Radiation Shielding

Agen-689
Advances in Food Engineering
Factors that affect radiation
dose
„ Regulations and procedures have been developed and
implemented to limit radiation dose by regulating the use,
storage, transport, and disposal of radioactive material by
controlling time,distance and shielding
„ Time
„ The short the time spent near the source, the smaller the

dose
„ Distance
„ The greater the distance the smaller the dose
„ Shielding
„ Use of materials to absorb the radiation dose
Shielding material
„ Any material provides some
shielding
„ Iron, concrete, lead, and soil.
„ Shielding ability of a material is
determined by the thickness of
the material required to absorb
half of the radiation
„ This thickness of the material is
called the half-thickness
„ Radiation that has passed through
one half-thickness will be reduced
by half again if it passes through
another half-thickness (HT)
„ The HT depends on the
characteristics of the material and
type and radiation energy
 Types of radiation and
shielding
„ α−particles
„ can be stopped, or shielded, by a
sheet of paper or the outer layer
of skin.
„ β−particles
„ can pass through an inch of water
or human flesh.
„ can be effectively shielded with a
sheet of Al 1/25 of an inch thick.
„ γ−rays
„ can pass through the human body
like x - rays.
„ dense materials such as concrete
and Pb can provide shielding
Gamma-ray shielding
„ Transmission of I ( x ) = I o e − µx
photons thru matter
x
under conditions of
‘good’ geometry
„ Since γ-rays exhibit a Narrow beam
log relation between d

thickness and intensity,

only partial reduction
of the radiation can be R
obtained R>>d
 Gamma-ray shielding
The particle flux for this
„
I = I o e − µx
situation is:
nA − µx x
φ= e
4πr 2

„ The intensity from a point

source radiation can be Narrow beam
decreased by increasing the d

distance r from the source or

the x of the absorber
„ An absorber with higher µ can R
reduce the thickness needed
R>>d
Broad beam
„ The measured intensity is
greater than that of the
good geometry
„ Scattered photons will also
be detected
„ So, including a constant B:
&
Ψ x &
Ψ
o
detector I = BI o e − µx
„ B = the building factors
& =Φ
Ψo
& hv (B>1)
„ Tables give values of B for
x different materials
Relaxation length
„ The thickness of a shield for which the
photon intensity in a narrow beam is
reduced to 1/e of its original value
„ One relaxation length = 1/µ, the mean
free path
„ Dependence of B in tables on shield
thickness is expressed by variation with
number of relaxation lengths, µx
 Building factor for concrete
„ Can be obtained
from tables as the
average of values
for Al and Fe:
1
Bconcrete = [BAl + BFe ]
2
Example#1
„ Calculate the thickness of a lead shield
needed to reduce the exposure rate 1
m from a 10-Ci point source of K-42 to
2.5 mR/h.
 Answer
„ With no shielding, the exposure K-42
rate at r=1 m is:
X& = 0.5CE = 0.5 × 10 × (0.18 × 1.52) = 1.37 R / h β− β−
„ An initial estimate of the shielding 2.00 MeV
18%
required is based on narrow-beam 3.52 MeV
82%
geometry. The number of
relaxation lengths µx is:
γ
2 .5
e − µx = = 1.82 × 10−3 1.52 MeV
1370
µx = 6.31 Ca-42
Answer, cont.
„ The energy of the photons emitted by K-42 is 1.52 MeV
„ From Table 15.1 (point source), for photons of this energy in
lead and the thickness of 6.31 RLs, B = 3
„ To keep the required reduction (1.82x10-3) the same when the
buildup factor is used, the number of RLs in the exponential
must be increased
„ The number y of added RLs that compensate a B=3 is:

−y 1
e =
3
y = ln 3 = 1.10
Answer, cont.
„ Added to the initial value, the estimated shield thickness
becomes:

6.31 + 1.10 = 7.41RLs

„ Inspection of Table 15.1 shows that B has increased to 3.5
„ Thus a better guess is y= ln3.5 = 1.25, with an estimated sheild
thickness of 6.31 + 1.25 = 7.56 RLs
„ It remains to verify a final solution numerically by try and error
Answer, cont
„ For µx = 7.56, a 2-D linear interpolation in Table 15.1:
7 7.56 10
1.0 3.02 3.74
1.52 3.35 3.53 4.31
2.0 3.66 4.48
„ The reduction factor with buildup included is:

Be − µx = 3.53e −7.56 = 1.84 × 10−3

„ Which is the same value given before.
Answer, cont
„ The mass attenuation coeff. is 0.051 cm2/g (Fig 8.8)
„ With ρ = 11.4 g/cm3 for lead, µ = 0.581 1/cm
„ The required thickness of lead shielding is:
7.6
7. 6
x= = = 13cm
µ 0.581
„ A shield of this thickness can be interposed anywhere
between the source and the point of exposure
„ Usually, shielding is placed close to a source to
realize the greatest solid-angle protection
Photon with different energies
„ Up to now, we have discussed
monoenergetic photons
„ When photons of different energies are
present, separate calculations at each
energy are usually needed
„ Since the attenuation coefficient and
buildup factors are different
Example
„ A 144-Ci point of Na-24 is to be stored at the bottom
of a pool. The radionuclide emits 2 photons per
disintegration with energies 2.75 MeV and 1.37 MeV
in decaying by β- emission to stable Mg-24.
„ How deep must be the water if the exposure rate at a point
6 m directly above the source is not to exceed 20 mR/h?
„ What is the exposure rate at the surface of water right
above the source?
Solution
µ1 = 0.043cm −1 (for 2.75MeV);
µ2 = 0.061cm −1 (for 1.37 MeV)
exposure rate from 2.75 MeV of a d = 6 m
& 0.5CE 0.5*144*2.75
X= 2
= = 5.50 R/h
d 36
to reduce this to 20 mR/h :
20 = 5500e − µ1x ⇒ µ1 x = 5.62 relaxation lengths
Sol, cont.
From table 15.1 (B = 6 for 2.75 MeV photons for a
water shield of this thickness 5.62 RL)
The # of RL that compensate for this amount of
buildup is
y = ln(6) = 1.79
so
µ1 x = 5.62 + 1.79 = 7.41
for RL > 7, Table shows B1 > 6
so we need a even larger number of RLs
Sol, cont.
The exposure rate from the lower - energy photons
still needed to be added, so let' s try
µ1 x = 7.70, so the interpolation in Table gives
B1 = 7.44 for 2.75 photons
&
X = 7.44 × 5500e −7.70 = 18.5mR / h
2.75

for 1.37 MeV photons, the thickness in RLs is larger

by the ratio of att. coef. :
µ2 x = 7.70 × (0.061 / 0.0430) = 10.9
From Table, B2 = 24.8
Sol, cont.
The exposure rate at 6 m for these photons
without shielding is :
0.5 × 144 × 1.37
X& 1.37 = 2
= 2.74 R / h
6
with shield (B2 = 24.8) :
X& = 24.8 × 2740e −10.9 = 1.25mR / h
1.37

the total exposure rate is :

X& = X& + X& = 18.5 + 1.25 = 19.8mR / h
2.75 1.37

close to the design figure (20 mR/h)

the needed depth of water is then :
7.70/0.043 = 180 cm
the exposure level at the surface is :
19.8(600/180) 2 = 220mR / h
Shielding in X-Ray installations
„ Primary protective barrier
„ Lead-lined wall Secondary
Protective
„ Direction of the beam barrier Leakage
„ Reduces exposure rate Radiation
Primary
„ Other locations exposed to Protective
barrier
photons
subject
„ Leakage radiation from X-ray X-ray
tube
housing
„ Scattered photons from Leakage
Useful
beam
exposed objects in primary Radiation
beam
„ From walls, ceilings, etc
„ Secondary protective barriers Scattered

needed to reduce exposure Radiation

rates outside the X-ray area

Shielding in X-Ray installations
„ Structural shielding designed
to limit average dose Secondary
Protective
equivalent to individuals barrier Leakage
Radiation
outside and X-ray room Primary
Protective
barrier
„ to 1 mSv/wk in controlled
areas X-ray
subject
tube
„ To 0.1 mSv/wk in
uncontrolled areas Leakage
Useful
beam
Radiation
„ Dose equivalent – the
product of absorbed dose D
and a dimensionless quality Scattered
Radiation
factor Q (fnc of LET) – the
unit is the siervet (Sv)
Primary Protective Barrier
„ Attenuation of primary X-ray beams thru different thickness of
various materials have been measured
„ The primary beam intensity transmitted thru a shield depends
strongly on the peak operating voltage but very little on the
filtration of the beam
„ The total exposure per mA min is independent of the tube
operating current itself
„ So X-ray attenuation data for a given shielding material can be
presented as a family of curves at different kVp values
„ Measurements are referred to a distance of 1 m from the target
of the tube with different thicknesses of shield interposed
Primary Protective Barrier
„ Attenuation curves for different
peak voltages (kVp) are plotted with 1
10
the ordinate as K (the exposure in
R/mA min) and the abscissa gives
0
the shield thickness 10

„ See Fig.15.3 – for 2 mm of lead, the

K(R/mA min) at 1 m
exposure 1m from the target of an
-1
10
X-ray machine operating at 150 kVp
is 0.001 R/mA min -2
10
„ If the machine operates with beam
current of 200 mA for 90 s, I.e., -3
10
200*1.5= 300 mA min, so the
#kVp
exposure will be 300*0.001 = 0.3 R -4
10
behind the 2 mm lead shield
-5
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sheilding Thickness (mm)
Primary Protective Barrier
„ The value of K in a specific application will depend on several
other circumstances:
„ The max permissible exposure rate, P (=0.1 R/wk or 0.01 R/wk)

„ The workload, W (weekly amount of use of machine in mA min/wk)

„ The use factor U (fraction of workload during which the useful

beam is pointed in a direction considered)

„ The occupancy factor T ( that takes into account the fraction of the
time that an area outside the barrier is likely to be occupied by a
given individual
„ The distance d, in meters from the target of the tube to the
location under consideration (for other distances than 1 m, a factor
of d2 is used to evaluate K)
Primary Protective Barrier
„ The value of K can be computed as:
Pd 2
K=
WUT
„ With P [R/wk], d [m], W [ mA min/wk], so K
[ R /mA min] at 1 atm
Secondary Protective Barrier
„ Designed to protect areas not in the line of the useful
beam from leakage and scattered beam
„ Shielding requirements are computed separated for
leakage and scattered radiations
„ The final barrier thickness is the summ of each one
„ Assume that leakage and scattered radiations are
isotropic (so U = 1)
Leakage radiation
„ The housing is construct so that the leakage
exposure rate at a distance of 1 m from the target
tube does not exceed
„ 0.1 R/h for X-ray tubes below 500 kV
„ 1 R/h for X-ray machines not exceeding 500 kV
„ 1 R/h or 0.1% of the useful beam exposure rate for above
500 kV
„ If Y is any one of these limits, the secondary barrier
thickness for the leakage radiation is computed as
the number of half-value layers needed to restrict the
exposure of individuals in other areas to allowed
levels
Leakage radiation
„ When the tube operates t min/wk, the weekly exposure in R in
a area at a distance of d meters from the tube target is, with no
structural shielding:
Yt
P=
60d 2
„ If P is the individual weekly max. allowed exposure in the area,
having an occupation factor T, so the required reduction B for
the leakage is:
YtT
P=B 2
60d
Leakage radiation
„ Solving for B and let t = W/I where W [ mA min/wk] and I is
the beam current [mA]:

60 IPd 2
B=
YWT
„ The number N of half-value layers that reduces the radiation to
the factor B of its unshielded value is given by B=2-N, or:

ln B ln B
N =− =−
ln 2 0.693
Scattered radiation
„ If the tube operating potential is less
than 500 kVp, then the barrier
penetrating capability of the scattered
beam is the same as the useful beam
„ If the potential is greater than 500 kVp,
then the scattered photons are treated
like primary photons in a useful beam
of 500 kVp X rays
Scattered radiation
„ The value of K for scattered radiation can be
calculated as:
1000 Pd 2
K=
fWT
„ f is an empirical factor (to accont for
increased output of an X-ray machine), the
1000 factor is used to account for the snaller
intensity of scattered radiation compared with
the useful beam
Protection from Beta emitters
„ Presents two potential for external radiation hazards
„ Beta rays themselves
„ Bremsstrahlung they produce
„ Beta particles can be stopped in a shield surrounding
the source if it is thicker than their range
„ To minimize bremsstrahlung production, this shield
should have low Z, and it can be enclosed in another
material (high Z) that is thick enough to attenuate
the bremsstrahlung intensity
Protection from Beta emitters
„ The bremsstrahlung shield thickness can be
calculated as:
„ Calculate the radiation yield, Y, letting T = Tmax be the max
beta-particle energy
„ This assumption overestimate the actual bremsstrahlung
intensity (most photons have energy much lower than Tmax)
„ So, one ignores buildup in the shielding material and uses
the linear attenuation coeff. for photons of energy Tmax to
calculate shield thickness
„ Since the bremsstrahlung spectrum is hardned by passing
thru the shield, the exposure rate around the source is
calculated by using the air absorption coeff for photons of
energy Tmax
Example
„ Design a suitable container for 3.7x1011
Bq source of P-32 in a 50mL aqueous
solution, such that the exposure rate at
a distance of 1.5 m will not exceed 1
mR/h. P-32 decays to ground state of
S-32 emission of beta particles with an
average energy of 0.70 MeV and a
maximum energy of 1.71 MeV.
Solution
„ Consider a bottle made of polyethylene (density =
0.93 g/cm3 and low Z)
„ It would be thick enough to stop beta particles of
max energy
„ The range for Tmax = 1.71 MeV is about 0.80 g/cm2
„ The thickness should be at least 0.8/0.93 = 0.86 cm
„ To estimate the bremsstrahlung yield we need Zeff
„ Most energy will will be lost in water, so Zeff water =
7.22
Solution
„ The fraction of beta-particle energy that is converted
into bremsstrahlung is:
6 × 10−4 × 7.22 × 1.71 −3
Y≅ = 7 . 4 × 10
1 + 6 × 10−4 × 7.22 × 1.71

„ The rate of energy emission by the source of beta

particles with an average energy of 0.70 MeV:

E& β = 3.7 × 1011 × 0.70 = 2.59 × 1011 MeV / s

Solution
„ The rate of energy emission in the form of photons is:

YE& β = 7.4 × 10−3 × 2.59 × 1011 = 1.92 × 109 MeV / s

„ The exposure rate from the unshielded bremsstrahlung is
treated as coming from a point source at a distance of 1.5 m
„ We use the mass absorption coeff of air for 1.71 MeV photons,
that is, 0.026 cm2/g
„ The intensity at a distance r = 1.5 m = 150 cm is:

YE& β 1.92 × 109 3 MeV

I= = = 6.79 × 10
4πr 2
4π (150) cm 2 s
Solution
„ The dose rate is:
& µen MeV
D=I = 0.026 × 6.79 × 10 = 177
3

ρ gs
„ Converting units and remembering that 1 R = 0.0088 Gy in air,
we find for the exposure rate:
−13
& 177 MeV 1 .6 × 10 Jg 1Gykg 1R
X= × × ×
gs MeVkg J 0.0088Gy
& −6 R mR
X = 3.22 × 10 = 11.6
s h
Solution
„ Lead is a convenient material for the bremsstrahlung shield
„ Ignoring the buildup and using the linear attenuation coeff for
photon of energy Tmax to compute the bremsstrahlung shield
thickness
„ The attenuation for 1.71MeV photons in lead is 0.048 cm2/g, so
µ = 0.048*11.4 = 0.55 cm-1
„ The thickness x needed to reduce the exposure rate to 1 mR/h
is: −0.55 x
1 = 11.6e
x = 4.5cm
„ A lead container of this thickness could be used to hold the
polyethylene bottle