WIND ENERGY

Wind Energ. 2007; 10:99–102

Published online 12 July 2006 in Wiley Interscience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/we.203

Letter to Remarks on Wind Turbine Power

the Editor Absorption Increase by Including the
Axial Force due to the Radial
Pressure Gradient in the General
Momentum Theory
M. I. Xiros* and N. I. Xiros, School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, National Techni-
cal University of Athens, Iroon Polytechniou 9, GR-15710 Zografos, Athens, Greece

Key words: It is shown that the general momentum theory, in the form that it has been published pre-
actuator disc; viously, underestimates the axial force and the absorbed power, possibly by a large amount
general momentum
theory;
if the expansion of the wake is large. Consequently, the Betz limit, theoretically, can proba-
wake rotation; bly be exceeded by a correspondingly large amount. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons,
wake expansion Ltd.

Received 27 September 2005; Revised 2 May 2006; Accepted 8 May 2006

General Remarks
From equations (7), (8), (12) and (14) of Reference 1 it follows that
R
axial force acting on the wind turbine = ∫ ∆Pd 2prdr
0
R
2 r= R dr
= 2 rΩ 2 at′R 2 [pr ]r =0
+ 4prΩ 2 ( at′R )
2 2
∫r
0
Rw
rw = Rw drw 1 rw = Rw
= 2 rΩ 2 at′R 2 [prW2 ]rw =0 + 4prΩ 2 ( at′R 2 ) − rU∞2 b 2 [prrW2 ]rw =0
2
∫ rw 2 (1)
0

Rw R
The integrals ∫ drw rw and ∫ dr r are improper and divergent because generally
0 0

 dx 
a a
dx
∫ = lim x ′→0 +  ∫  = lim x ′→0 + [ln( a) − ln( x ′)] = ∞
0
x  x′ x 

* Correspondence to: M. I. Xiros, School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,
Iroon Polytechniou 9, GR-15710 Zografos, Athens, Greece.
E-mail: marios_xiros@hotmail.com

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

100 Letter to the Editor

In order to avoid this problem, we assume that the root radius of the actuator disc and the root radius in the
far wake are both very small, but equal to finite values that we call RH and RHW respectively.
Thus, from equation (1) it follows that
R
+ 4prΩ 2 ( at′R 2 ) ln  
2 r= R R
∫ ∆P 2prdr = 2 rΩ a ′R [pr ]
2
axial force acting on the wind turbine = 2 2
d t r = RH  RH 
RH

[ ]
= 2 rΩ 2 at′R 2 prW
2 rw = Rw

rW = RH w
4prΩ 2 ( at R 2 ) ln  W  − rU∞2 b 2 [prW2 ]rw = RH
2 R 1
 RHw  2
rw = Rw
w

(2)
Consequently, from equation (2), by the definition of l and using equation (13) of Reference 1, it follows that
b−a a ′R 2 b2 a ′R 2
− 2 t 2 ln   = 2 − 2 t 2 ln  W 
R R
1− a RW  RH
 4 l a ′
t RW  RHw


In order to derive equation (15) of Reference 1 from the last equation, the following must hold

ln   = ln  W 
R R
 RH   RHw 
However, RW > R because of the expansion of the wake.
It can also be shown from the vortex theory that the axial velocity through the root disc is higher than
the free stream velocity, as seen for example on p. 87 of Reference 2. Thus, for continuity, it must hold that
RHW < RH. Consequently,

ln   < ln  W 
R R
 RH   RHw 
Thus equation (15) of Reference 1 it is not accurate.
Finally, we conclude from equation (2) that the axial force acting on the wind turbine is greater than the
axial force predicted by References 1 and 3.
Every elementary stream-tube is decelerated radially inside the wake in order for zero radial velocity com-
ponent to be obtained in the far wake. Thus a radial pressure gradient exists everywhere inside the wake. The
extra axial force results from the latter.
According to Figure 1, it follows that
r ∂P r
dFP = en drdE ⇒ dFP = en dPdE
∂r
r
where dFP is the elementary force caused by the pressure difference on the sides of each stream-tube, en is
the unit vector perpendicular to the streamline in the rz plane, with the direction shown in Figure 1, and dE is
the elementary surface perpendicular to dFP .
r
Let ez be the unit vector in the axial direction z and also let dFPz be the z component of the elementary force
dFP . Then we conclude that
r r
FPz = ∫ dFPz = ∫ (en ⋅ ez )dPdE ≠ 0
E E
r r
because the wake is not cylindrical and consequently en is not perpendicular to ez .

Consequences and Conclusions

If FPz is taken into account in the differential form of the equation of axial momentum, then all elementary
axial forces acting on the actuator disc surface are greater (by a large amount if the expansion of the wake is
large) than those predicted by Reference 1.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Wind Energ 2007; 10:99–102
DOI: 10.1002/we
Letter to the Editor 101

Figure 1. The flow field in the rz plane

Each elementary actuator disc axial force dT is producing (negative) work on the air particles, which, per
unit time, is equal to
dT (1 − a)U∞

Therefore the increase in every such elementary axial force in the magnitude of the axial force FPz results in
an increase in the absorbed power of the wind turbine (by a large amount if the expansion of the wake is large).
Consequently, the power coefficient, theoretically, can probably exceed not only the Betz limit but also the
maximum power coefficient predicted by Reference 1.
Also, if it is assumed that the flow is irrotational except at the tip and in the root regions of the wake, it is
not necessary to make the extra assumption that the axial induction factor a in the rotor plane is radially
uniform. This statement can be proved as follows.
The air inside the slipstream and upstream is accelerated radially (except for the air particles that are moving
on the rotor axis). Inside the wake the air is decelerated radially, so it holds that: ∂w/∂z < 0 for every axial
downstream position z, except z = 0 and z = ∞. Consequently, in the rotor plane the radial velocity of each ele-
mentary stream-tube reaches a maximum. Thus it holds that
∂w
=0
∂z z=0

where w is the radial velocity component.

However, it holds also that
r r ∂u ∂w ∂u
∇ ×U = 0 ⇒ − =0 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ a = constant
∂r z=0 ∂z z=0 ∂r z=0
r
where U is the resultant velocity vector and u is the axial velocity component. Also, it holds that
r r ∂u ∂w ∂u ∂w
∇ ×U = 0 ⇒ − =0 ⇒ = ≠ 0 ⇒ u = u( r )
∂r ∂z ∂r ∂z
for every axial downstream position, except z = 0 and z = ∞. Consequently, inside the wake the axial velocity
component is radially uniform only in the rotor plane and in the far wake. Also, the flux of the axial momen-
tum component per unit surface is not radially uniform in the wake, except in the rotor plane and far down-
stream. By means also of the axial force FPz inside the wake, radial transfer of axial momentum actually occurs.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Wind Energ 2007; 10:99–102
DOI: 10.1002/we
102 Letter to the Editor

References
1. Sharpe DJ. A general momentum theory applied to an energy-extracting actuator disc. Wind Energy 2004; 7: 177–188.
DOI: 10.1002/we.118.
2. Burton T, Sharpe D, Jenkins N, Bossanyi E. Wind Energy Handbook. Wiley: Chichester, 2001.
3. Glauert H. Airplane propellers. In Aerodynamic Theory, Durand WF (ed), vol. IV, div. L. Ch. III, pp 191–201, Durand
Reprinting Committee, California Inst. of Technology (CIT), 1943.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Wind Energ 2007; 10:99–102
DOI: 10.1002/we