Reading Comprehension lesson:

PIVOTAL WORDS, ATTITUDE CLUES,

MULTIPLE VIEWPOINTS, & DOUBLE NEGATIVES

PIVOTAL WORDS
If U-Turn Words are used in the main idea, the author’s
1. U-TURN WORDS belief is likely in the second clause of the sentence.

When U-Turn Words are used in a passage, the author’s viewpoint most
often lies in the contrasting idea, which is usually the second portion of the
sentence. These are the most important pivotal words in a passage; if you
miss one, you likely miss the author’s point and believe in the opposite idea.
U-TURN WORDS
but on the contrary still
although on the other hand nonetheless
yet instead of in contrast
despite conversely rather than
while even though whereas
however nevertheless paradoxically
even so in spite of not
 Activity: Circle the U-Turn Words in the following sentences. Write the word “contrast” over them.
A. Scholars long believed the painting was completed in 1678, but recent evidence indicates that it was
not finished until the turn of the century.
B. While an argument can be made that certain programs on television are harmful to children, not all
shows have such negative consequences.

2. ONE WAY WORDS (Additional Information)

One Way Words that add information to a text are words and phrases that
indicate that the author is continuing with or expanding the same idea.

ONE WAY WORDS (Additional Information)

and besides in addition
also further moreover
as well as furthermore too
not only…but also both…and first, second, third, etc.
 Activity: Circle the One Way Words in the following sentences and write “additional information” over
them.
A. Crystal likes camping in the mountains. Also, Crystal is an experienced hiker.
B. We will be here for one more week so we can finish our work. Another reason is to attend the show.
C. Chris is on the basketball team this semester. In addition, he is on the soccer team.

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3. ONE WAY WORDS (Comparable Information)
Another type of One Way Word indicates that the author is making a
comparison or recognizing a similarity between two things.
ONE WAY WORDS (Comparable Information)
equally important at the same time similarly
in like fashion/manner likewise analogous to
akin to comparable to by the same token
just as parallels similar to
 Activity: Circle the One Way words in the following sentences and write “comparable information”
over them.
A. Like her grandmother, Sally loves the Gallaudet Homecoming football game.
B. By comparison, Greensboro, NC is much smaller than Washington, DC is.

4. CAUSE AND EFFECT WORDS

When the author is citing reasons that something has occurred,
he will likely use Cause and Effect Words to get his point across.
Cause and Effect Words are important question indicators
because the test makers will likely as you about either
the cause or the effect described.
CAUSE AND EFFECT WORDS
because since so
due to accordingly thus
therefore consequently for this reason
hence then as a result
leading to in order to resulting in
 Activity: Circle the Cause and Effect Words in the following sentences and write “Cause and Effect”
over them.
A. Because it is raining today, the homecoming game and the food booths will be canceled.
B. In 1903, William E. Hoy, a baseball player, caught a fly ball in the ninth inning in spite of heavy fog.
Consequently, Los Angeles won the pennant for that year.

5. EXAMPLE WORDS
The most common type of SAT passage presents a main idea in
the first paragraph and then is followed by paragraphs containing
examples.
EXAMPLE WORDS
for example for instance as
such as like specifically
a case in point namely in particular
including to illustrate markedly
 Activity: Circle the Example Words in the following sentence and write “Example” over them.
A. The cafeteria has interesting lunch options. For instance, it offers sushi and sashimi on Fridays.

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 6. OPPOSING VIEWPOINT WORDS
If an author acknowledges that there are other viewpoints or beliefs
on the topic besides her own, she may set them off with one of the
following words or phrases:
OPPOSING VIEWPOINT WORDS
granted that yes
of course admit
concede accept

 Activity: Circle the Opposing Viewpoint Word in the following sentence and write “Opposing Viewpoint”
over them.
A. Only five percent of online news readers go to political blogs on a daily basis, yet many represent the
most politically active consumers of the news.
B. Conceding that Sally is a strong skater, Rachel still believes she will be able to beat her in the
Olympics. Rachel wants to win the gold medal.

7. EMPHASIS WORDS
The author can emphasize a point in two ways. He can repeat or rephrase a statement, using specific
emphasis words to introduce the reiteration:
EMPHASIS WORDS
again to repeat
in other words that is
in essence in fact

 Activity: Circle the Emphasis Words in the following sentence and write “Emphasis Words” over them.
A. Lisa decided not to go to King Islands. In fact, she told me, “No, way.”
TIP: Take time to
B. Frogs are amphibians. In other words, they live on the land and in the
water. circle U-Turn
Words and Cause
and Effect Words.

8. CONCLUSION WORDS These are likely to be

used with ideas that
If the author offers a conclusion, pay close attention. She is likely will be asked about
summarizing the main idea. Watch for these words to set off a in the questions.
conclusion:
CONCLUSION WORDS
in conclusion to sum up in brief
for these reasons after all all things considered
in any event on the whole finally
in summary to summarize to conclude

 Activity: Circle the Conclusion Words in the following sentence and write “Conclusion Words” over them.
A. Above all, it seems pertinent to remember that Hester overcame her struggles.
B. All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that she will not continue to be late for work.
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 Now let’s examine a passage to see how these pivotal words introduce ideas:
Scientists have long hypothesized that the abundance of
species in the Amazon river basin was the result of1 climatic
stability, based on their observations of life in—of all
Line places—the deep sea. Because2 the abyssal zone, that
5 deepest part of the ocean that is consistently cold and dark,
has such a high level of species diversity, scientists
concluded that its constant climate and conditions attracted
numerous species. Similarly,3 they noted, the Amazon river
basin maintains a relatively unfluctuating tropic rainforest
10 climate, as well as4 supports a multitude of species.
Recent theories about the Amazon basin, however,5
dispute this long-standing theory. Some biologists are now
suggesting that the rainforest of the Amazon does not, in
fact,6 have a stable climate, but7 rather one that has seen
15 significant variation over time.
To illustrate8 their new theory, these biologists point to
an oddity among bird species. Although9 the rainforest is
currently constant, with green forest spread throughout,
different species of birds inhabit different areas. Scientists
20 studying species distribution wondered why certain parrots
lived in specific areas and not elsewhere in the forest. If the
conditions were constant, why wouldn’t a species spread
out? The same mud-dwelling invertebrates can be found in
the deepest part of all the world’s oceans, so why couldn’t
25 these parrots be found all over the Amazon rain forest?
These biologists proposed that the bird distribution was
the result of climactic changes in the Amazon basin during
ice ages. They noted that different species of birds were
found on low ground than on high ground, and suggested
30 that each of the thirteen ice ages divided the basin in two:
the low ground became dry plains, while10 the high ground
retained moisture. This division also11 separated the resident
bird population by both12 physical location and12 genetic
makeup, forcing each isolated group to adapt to the new
35 climate. With each subsequent ice age, the once continuous
population was further divided, thus13 increasing diversity
of species and permanently altering the locality of the birds.
This new theory not only14 questions the climactic
stability of the Amazon River basin, but also14 provides an
alternative argument for the cause of such great species
diversity in the rainforest. Granted,15 there is no conclusive
evidence to substantiate this new theory, but16 its very
existence acknowledges that scientists recognize there
might be other possible reason for an abundance of species
besides climactic stability. It causes one to wonder if
biologists may soon re-examine their beliefs about species
diversity in the deep sea.
Identify the type of pivotal word
and explain its function/purpose.
1. Type: cause/effect .
Purpose: climatic stability causes
the abundance of species
.
2. Type: ________________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
3. Type: ________________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
4. Type: ________________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
5. Type: ________________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
6. Type: ________________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
7. Type: ________________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
8. Type: ________________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
9. Type: ________________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
10. Type: _______________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
11. Type: _______________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
12. Type: _______________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
13. Type: _______________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
14. Type: _______________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
15. Type: _______________________
Purpose:_________________________
________________________________
16. Type: _______________________
Purpose:_________________________
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 ________________________________

ATTITUDE CLUES
What is the tone
of this cartoon?
____________________
Is it positive,
negative, or
neutral? (Circle)

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 What is the tone
of this cartoon?
_________________
Is it positive,
negative, or
neutral? (Circle)

The tone of a passage is simply the author’s attitude toward the subject about which she is writing.
Some passages, especially natural science passages like the previous one on the Amazon River basin,
are matter-of-fact and impartial, but most Reading Comprehension passages have a clear tone. On rare
occasion, an author might explicitly state how she feels about a topic:
I am fascinated by ancient cathedrals. Their architecture is Tone:
worthy of respect and imitation, which I have graciously practiced
since I started designing building twenty years ago.
Activity:
1. Underline the following words and phrases: “fascinated,” “worthy of respect” and “imitation,”
and “graciously practiced.”
2. In the Tone box, write “fascinated” and “respectful.” These describe the tone of the passage.
Tone is not usually that obvious, though, and must be inferred instead. You can do this by identifying
key words that hint at the author’s feelings. Consider an example:
The United States education system must be changed if Tone:
our graduates are to compete for jobs with students from
other countries. Our school calendars lack hours in a day and
Line days in a year compared to European and Asian schedules,
5 resulting in students who are academically behind. Part of
the blame can be laid on American parents, who often value
freedom and individuality more than discipline and
education.
Activity:
1. Underline the following words and phrases: “must be changed” (Line 1), “lack” (Line 3), and
“blame” (Line 6).
2. These indicate the tone of the passage is critical. In the Tone box, write “critical.”
TIP: Underline tone words as you read them. At the end of
the passage, you can review all underlined words to
determine the author’s attitude.
Pivotal Words and
Attitude Clues Mini-Drill

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 1. Surprisingly, the argument that graffiti is legitimate art has many Main Idea:
proponents in the art world. They point out that a graffiti artist must create an _____________
intricate plan before they begin, just as a painter plans on canvas. These _____________
Line artists use a standard medium—spray paint—just as a painter of canvas uses _____________
5 oils or watercolors. And graffiti communicates to its spectators, just as the _____________
Mona Lisa or Waterlillies at Giverney speaks to the beholders of such _____________
masterpieces. While these facts are seemingly true, there is one obvious _____________
difference between graffiti and other artistic forms that just may revoke _____________
graffiti’s status as art: graffiti is illegal.
10 If creating a work of art is a crime, is it truly art? Advocates for graffiti Author’s
say that the crime is immaterial, but would they then classify a burglar’s Attitude:
ransacking of a home as interior design? Likely not. This example illustrates _____________
the fine line between creation and destruction, and gives credence to _____________
challengers of graffiti as art. The debate is a murky one, with strong support _____________
15 on each side, but it seems as if the legality of a craft should play a part in _____________
determining true art.
Activity:
1. Circle the following pivotal words and phrases: “just as” (Line 4), “While” (Line 7), “but”
(Line 11), “This example illustrates” (Line 12), “and” (Line 13), and “but” (Line 15).
2. Underline the following tone words: “Surprisingly” (Line 1), “obvious” (Line 7), “just may
revoke” (Line 8), “murky” (Line 14), “seems” (Line 15), and “should play a part” (Line 15).
3. These indicate the tone of the passage is skeptical and somewhat critical. Under Author’s
Attitude (aka Tone) box, write “skeptical and somewhat critical.” Complete the main idea.
2. Pregnancy is a hoot. Who knew that I would get such joy out of Main Idea:
waddling like a duck and having my ribs stomped by a little boy who is sure _____________
to one day be a placekicker in the NFL? Not to mention how much I love _____________
Line shopping these days; maternity clothes are just so darn cute with their _____________
5 elephant sized waistbands and circus tent tops. Last week I noticed that none _____________
of my shoes fit anymore, given my expanding feet. I am happily wearing flip _____________
flops, the only shoes that fit, in the middle of January. In Minnesota. _____________
The comments that people make are so kind and reassuring, too. _____________
Yesterday at my doctor’s appointment, an old lady asked, “Is there a baby in
10 there, or are you just fat?” Isn’t that sweet? My dad recently observed that Author’s
my face is getting fuller to match my growing belly. He always knows how Attitude:
to make a girl feel better. _____________
Pregnancy—it’s an absolute riot, I tell you. On a serious note, though, I _____________
know it will all be worth it when these nine, long, torturous months are over.
Activity:
1. Circle the following pivotal words and phrases: “Not to mention” (Line 3), “too” (Line 8), “I
tell you” (Line 13), and “though” (Line 13).
2. Underline the following tone words and phrases: “like a duck” and “my ribs stomped” (Line 2),
“elephant sized” (Line 5), “circus tent tops” (Line 5), “January” (7), “Minnesota” (Line 7),
“fuller” (Line 11), and “long, torturous” (Line 14).
3. These indicate the tone of the passage is sarcastic and jocular. Under Author’s Attitude, write
“sarcastic and jocular.” Complete the main idea.

MULTIPLE VIEWPOINTS 7
 Multiple viewpoints are used to make passages more difficult.
Avoid this trap by identifying and recording each viewpoint as you read.
*Label each viewpoint “VP” and a word, abbreviation,
or symbol to indicate the viewpoint’s owner.

Sometimes U-Turn words can separate the viewpoints of two people in a single sentence:
Some watchdog groups argue that television is harmful to children, but not all programs have negative
effects.

Activity:
1. Circle the word “but” in this sentence.
2. Notice that the first part of the sentence presents the viewpoint of some watchdog groups.
Underline this part of the sentence and label it “VP Some Watchdog Groups.”
3. Notice that the second part of the sentence presents the opinion of the author. Underline this
part of the sentence and label it “VP Author.”

As if Reading Comprehension reading passages are not difficult enough, the test makers like to select
passages that contain multiple viewpoints. The more opinions a passage contains, the more likely
students are going to misinterpret the author’s viewpoint, which is often the main idea. For example:
Literary critics have praised author Toni
Morrison for her deft handling of female character
development in novels that typically feature
Line powerful and troubling themes. While some have


5 called the author a feminist, Morrison has never
referred to herself as such, asserting that she seeks to
craft viewpoints that embrace equality for all. But
one of the strengths of her writing is the uniquely
female point of view her characters bring to
10 situations of intolerance and oppression. By their
very nature, Morrison’s dynamic portrayals assert
that women deserve equal rights in any forum.
Activity:
1. Underline “Literary critics have praised author Toni Morrison for her deft handling of female
character development in novels that typically feature powerful and troubling themes” in Lines
1-3. In the box next to those words, write “VP-Literary Critics.”
2. Underline “some have called the author a feminist” in Lines 4-5. In the box next to those
words, write “VP-Some People.”
3. Underline “she seeks to craft viewpoints that embrace equality for all” in Lines 6-7. In the box
next to those words, write “VP-Morrison.”
4. Circle Lines 7-12. In the box next to those words, write “VP-Author.”
5. Circle the words “While” (Line 4) and “But” (Line 7), which signal a shift in perspective.

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 Although the International Astronomical Union
has recently downsized Pluto from a planet to a
dwarf planet, some scientists still contend that Pluto
Line is a planet, given that it orbits around the sun and 
5 has enough gravity to be spherically shaped;


however, because Pluto has other large objects in its
orbit, it is clear that it is merely a dwarf planet. This
declaration has caused quite a stir among the
astronomical community, but an astrophysicist
10 Richard Conn Henry remarked, “I think that, when
the dust settles, people will recognize that there
really are just eight planets.” 
Activity:
1. Underline “some scientists still contend that Pluto is a planet” in Lines 3-4. Write “VP-
Scientists” in the box next to these lines.
2. Underline “it is clear that it is merely a dwarf planet” in Line 7. Write “VP-Author” in the box
next to this line.
3. Underline “there really are just eight planets” in Lines 11-12. Write “VP-Expert” in the box
next to these lines.
4. Circle the words “Although” (Line 1), “however” (Line 6), and “but” (Line 9), which signal a
change in perspective.

DOUBLE NEGATIVES
Another strategy used by the makers of the LSAT is to select passages with double negative
statements. Although you were likely taught never to use a double negative (such as “I do not have no
homework”), there are exceptions to every rule. These expressions are grammatically correct when
negatives make a positive:
Double Negative Actual Meaning
1. It is not unlike him to yell.

2. It is not impossible to win.

3. He is not unfriendly.

Activity: Next to each double negative above, write the actual meaning
of the sentence. 1. “It is like him to yell.”
2. “It is possible to win.”
3. “He is friendly.”
Although the monks from the northwest quadrant have no dietary restrictions, it is not uncommon to
find members of the monastery who are practicing vegetarians.
Activity: Cross out “not un” and above it write “it is common.”

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 Multiple Viewpoints and Double Negatives Mini-Drill
1. File sharing, the practice of allowing the electronic exchange
of files over a network such as the Internet, has in recent years
led to the emergence of a new and complex set of legal issues for
Line intellectual property owners. Identifying offenders is not
5 unfeasible, but the rapid and often undetectable movement of
digital copies of copyrighted material makes identification
particularly difficult. In addition, prosecuting such offense is
time-consuming and expensive.
May owners of intellectual property have claimed that
10 enforcement of these violations is necessary in order to send a
signal to other possible offenders. For example, in 2000,
members of the band Metallica filed suit against a music-sharing
company to end the free distribution of their copyrighted
material. “From a business standpoint, this is about piracy—
15 a.k.a. taking something that doesn’t belong to you and that is
morally and legally wrong,” said drummer Lars Ulrich. The file
sharers, however, typically claim that they did not know they
were sharing copyrighted material, and that regardless, the
widespread sue of file sharing networks renders the protection of
20 copyrights impossible. And then there are some copyright
holders, like 50 Cent and Moby, who encourage file sharing as a
means to promote their music. “What is important for the music
industry to understand is that this really doesn’t hurt the artists,”
said Curtis Jackson, the rapper known as 50 Cent, in a 2007 
interview. “A young fan may be just as devout and dedicated no
matter if he bought it or stole it.”
How does the author feel about identifying offenders in Line 4?
A. It is possible.
B. It is impossible. Circle the following words, which signal a change in perspective:
C. It is illegal.  “but” (Line 5),
D. It is legal.  “however” (Line 17),
 “And then there are some” (Line 20)
Activity:
1. In Lines 4-8, underline the sentence “Identifying…expensive” and write “VP-Author” in the box.
2. In Lines 10-11, underline the portion of the sentence “enforcement…offenders” and write “VP-
Many Owners” in the box.
3. In Lines 14-16, underline the sentence “From…wrong” and write “VP-Ulrich” in the box.
4. In Lines 17-20, underline the portion of the sentence “they did not know…impossible” and write
“VP-File Sharers” in the box.
5. In Lines 21-22, underline the phrase “encourage…music” and write “VP-Some Holders” in the box.
6. In Line 23, underline the phrase “this really doesn’t hurt the artists” and in Lines 25-26, underline
the sentence “A young fan…stole it” and write “VP-50 Cent” in the box.
7. In Lines 4-5, cross out “not un” and write “it is feasible” above it. This means “it is possible,” which
is Answer Choice A. Circle A.
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 2. Federal rules of evidence have long prohibited
the presentation in court of many types of “hearsay,”
evidence that is recounted second-hand rather than
Line reported directly by a witness. This decision is based
5 on the notion that only the most readily verifiable
evidence should be allowed consideration by any
court in making its determinations. Much like in a
childhood game of “Telephone,” the words of the
original speaker have a way of becoming altered and
10 warped when passed from person to person. Dr.
Kinsley has argued, however, that the rules of
evidence as currently written are unacceptably
overreaching, defining too many types of evidence
as hearsay when the value of that evidence would far
15 outweigh any associated detriment if allowed court
admissibility, but modern hearsay rules are not
unwarranted.

How does the author feel about modern hearsay rules in Lines 16-17?
A. They are overextended.
B. They become distorted.
C. They are needed.
D. They are not needed.

Activity:
1. In Lines 11-13, underline the phrase “the rules of evidence…overreaching” and write “VP-
Kinsley” in the box.
2. In Lines 16-17, underline the phrase “but modern hearsay rules are not unwarranted” and write
“VP-Author” in the box.
3. Circle “however” (Line 11) and “but” (Line 16), which signals a change in perspective.
4. In Lines 16-17, cross out “not un” and write “are warranted” above it. This means “are
needed,” which is in Answer Choice C. Circle C.

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