3 LIFE PROCESSES - CONTROL AND

CO-ORDINATION

Importance of nervous system – Human nervous system; central nervous

system – Peripheral nervous system – Autonomic nervous system – reflex
action – sense organs, eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin – Endocrine
glands – Pituitary – Thyroid – Parathyroid – Adrenal – Islet of Langerhans –
Gonads

3.1 IMPORTANCE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

All organisms have an unique property to respond to the changes in the
environment. This property of responding to changes in the environment is called
Irritability.
For example, if we touch an Earthworm it moves away from the place. If
we place plants in the shade, they grow towards the source of light.
A person runs away from the snake the moment he sees it. In this example
snake is the stimulus and running away from it, is the response.
This kind of response indicates that living organisms have a mechanism
to identify or sense the stimulus in the environment. This information is sent
to the organ which has the ability to respond to such changes.
In multicellular organisms, a co-ordination between various organ systems
is brought about in two general ways; namely control by nervous system and
control by endrocrine system.
In this unit you will learn about the method of control and co-ordination
of body functions by the nervous system and also the role of endocrine glands.
Nervous system consists of receptors, effectors and conductors.
The organ which receives the stimulus is called receptor. The organ which
shows visible response is effector. The tissues, which connect the receptors and
effectors and help in conducting the stimulus, are called conductors.
In higher animals, the receptors are sense organs, the effectors are muscles
and glands and the conductors are nerves formed by nervous tissue.

34
3.2 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
Man stands unique and supreme in the living world. This supremacy is
due to a highly well developed brain. The nervous system of all vertebrates
including man is made up of nerve cells called neurons and supporting cells.

The nervous system has three basic components namely central nervous
system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS) and autonomic nervous system
(ANS)
Nervous system
↓ ↓ ↓
Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system Autonomic nervous system
↓ ↓ ↓
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Brain Spinal Cranial Spinal Sympathetic Parasympathetic
cord nerves nerves nerves nerves
Components of human nervous system

3.21 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord are the components
of central nervous system. Both brain and spinal
cord are covered by three membranes namely
outer duramater, middle arachnoid and inner
piamater. These membranes are called meninges.
The space between the meninges is filled with
a watery fluid called cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF)
This fluid flows from brain to spinal cord and back
to brain. It protects brain and spinal cord from
The brain and the Spinal cord are
surrounded by layers of connective
tissue called meninges which
cushion it against bumps and jolts.
Infection of the meninges causes
the disease called meningitis.
The fastest nerves can transmit
messages at over 120 m. (390 ft)
per second

injuries and provides nutrients to the cells in brain

and spinal cord. Besides these, brain is protected
by a bony case called cranium.
Average weight of human
brain
BRAIN : The brain is very well developed and Stage Weight
has reached complexity resulting in a high mental 1. New born child 350 gms
capacity. The brain of adult man weighs about 2. One year child 1000 gms
1400 grams. Brain is divided into three parts - 3. Adult man 1400 gms
forebrain, mid brain and hind brain. The hind brain 4. Adult woman 1260 gms
continues as spinal cord.
Fore brain : It shows two major parts called cerebrum and dienchephalon.

35
CEREBRUM : Cerebrum is the largest part of the
brain. It consists of two equal halves called
cerebral hemispheres (right and left) separated by
a groove.
Cerebrum shows two regions namely an outer
cortex and inner medulla. Cortex is composed of
cytons and forms the grey matter, the medulla is
composed of nerve fibres (axons and dendrites)
and forms the white matter.
It is presumed that the intelligence
of animals can be fairly accurately
studied by looking into the ratio
between the weight of the brain and
the weight of the spinal cord. In
cats it is about 4:1, in monkeys
about 8.1 and in human beings it
is about 55:1
Nerve cells can grow their branches
(axons) at the rate of 4 m.m a day
during the period of normal growth.

The cortex is deeply folded into ridges called convolutions which increase
the surface area of the cerebrum. The high degree of intelligence of the human
being is supposed to be result of the great development of cortex.
Motor area
Cerebrum is the seat of Sensory
consciousness. It is the centre area
of mental activity. It receives Speech
messages from the five sense Reading
organs and enables us to
Intellectual Auditory
obser ve our environment functions area
through them. The information
Visual
gained through the sense area
organs is stored in the cerebral
cells and is used when Taste

necessar y. This is called

memory power. Fig 3.1 - Areas of Sensation on Cerebral cortex

The cerebrum is the seat of intelligence, imagination, reasoning, emotions

and will power.
Specific areas of the cerebrum are associated with specific functions. Thus
there are separate centres to hear, to see, to taste and to speak. Damage to
any particular centre affects that particular function.
The nerves coming from the left side of the body are connected to the
right cerebral hemisphere. The nerves coming from the right side of the body
cross over and enter the left cerebral hemisphere. Hence, the right hemisphere
controls the organs of the left side and the left hemisphere controls the organs
on the right side. Any Injury to the left hemisphere results in paralysis of the
organs on the right side and vice-versa.

36
DIENCHEPHALON : Parts of the brain
below the cerebrum are together known Cerebrum
as dienchephalon. They can be divided
into an upper thalamus and a lower
hypothalamus. Thalamus receives nerve Thalamus

impulses from many sense organs and

Mid brain
sends them to upper region. The
hypothalamus regulates body Pons
temperature, water balance, appetite Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata
and sleep. It also controls autonomic
nervous system and pituitary gland. Fig 3.2 - Vertical Section of Human brain

MID BRAIN : Mid brain is a small region of brain made up of nerve fibres
connecting cerebrum to the cerebellum. It serves mainly as relay station through
which impulses move from hind brain to the forebrain. It is concerned with
receiving impulses from eyes and ears.

HIND BRAIN : Hind brain consists of three parts namely pons varoli, cerebellum
and medulla oblongata.
Pons is the conducting medium between cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla
oblongata. It has the controlling centres of mastication, facial expression
respiration and forms the conducting pathway. There are twelve pairs of cranial
nerves of which four pairs originate from the pons.
Cerebellum is a region which lies behind and
below the cerebrum. It is responsible for the A persons brain contains billions of
maintenance of equilibrium and posture of the nerve cells, A honey bee’s by
comparison has only a thousand
body. It co-ordinates and controls the movements and an ant has about 250.
of muscles in actions like walking or running.
Medulla oblongata is the posterior-most part of the brain and continues
as the spinal cord. It has centres which control the involuntary activities of the
body, such as breathing, heart beat, movements of digestive tract (swallowing,
vomiting etc.) enzyme secretions, blood pressure and other activities.

SPINAL CORD : Spinal cord is a long and cylindrical structure passing through
vertebral column. It is composed of a large number of nerve cells and nerve
fibres. It has grey matter in the centre surrounded by white matter. Thirty one
pairs of nerves arise from the spinal cord and their branches reach several parts

37
of the body namely heart, lungs, stomach, urinary bladder and sex glands. The
spinal nerves are made up of both sensory and motor nerve fibres. Spinal cord
co-ordinates the movements of limbs and organs in the body by reflex actions.
White matter

Grey matter
Central canal
Dorsal root

Spinal nerve

Ventral root
Fig 3.3 - Cross section of spinal cord

REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC : A reflex action is an automatic response

to an external stimulus. Spinal cord is the centre of such reflex actions. These
are independent of the brain. For example, when we step on a thorn unknowingly,
immediately we take away our leg. Similarly, when we touch a hot object we
withdraw our hand.
The pathway of the nerve impulse involved in reflex action is called
reflex arc. Association neuron

Afferent neuron

Receptors in skin
Efferent neuron

Effector
Fig 3.4 - Reflex arc

IT CONSISTS OF FIVE DISTINCT PARTS :

1. A receptor (sense organ) that receives stimulus.
2. A sensory neuron that conducts the impulse from the receptor to the spinal
cord or the hind brain.
3. An association neuron which transmits the impulse from the sensory neuron
to a motor neuron.
4. A motor neuron through which the impulses pass on to an effector.
5. An effector where the action takes place in response to the stimulus.

38
3.22 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Peripheral nervous system includes twelve
pairs of cranial nerves and thirty one pairs of
spinal nerves.
Sensory nerves carry impulses from
sense organs to the brain. Motor
nerves carry messages from brain
to the muscles. Mixed nerves are
both sensory and motor in function.

Cranial nerves take their origin from different parts of the brain and are
connected mainly to the sense organs, muscles and glands of the head. Some
of the cranial nerves are sensory, some are motor and a few are mixed nerves.

One of the most important cranial nerve, the vagus (wandering nerve) forms
part of the autonomic nervous system and gives out branches to the heart, the
lungs and the digestive organs. Spinal nerves take their origin from spinal cord.
All of them are mixed nerves having both sensory and motor fibers. The sensory
fibers originate from the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. These carry information
from organs to spinal cord. The motor fibers take their origin from the ventral
horn of the spinal cord. These supply information required for the movement
of the muscles.

3.23 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)
The autonomic nervous system consists of
a special set of peripheral nerves that supply
nerves to organs such as heart, lungs, digestive
tract and other internal organs.
The longest nerve fibres are about
one meter long. They stretch from
the base of spinal cord to the tip
of the toe.

It regulates a variety of functions which are not under the control of the
will. It consists of two parts, the sympathetic system and the para-sympathetic
system with opposite actions. For example, the sympathetic system stimulates
the pupil in the eye to dilate, where as the para sympathetic system causes
it to constrict.

3.3 THE SENSE ORGANS

When we look at a rose we get an idea about its colour, size and shape
with the help of our eyes. By touching it, we feel the softness of its petals and
by touching its thorns we feel the pain. We sense its smell with our nose.
The organs through which we sense the objects in our environment are
known as sense organs. We have five sense organs namely eyes, ears, nose,
tongue and skin, by means of which we are able to see, hear, smell, taste and
touch, respectively.

39
 A sense organ receives the stimuli from the objects around us. Each
stimulus is then passed on to the brain through a sensory nerve. The brain
interprets and recognises the stimulus. This results in a set of information about
the object.

3.31 HUMAN EYES

Eyes are the organs of sight and are stimulated by light. We can get to
know the colour, size, shape and distance of an object with the help of eyes.

The eye balls are situated infront of the face in bony sockets of skull. Each
eye ball is held by three pairs of muscles by means of which we can move
our eye up and down and in various directions.

The eyes are covered by the eyelids situated above and below the eye
ball. Eyelids with the eye lashes prevent the dust particles from entering eyes.

The eye brows protect eye from small

particles that fall from above to the eye. The hairs
of the eye brows help to shade the eyes from
bright illumination. Lacrymal glands situated in the
outer region of the upper eyelid, produce secretions
to keep the surface of the eye moist and wash
out dirt and foreign particles. The secretion
contains some salts and is an antiseptic.
Lacrymal glands (Tear glands): They
are found behind the top eyelid.
They release tears that wash your
eye clean when you blink. Tears are
produced faster if dust or smoke
get into your eyes.

STRUCTURE OF EYE : The wall of the eye is made up of three layers namely
sclerotic, choroid and retina.
Sclerotic layer (sclera) is the outermost white layer. The bulged, transparent
front portion of the sclerotic layer is called cornea. It is protected by a thin
membrane called conjunctiva.
The middle layer choroid is richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels.
On the front and in the centre of choroid there is an aperture known as pupil.
A layer of tissue binding this pupil above and below is called iris. The cells
of the iris contain pigments which are responsible for the colour of the eyes.
A transparent biconvex lens is located behind the iris. It is held in position
by the suspensory ligament and ciliary muscles. The lens focuses the light rays
on retina. Hence an inverted image of the object is formed on the retina.

40
 Conjunctiva Sclera
Choroid

Aqueous humour Vitreous humour

Iris
Cornea
Pupil Fovea
Lens
Suspensory ligament Retina

Ciliary muscle blind spot

Optic nerve

Fig 3.5 - Vertical section through the human eye

The area between the cornea and the lens is filled with a fluid called
aqueous humour. The relatively thick fluid filling the space behind the lens is
called vitreous humour. Both these fluids help in refraction of light rays and
maintain the shape of the eye ball.
Retina lines the inner
surface of the eye. It contains
numerous nerve fibres and
receptors. The receptor cells Rod cell
are of two types namely Cone cell
Yellow spot
rods and cones. Rods are
sensitive to dim light and
cannot distinguish colours.
Cones are sensitive to bright
light and can distinguish Ganglion
cell layer
colours.
Optic nerve fibers
Fig 3.6 - Layers of retina showing rods and cones

A large number of cones are located opposite

to the pupil where the most clear and sharp image Rods and Cones
is formed. This part is some what depressed and There are about 125 million rod
cells and 7 million cone cells in
is known as the yellow spot (fovea). The sensory each human eye.
fibres of the retina form a bundle of nerves and
emerge from the eye ball as the optic nerve.

41
 The cones and the rods are absent at the exit of the optic nerve. No image
is perceived at this spot and it is therefore called the blind spot.

FUNCTIONING OF THE EYE : The light rays reflected from the object are
focussed on the retina to form the image. The retinal cells exposed to the light
in the region of the image are stimulated by photochemical reactions. These
cells convert the stimulations into electrical impulses which pass along the optic
nerve to the visual centre in the cerebrum. The interpretation of these impulses
in the cerebrum, results in vision.
The human eye, however adjusts itself to near and far objects by altering
the focal length of the lens. When the lens focuses the image of a near by
object, the muscles around the lens contract and convexity of the lens increases.
When we see a distant object the convexity
Common sight defects :
of the lens decreases and eye ball becomes flat. 1) Myopia (Short sight)
This property of the lens in human eye is called This defect is due to the bulging
accommodation. of eye ball or increased convexity
of the lens. It can be corrected by
using concave lenses.
DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH EYE : 2) Hypermetropia (Long sight)
1. Diabetic retinopathy : A number of diseases This is due to the flattening of eye
ball or decrease in the convexity of
can damage the retina. One of the common causes eye lens. This can be corrected by
of blindness is diabetic retinopathy. using convex lenses.
3) Presbyopia
A small proportion of diabetic people have
It is a defect in the accomodation
been severely blinded by this disease. After many of the eye. It occurs at old age due
years of diabetes, the blood vessels of the retina to the loss of elasticity of eye lens.
may leak, close up or begin to grow. These 4) Night blindness (Nyctolopia)
conditions may cause blood to enter the vitreous It is the inability to see in dim light
humour, the clear jelly like fluid inside the eye ball. and is due to the deficiency of
vitamin A.
The blood makes the vitrous humour opaque
5) Cataract
causing blindness. In some cases a major surgical Opacity of the eye lens is termed
procedure called vitrectomy can remove the blood as cataract. It is caused by
and restore vision. Early treatment with laser beam degenerative changes in the cells
of the lens.
can usually prevent this problem.
2. Astigmatism : It is a condition in which part of the image formed on the
retina is blurred. It is caused by an unevenness of the refractive surfaces
of the eye, such as the cornea or the lens. It is corrected by using cylindrical
lenses that effectively refract the light in one plane only.

42
3. Glaucoma : Glaucoma is a very serious disease of the eye. It often leads
to blindness. In Glaucoma the eye ball gradually hardens. A person with
glaucoma first sees flashes of light and coloured rings around the objects.
The vision gradually decreases. Glaucoma is most common in people above
forty years age. There are medicines that help to cure the disease and
sometimes an operation is necessary.

FIRST AID FOR THE REMOVAL OF FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYES

The foreign bodies that get into the eye may be flies, dust particles, sparks
or pieces of metals or wood in a work shop. In such a case do not rub the
eye as the eye ball will be injured. If the foreign particle is visible try to remove
it with the help of a clean handkerchief.
The foreign body can be removed by causing the flow of tears. Close the
eye for a few seconds pulling one eye lid over the other till tears collect. The
foreign body will be moved to a corner by the tears. Then it can be wiped out.
It can also be removed by keeping the eye in a clean bowl of cold water
or boric lotion, open and close the eye several times inside the water or boric
lotion. The particle gets washed out.

CARE OF THE EYES :

1. Do not strain your eyes by reading in dim light.
2. You should avoid bright light that shines directly into your eyes.
3. Rest your eyes every half an hour when you are doing close work,
by closing them or looking off into the distance for a few minutes.
4. Watching television (TV) from a short distance or for a long time is
harmful.
5. Eyes should be washed at least twice daily.
6. Whenever you feel any trouble in the eyes consult an eye specialist.

3.32 HUMAN EARS

The human ears are the sense organs meant for hearing and maintenance
of body balance. The ear is divided into three parts - the outer ear, the middle
ear and the inner ear. The inner ear is enclosed in a bony cavity of the skull.
The outer ear consists of pinna, auditory canal and the tympanic membrane.

43
 The ear pinna is a cartilagenous organ covered with skin. It collects the
sound waves and directs them into the auditory canal. The auditory canal has
hairs at its opening that prevent tiny particles entering the ear. The wax secreting
cells on the inner lining of the auditory canal produce wax which entangle small
organisms and dust. At the inner end of the auditory passage there is an obliquely
placed membrane called tympanum or ear drum. Tympanum separates the
external ear from the middle ear. Sound waves from outside cause the tympanum
to vibrate.
The middle ear consists of three small bones called the malleus (hammer)
incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup). The stirrup is close to the oval window or
fenestra ovalis. The vibrations of the tympanum are transmitted across the middle
ear by the movements of these three bones. The middle ear is connected to
the throat by an air passage called eustachian tube which equalizes the air
pressure on the two sides of the ear drum.
Pinna
Auditory canal
Tympanum
Hammer (malleus)
Anvil (incus)
Stirrup (stapes)
Semicircular canals
Auditory nerve
Cochlea
Oval window

Eustachian tube

Fig 3.7 - The structure of human ear

The inner ear is a delicate organ surrounded by a fluid called perilymph.

The inner ear has two main parts namely utriculus and sacculus. The upper
part is the utriculus which is connected to three semi circular canals. The lower
part is the sacculus which has an appendage called cochlea. The entire ear
is filled with a fluid called endolymph. Utriculus and semicircular canals are
concerned with balancing of the body. Cochlea occupies a large part of the
internal space and encloses a very delicate structure called organ of corti. The
receptors present in the organ of corti join together to form the auditory nerve.

MECHANISM OF HEARING : The sound waves directed by the pinna to the

tympanum, through the auditory canal make the tympanum to vibrate. These

44
vibrations are carried to the internal ear through the chain of bones in the middle
ear. The vibrations are further conducted to the organ of corti through perilymph
and endolymph. These wave impulses are picked up by receptors in the organ
of corti and are carried through auditory nerve to the cerebrum which interprets
the sound. The act of hearing is brought about within a fraction of a second.

CARE OF THE EARS

1. We should not try to remove hardened wax from auditory canal using
sharp objects. These objects injure the eardrum.
2. Loud noises must be avoided as they can damage hearing.
3. Germs causing cold may reach and grow in the middle ear. This causes
infection and pressure on the eardrum causing ear ache. Such people
must go to the doctor for treatment.
4. Some persons are born deaf because of congenital defects. A hearing
aid often corrects the condition.
5. Small insects entering the ear can be removed by filling the external
ear with salt water.

3.33 THE NOSE

Nose is the organ of smell and breathing. The nasal cavities are lined by
the olfactory epithelium. The receptors of smell are situated in the epithelial lining
of the upper part of the nasal cavity. They are connected with the olfactory nerve.
This nerve carries impulses to the brain, whenever smell is detected. Molecules
escaping from substances may be carried by the inhaled air. On reaching the
olfactory epithelium, they get dissolved in the mucus and stimulate the receptors.
The stimulation is passed through the olfactory nerve to the brain which interprets
the message as the sensation of smell.

First aid : If a pea or a button

or a bead gets into the nose Olfactory nerve endings
accidentally, give a pinch of snuff Nasal chamber
to the person. It causes a violent
sneezing and the foreign body will
be thrown out. If this does not Nostrils
work then take the help of a
doctor.
Fig 3.8 - The nose

45
3.34 THE TONGUE
Tongue is the organ of taste. It is
covered by a mucus membrane.
It encloses numerous tiny sensory
cells called the taste buds. The
Bitter
taste bud is composed of a cluster
of cells with the receptors lying in
a small depression on the surface.
Food dissolved in the saliva enters Sour
the pores of the taste buds and
chemically stimulates the sensory
cells. These cells convert these A
Salt
chemical stimuli into electrical
impulses that pass along sensory Sweet
neurons to the brain which
interprets these impulses as taste.
There are four basic types of Taste pore
taste. They are sweet, salt, sour Supporting cell
and bitter. The taste buds of Gustatory receptor cell
sweetness are distributed in the B
front, those of salt taste at the Nerve
anterior margin, those of sour Taste bud
taste at the sides and those of Fig 3.9 - A. Human Tongue B. Taste bud
bitter taste at the posterior region Care of the skin
of the tongue. Keep your skin always clean. If you get some skin
diseases like ringworm disease consult a doctor
immediately.
3.35 THE SKIN :
The skin is an important sense organ. It receives the sensations of touch,
pressure, pain, heat and cold. You feel hot when you sit in front of an oven
and feel cold when you move outside the house in winter. The pain of pricks,
the touch and the pressure are experienced by all of us. All these stimuli are
perceived by the respective sense receptors distributed all over the skin. Touch
receptors are near the surface of the skin. The pressure receptors and the pain
receptors are all over the body and are deeply situated.

3.4 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Apart from the nervous system, control and co-ordination of the various
body functions in animals are carried out by the endocrine system.
You have studied about some glands and their secretions like saliva, gastric
juice, bile etc.

46
 A gland is an organ whose cells are specialised for producing a particular
secretion. Sometimes, a highly specialised single cell constitutes a gland. There
are two types of glands in all vertebrates including man. They are glands with
ducts (exocrine glands) and glands without ducts (endocrine glands).
Exocrine glands discharge their secretions through the ducts to their target
organs. Example : salivary glands and pancreas. Endocrine glands discharge
their secretions directly into blood stream. Chemical substances secreted by the
endocrine glands are called ‘hormones’. They reach the respective organs
through the blood and control and co-ordinate the activities of the organs. The
organs on which hormones act are called target organs.
Since hormones carry the stimuli from one part of the body to another
they are called chemical messengers.
On chemical analysis, hormones are found to be either proteins, amino
acids or steroid compounds. Hormones are produced in very minute quantities,
yet they are highly effective.
The excess secretion from an endocrine
gland is called hypersecretion and Pituitary
inadequate secretion is called hypo
secretion. Both these conditions result in Thyroid

disorders. Para Thyroid

The major endocrine glands in the

human body are pituitary, thyroid, para thyroid,
adrenals, islets of langerhans and gonads. Adrenal
Pancreas
3.41 PITUITARY GLAND :
Ovary
It is a tiny gland of the size of a pea, (Female)
situated at the base of the brain. It secretes Testis (Male)
several hormones, some of which have
control over other endocrine glands.
Fig 3.11 - Location of major endocrine
Pituitary is differentiated into an anterior glands in human body
and a posterior lobes.

47
FUNCTIONS OF PITUITARY
GLAND : It influences the rate of
growth of the body. It influences Brain
the secretion of hormone from Hypothalamus
thyroid gland, activity of the
Pituitary gland
adrenal gland, secretion of milk
from mammary glands, excretion
of water from the kidneys and
contraction of muscles of uterus.
It also influences the development
of ovary and testis. Fig 3.12 - Location of Pituitary gland
If the secretion of growth
hormone is more prior to puberty, growth rate will be very high and this condition
is called gigantism. If the growth hormone is secreted less prior to puberty,
growth rate is retarded and this condition is called dwarfism.
The excess secretion of growth hormone in adults results in a disease called
acromegaly. The symptom of this disease is disproportionate growth of bones
particularly in jaws, nose, hands and legs.
Throat
3.42 THE THYROID GLAND : cartilage
Thyroid gland is located close to the
trachea in the neck. It secretes a hormone
called Thyroxin. It is an amino acid in Thyroid
combination with iodine. Thyroxin increases gland
the rate of metabolism. It increases the
production of heat in the body, promotes
growth and differentiation of tissues. Since
Trachea
it affects indirectly the growth of the body,
it is also called the ‘personality hormone’. Fig 3.13 - Location of Thyroid glands

Thyroid disorders : Clinical thyroid disorders are caused either due to little
(hypothyroidism) or too much (hyperthyroidism) of the hormone secretion.
Hypothyroidism : It is a condition in which the thyroid gland fails to produce
enough thyroxin to meet the normal requirements of the body. It causes many
abnormalities, like simple goitre, myxedima and cretinism.
Simple Goitre : If there is deficiency of iodine in the food, thyroid gland increases
in size. This results in the swelling of the throat. Goitre can be cured by

48
administering iodine along with food and water. Goitre cases are found in areas
where iodine is less in soil and water. It is an endemic disease. Usually coastal
people do not suffer from goitre because sea water and soil are rich in iodine.
Myxoedema : This is a condition caused and produced by an underactivity of
the thyroid gland in an adult. Its symptoms are low metabolic rate, loss of mental
and physical vigour, increase in weight, thickening of the skin and lower rate
of heart beat. This can be cured by providing thyroxin in proper doses.
Cretinism : This condition is produced in children born without a properly
functioning thyroid. Its symptoms are stunted growth, retarded mental development,
bow legs, defective teeth, Protrusion of the tongue and loose wrinkled skin. These
effects can be prevented if proper treatment is given in time.
Hyperthyroidism : This is a condition that results from an overactivity of the
thyroid gland. Excess secretion of thyroxin results in high metabolic rate,
protrusion of the eye balls, high blood pressure, nervous tension, irritability,
profuse sweating, weight loss and fatigue.

3.43 THE PARATHYROID GLANDS :

There are four very small parathyroid glands embedded in the tissues of
the thyroid gland. They secrete a hormone called parathormone. This hormone
controls the amount of calcium salts in blood and bone. A deficiency of this
hormone leads to painful muscle cramps. Excess of parathormone removes
calcium from the bones making them soft and spongy.

3.44 THE ADRENAL GLANDS : (SUPRARENAL GLANDS)

There are two adrenal glands - one on the
Synthetic Adrenaline is widely
upper part of each kidney. Each adrenal gland used in the treatment of asthama
has two parts - the outer cortex and inner to dilate the bronchioles, to
increase blood pressure and even
medulla. These two parts secrete different to restore heart beat that has
hormones. The adrenal cortex secretes many temporarily stopped. Because of
this it finds place in physicians
hormones; one of these is known as cortisone. emergency kit.
It regulates the rate of metabolism and the
concentration of salts in the blood.
The adrenal medulla secretes three hormones namely adrenaline, Nor-
adrenaline and dopamine. Adrenaline is normally present in the blood in small

49
quantities. Adrenaline is secreted
Adrenal
in excess quantities at times of gland
fear, anger or other emotional
stress condition and prepares
Medulla
the body to face the emergency.
Since adrenaline brings a co-
ordination of several events like Cartex

increased heart beat, rate of Capsule

respiration, dialation of pupils and
others of the body to face an
emergency, it is often referred to
as the “emergency hormone”.
L.S. of An adrenal gland
Kidney
Fig 3.14 - Location and Structure of Adrenal gland

3.45 THE ISLET OF LANGERHANS

Pancreas is a mixed gland with a portion functioning as an exocrine gland
and another portion functioning as endocrine gland. The cells of endocrine
pancreas are called Islets of Langerhans. They secrete two hormones - insulin
and glucagon.
Common bile duct
Insulin promotes the conversion
Pancreatic duct
of glucose to glycogen for storage in
liver and muscle. Insulin is liberated
when the blood glucose levels are
high, usually when food is digested
and absorbed. If sufficient insulin is
not produced, glucose level in blood
increases and it is excreted through Fig 3.15 Pancreas
urine. This condition is called diabetes
mellitus. Usually diabetes is identified by the Insulin which is given as an injection to
presence of sugar in urine. Frequent urination diabetic patient was earlier obtained from
and thirst are two other common symptoms animal origin. In recent years
biotechnology has contributed to this
of diabetes. This disease can be controlled by field. The gene which is responsible for
the administration of insulin injections. Glucagon production of insulin in human beings has
is secreted when the blood glucose levels are been artificially synthesized and it has
low. It influences the conversion of glycogen been introduced into a bacterium,
Escherichia coli. Thus, today human
into glucose. This glucose is released into the insulin is being produced by these
blood and supplied to the tissues. bacteria.

3.46 GONADS
Apart from producing gametes, gonads (testes and ovary) also secrete
hormones.

50
 The testis secrete the male sex hormones called androgens. The most
common hormone is testosterone. It is responsible for the appearance of the
male secondary sexual characters at puberty such as, beard, moustache and
the low pitch voice. Deficiency of Testosterone results in under-sexed individuals
whose masculine characters are developed to a low degree. The ovaries secrete
female sex hormones called estrogens, the most common of which is estradiol.
These hormones promote the development of feminine characteristics at puberty
such as, the development of uterus, mammary glands and the changes during
menstrual cycle and pregnancy. Deficiency of estrogens causes infertility. Corplus
luteum is an yellow body in the ovary which secretes the hormone progesterone.
It influences the ultimate uterine changes necessary for pregnancy. Deficiency
of estrogens may cause sterility.

After studying the unit you will ...................

1. recognise the importance of nervous system in co-ordinating the various
functions of other systems in the body.
2. explain the parts of C.N.S. and their functions.
3. recognise the role of P.N.S. and ANS in the function of nervous system.
4. identify the different sense organs of the human body.
5. suggest measures to take care of the sense organs.
6. explain the significance of endocrine glands influencing various activities
in the human body.
7. draw a neat diagram to show parts of human brain, eye and ear.
8. explain how skin is a sensory organ.

Activities :
1. With the help of your teacher, study the parts of a mammalian brain
(Generally a sheep’s brain can be procured easily than any other)
2. Make a list of reflex action that you would have shown in a day.
3. Prepare model of human brain using plaster of paris or clay.

51
 EXERCISES
I. Choose the correct answer :
1. The structure that controls reflex actions is
a) Medulla Oblongata b) Cerebrum c) Cortex d) Spinal Cord
2. The outer surface of the eye ball is covered by a membrane called
a) Fovea b) Conjunctiva c) Pericardium d) Tympanum
3. The passage which connects middle ear to throat
a) Auditory Canal b) Eustachian tube c) Wind pipe d) Oesophagus
4. The part of the tongue where we find the taste buds responsible to
feel sweet taste is at :
a) Posterior region b) Central region c) Lateral sides d) Anterior region
5. A gland embedded in another gland :
a) Parathyroid b) Pituitary c) Gonad d) Adrenal
I. Answer the following questions
1. What is irritability?
2. Name the three divisions of the nervous system in man.
3. What is reflex action? Give examples.
4. Draw a neat diagram of vertical section of human brain and label the
parts.
5. Draw a neat diagram of vertical section of the eye ball and label the
parts.
6. How is human eye adapted for close and distant visions?
7. Which are the three main parts of the ear?
8. Mention the functions of the parts of the inner ear.
9. Draw a neat diagram of the human ear and label the parts.
10. How is nose helpful to feel the sense of smell?
11. What structures enable the skin to function as a sense organ?
12. What is a gland? Which are the two types of glands in our body?
13. What is Simple goitre? How is it caused?
14. Name the harmones recreted by gonals.
15. Where are parathyroid glands situated? What is the effect of the
harmones secreted by them?
16. What are the functions of the following?
1) Optic nerve 2) Utriculus 3) Ear drum 4) Eustachian tube
5) Taste buds.

52