Synchronous machines, 222 Tensor analysis, 105
converter, 278 Terminals, 93
elimination of axes, 225, 240 Three-phase induction motor. 249
equivalent circuits, 227. 228, 230 Topology, 9
forward and backward components, Torque
228 damping, 220
hunting, 240 equation of, 141, 146
impedance matrix holonomic. 173, 178, 190 193
forward and backward components, matrix, 154, 162
229 non-holonomic, 175, 196
motional, 241, 243, 244 quasi-holonomic, 176, 181, 184!
moving axes, 233 194
transient, stationary axes, 222 reaction, 155
interconnection, 237.242 synchronizing. 220
operational impedance, 227 Torsion tensor, 175, 180, 184, 188
oscillation, 240, 242 Transformation, 3, 8, 30, 108
quadrature axes ignored, 240 Christoffel symbol, 127
reactances, direct and quadrature. 226 coordinates, 7, 30
single-phase, 234 current, 31
steady-state voltage, 222 formula, 49
subsynchronous speed, 223 functional. 113
synchronous speed, 224 impedance, 31
three-phase, 234 linear, 108
time constants, 226 moving axes, 158
torque, 229 primitive machine, 157, 200
two-phase, moving axes, 232 successive, 109, 161
tensor, 9
Tensor turn-ratio, 158
addition, 110 voltage, 31