Polarization of Light Explained

4
POLARIZATION
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The phenomena of interference and diffraction considered in previous two
chapters were explained on the assumption that light is a wave motion. It did not
matter whether the waves are longitudinal or transverse. In the former type of
waves the displacements are parallel to the direction of propagation as in sound
waves in air while in the latter type of waves the displacements are perpendicular to
the direction of propagation as in the waves in a stretched string. The question is,
are light waves longitudinal or transverse? It was possible to answer this question
only after the discovery of the phenomenon of polarization of light. Actually the
longitudinal waves do not undergo polarization whereas the transverse waves exhibit
the phenomenon of polarization. The phenomenon of polarization is exhibited by
light waves. Hence, it was inferred that light waves are transverse waves. An
experiment based on mechanical vibrations of strings can be given to explain the
idea of polarization.
G2
G1
M2 M1
Fig. 4.1. Polarization of mechanical waves.

Imagine a long string passing through two parallel gratings G1 and G2 of iron
bars to be stretched, somewhat loosely, between two men as shows in Fig. 4.1
Let the first man M1 produces waves in the string by rapidly and arbitrarily
changing the direction of motion of his hand. The waves moving along the string
have got vibrations of the particles of the string almost in all directions. These waves
existing between the first man M1 and the first grating G1 are defined as unpolarized
waves. The vibrations of various particles of the string in these waves are taking
place in different planes. This readily follows that only that wave whose vibrations
are in the vertical plane (parallel to the slits of the grating ) will be found between G1
and G2. Thus the waves between G1 and G2 are defined as polarized waves. The
grating G1 is known as polarizer. Now as the bars of the second grating G2 are
4.186 Engineering Physics
arranged parallel to those of G1 , the polarized waves issuing from G1 would be able
to pass through it, as shown in Fig. 4.1. When the grating G2 is turned through 90°,
the polarized waves issuing from G1 would be unable to pass through it, as shown in
Fig. 4.2. In the intermediate positions of G2 the waves issuing from G1 would be
partly stopped and partly transmitted through it. Thus the second grating acts as an
analyser or as a detector of the state of polarization .
G2
G1
M1
Fig. 4.2. Polarization of mechanical waves.

If, however, the string were replaced by a spiral spring, the longitudinal waves
created in it would pass freely from one end to the other, unaffected by the presence
of slits or their relative orientation. Polarization is thus the characteristic of transverse
waves only.
4.1.1 OPTICAL ANALOG OF ABOVE MECHANICAL EXPERIMENT
If we take a thin slice of a tourmaline crystal, cut parallel to its crystallographic
axis, and allow a beam of light to fall normally on the flat surface, a part of it passes
through; and if the tourmaline crystal be rotated , the character of transmitted light
remains unchanged. But if the emergent light be further passed through a similar
crystal, with its axis parallel to the first, the light is almost completely transmitted by
the second crystal, Fig 4.3. If the second crystal is now gradually rotated about the
direction of incident light ray, so that the axes of the two crystals are inclined to each
other, the intensity of the transmitted light diminishes till, when the axes are at right
angles, no light passes through the second crystal.
P olarised
P olarised
O rdin ary Light
A Light D
Light G
H
E F
M a xim u m
B (a) C
In tensity
O rdin ary P olarised
Light Light
N o L igh t
P1 (b) P2
Fig. 4.3. Polarization of light.

Polarization 4.187
If the second crystal is rotated further, so that the axes are again parallel, light
is again transmitted. The same phenomenon will be observed if the second crystal is
stationary and the first is rotated.
This simple experiment shows that light, in passing through the first crystal,
has acquired a property, which prevents it from passing through a definite position of
the second crystal. The light in passing through the first crystal is said to be plane
polarized.
The complete obstruction of the light by the second crystal proves that the
light vibrations cannot be longitudinal. Had they were longitudinal, the orientation of
second crystal would not affect the intensity of transmitted light. We can then consider
ordinary light to consist of transverse waves in which the vibrations take place
in all dirctions perpendicular to the direction in which light is travelling.
4.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC NATURE OF LIGHT
The transverse character of light waves was known in the early years of the
nineteenth century; however, the nature of the displacement associated with a light
wave was known only after, Maxwell had put forward his famous electromagnetic
theory. According to this theory there is associated with a plane electromagnetic
wave an electric field E and a magnetic field B which are at right angles to each
other. For a propagating in the Z-direction the electric and magnetic fields can be
written in the form :
Ex = E0 cos (kz – wt), Ey = 0, Ez= 0 (4.1)
and Bx = 0, By = B0 cos (kz – wt), Bz = 0 (4.2)
ω
where, k= = ù åì (4.3)
v
1
and v= åì (4.4)
represents the velocity of the waves, e and m are the dielectric permitivity and the
magnetic permeability of the medium. Since Ez = 0 and Bz = 0, the wave is transverse.
The Eqs (4.1) and (4.2) also show that E and B are at right angles to each other and
both the vectors are at right angles to the direction of propagation. In fact the direction
of propagation is along the vector (E × B). The electromagnetic theory also tells us
that
E0
v= B (4.5)
0
Thus in light waves , these are electric and magnetic fields which oscillate
with respect to time. But as electric field is effective in producing the sensation of
vision, we shall consider the vibrations of electric vector only for studying the
polarization effects.
4.3. REPRESENTATION OF THE VIBRATIONS IN LIGHT
Let us assume that a beam of light is travelling towards the observer, i.e.,
along Z-direction as shown in Fig. 4.4. The electric vector in the beam is executing
linear vibration in a plane containing z-axis (the direction of propagation of the
wave) and oriented at an angle q with the x-axis. If the value of q remains unchanged
that light is defined as plane polarized light (Fig.4.4) . If, on the other hand, the
value of q changes randomly, that light is defined as unpolarized light (Fig. 4.4a).
These random changes occur in the intervals of the order of 10–8 s. Every orientation
of amplitude E0 is equally probable . The average effect is completely symmetrical
about the direction of propagation.
If we resolve the vibration of Fig. 4.4 (b) into linear components Ex = E0 cos q
and Ey=E0 sin q, they will in general be unequal, but when q is allowed to vary at
E0 y
Ey
θ
x
Ex
( a ) All planes are

( b ) Each vibration can be
equally probable
resolved into two components
in the x and y directions
Fig. 4.4. Vibrations in unpolarized light.
random, the net result will be two vibrations at right angles with equal amplitudes but
no coherence of phase. Each vibration will be the resultant of a large number of
individual vibrations with random phase. Fig. 4.5 shows the common way of picturing
these vibrations. Parts (a) and (b) of the figure represent two plane polarized
(a ) (d )
(e )
(b )
(c)
(f)
Fig.4.5. Pictorial representation of side and end view s

of plane polarized and ordinary light.
components, and part (c) the two components together in an unpolarized beam.
Dots represent the linear vibrations of the electric vector at right angles to the plane
of paper. Double pointed arrows represent vibrations confined to the plane of the
paper. The parts (d),(e) and (f) of the figure show how the vibrations in (a), (b) and
(c) would appear respectively if we were looking along the directions of the rays.
4.4. SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
(i) Unpolarized Light : The ordinary light (like that coming from the sun or
any other source of light) in which the vibrations of electric vector are in
all directions normal to the direction of propagation of the wave is defined
as unpolarized light.
Polarization 4.189
(ii) Polarized Light : The light (like that coming after passing through a
tourmaline crystal P in Fig. 4.3), in which the vibrations of electric field
vector are limited to only one particular direction at right angles to the
direction of propagation of the wave is defined as plane polarized light.
(iii) Polarizer : The device (like reflector, refractor, crystal etc.), which limits
the vibrations of electric field vector of incident unpolarized light in one
particular direction at right angles to the direction of propagation of wave,
is defined as polarizer.
(iv) Analyser : The device (like reflector, refractor , crystal etc.), which is
used to detect whether the given light is polarized or unpolarized, is defined
as analyser.
(v) Optic Axis : All crystals possess a certain direction about which the
crystal form and the arrangement of atoms are symmetrical. This direction
of symmetry is defined as optic axis. If unpolarized light is made incident
on such a crystal, then only those vibrations of electric vector which are
parallel to the optic axis will be able to pass through the crystal (emergent
light being plane polarized) and vibrations in all other directions will be
absorbed. It should be emphasized that the optic axis is not a particular
line through the crystal, rather it is a direction. All imaginary lines in the
crystal parallel to this ‘direction’ will be the optic axes of the crystal.
There exists complete symmetry of crystal properties, such as refractive
index, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity etc.,
about the optic axis.
(vi) Plane of Vibration : The plane (like plane ABCD in Fig. 4.3.), containing
the vibrations of electric field vector of plane polarized light as well as the
direction of propagation of the wave, is defined as the plane of vibration.
(vii) Plane of Polarization : The plane (like plane EFGH in Fig. 4.3),
perpendicular to the plane of vibration and passing through the direction
of propagation of the wave, is defined as plane of polarization. There
are no vibrations of electric vector in the plane of polarization.
(viii) Principal Section : A plane containing the optic axis and perpendicular
to two opposite faces of a crystal is defined as the principal section of
the crystal.
4.5. PRODUCTION OF POLARIZED LIGHT
The methods by which polarized waves are produced are classified as under :
(i) Polarization of Reflection and Refraction
(ii) Polarization of Double Refraction
(iii) Polarization by Selective Absorption
(iv) Polarization by Scattering.
4.6. POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

In 1809, French Scientist Mauls discovered that when natural light strikes a
reflecting surface of some transparent material, there is found to be preferential
reflection for those waves in which the electric vector is vibrating perpendicular to
the plane of incidence (the plane containing the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal to the surface). However, at normal incidence all directions of polarization
are reflected equally. At one particular angle of incidence, known as ‘polarizing
angle’ (or Brewster angle) only that light for which the electric field vector is
perpendicular to the plane of incidence is reflected (Fig. 4.6.). When incident at
polarizing angle, none of the components parallel to the plane of incidence is reflected
i.e., such components are 100% transmitted in the refracted beam . Of the components
perpendicular to the plane of incidence about 15% are reflected. The fraction reflected
depends upon the refractive index of the reflecting material. Thus the reflected light
R eflected lig ht
In cid ent natural w ea k a nd 1 00%
light po larize d
N orm al
θp θp µa
Reflecting surface
θb
µb
R efra cte d (tra nsm itted)

light stro ng and
slig htly po larize d
is weak but completely linearly polarized. The refracted light is a mixture of all the
parallel components (100% refracted at polarizing angle) and the remaining 85% of
the perpendicular components. The refracted beam is therefore strong but only
partially polarized. If this refracted beam is made to pass through a stack of glass
plates at polarizing angle then in all of these reflections 100% of the parallel component
is transmitted, and only 15% of the perpendicular component is reflected and rest
85% is transmitted. Thus the perpendicular components are gradually removed from
the transmitted beam, leaving it more completely polarized in the plane of incidence.
(Fig. 4.7).
Polarization 4.191
In cid ent
un polarized
light
θp Light polarized norm al to p ag e
Light alm ost po larize d

in plane of p age
Fig. 4.7. Polarization of light by a pile of glass plates.
If I|| and I^ be the intensities of the parallel and perpendicular components
respectively in the transmitted light, then the proportion of polarization is given by:
IP − I ⊥ n
PP = I + I = 2 ...(4.6)
P ⊥ ⎛ 2ì ⎞
n+⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝1 − ì ⎠
where n is the number of plates (i.e., 2n surfaces) and m is the refractive index.
4.6.1 BREWSTERS LAW
In 1812, the British Scientist Sir David Brewster discovered that when the
angle of incidence is equal to the polarizing angle ip, the reflected ray and the refracted
ray are perpendicular to each other (Fig. 4.8)
In this case, the angle of refraction r becomes
r = 90° – ip
From Snell’s law of refraction
sin i
m =
sin r
If i = ip, then r = 90° – ip
sin i p
\ m =
sin (900 − i p )
In cid ent
un polarized R eflected
light w ave
ip ip
A ir
n = 1.5 G lass
Fig. 4.8. Polarization B rew ster's law .

\ m = tan ip (4.7)
This relation is known as Brewster’s Law. For air-glass, polarizing angle
ip = 57° and for air-water, i p = 53.1°.
4.7. LAW OF MALUS
In 1809, a French Scientist Etienne Louis Malus enunciated a law which tells
us how the intensity transmitted by the analyzer varies with the angle that its plane
of transmision makes with that of the polarizer. To derive this law let us suppose that
the angle between the two planes of transmission is q at any instant.
Tran sm issio n p lan e
of polarizer
Tran sm issio n p lan e

of ana lyser
E0
E02 E01
Fig. 4.9. R esolution of am plitude of plane polarized light into com ponents.
The amplitude of plane polarized light (E0) emerging from the polarizer, may
be resolved into two components as shown in Fig. 4.9.
E01 = E0 cos q and E02 = E0 sin q
respectively, along and perpendicular to the plane of transmission of the analyser.
Polarization 4.193
The perpendicular component is eliminated in the analyser while the parallel

component is freely transmitted through it. Therefore, the intensity of light (I) that
emerges from the analyser is given by
I = E02 cos2 q = I 0 cos2 q (4.8)
where I0 is the intensity of the plane polarized light incident on the analyser. This
relation is called Malus law. It states that the transmitted intensity varies as the
square of cosine of the angle between the planes of transmission of analyser and
polarizer. It may be emphasized that this law holds good only when light incident on
analyser is completely plane polarized. For the Eq. (4. 8) to hold good, it is further
assumed that there is no loss of light due to absorption in the analyser.
7. 8. DOUBLE REFRACTION
When a beam of light is passed through a transparent crystal like calcite (CaCO3)
or quartz ( SiO2) it is split into two beams (Fig. 4.10).
E xtraord ina ry
Im age E
O
O rdinary
Im age
E ray S cre en
O ra y
1 0 1°5 5′
O ptic A xis
C rystal
In cid ent
R ays
Fig. 4.10. Polarization by double refraction.
Substances having this property are called doubly refracting or birefringent.
The phenomenon of splitting of incident beam into two beams while traversing the
crystal is defined as double refraction. As the two opposite faces of the crystal are
parallel, the two refracted beams emerge parallel to the incident beam but are relatively
displaced by a distance, which is proportional to the thickness of the crystal.
The two refracted beams form two images , O and E, on a screen. One
image, O, lies in the direction of incident beam. This image is formed in accordance
with the ordinary laws of refraction. The other image, E, is somewhat separated,
from the O image despite normal incidence. The corresponding refracted beam,
therefore, does not, in general, obey the ordinary laws of refraction, on rotating the
crystal about the direction of incident beam, it is observed that the O image remains
stationary, while the E-image revolves in a circular path with its centre at O image.
Of the two refracted rays, the ray which always obeys ordianry laws of
refraction is called the odinary ray or the O-ray while the other, which behaves in
quite extra ordinary manner, is called extra-ordinary ray or E-ray.
4.8.1. IMPORTANT INFERENCES OF D OUBLE REFRACTION EXPERIMENT

(i) The velocity of O-ray is the same in all directions within the crystal. In
other words the crystal is characterized by a single value of refractive
index for the O-ray.
(ii) E-ray travels in the crystal with a speed that varies with direction. In
other words, the refractive index for the E-ray varies with the direction.
(iii) The difference between the refractive indices for O-ray and E-ray is
called : birefringence.
(iv) In uniaxial crystal like calcite and quartz there is no double refraction
along the optic axis. In case of biaxial crystals like topaz and arogonite
there are two directions in which there is no double refraction.
(v) The O-ray and E-ray are plane polarized at right angle to each other. In
O-ray the vibrations of electric field vector are perpendicular to the plane
containing the O-ray and the optic axis (the principal plane of O-ray).
The direction of these vibrations in the E–ray are in the plane containing
the E–ray and the optic axis (the principal plane of E-ray).
(vi) Althouth the O-ray and the E-ray are derived from the same beam, they
will not exhibit interference phenomenon, because the state of polarization
is different in the two rays.
4.8.2. HUYGENS THEORY OF DOUBLE R EFRACTION
Huygens’ wave theory with the Huygens’ principle as such could not explain
double refraction. In order to explain this phenomenon, Huygens made the following
assumptions.
1. Every ether particle in a doubly refracting crystal, when disturbed by a
wave, sends out two wavefronts, one the ordinary and the other the
extraordinary.
2. The wavefront for the ordinary is spherical.
3. The wavefront for the extraordinary is an ellipsoid of revolution, with
optic axis as the axis of revolution.
4. The sphere and the ellipsoid touch each other at points which lie on the
optic axis of the crystal.
5. In case of negative crystals like calcite, Fig. 4.11 (a), the sphere lies
inside the ellipsoid.
6. In case of positive crystals like quartz, Fig. 4.11 (b), the ellipsoid lies
inside the sphere.
These assumptions are sufficient to explain double refraction. It will be clear
from the following example.
C alcite Q uartz
A xis
A xis
P 0 E P E 0
O ptic
O ptic
N eg ative P ositive
Fig. 4.11 ( a ). Fig. 4.11 ( b ).
Polarization 4.195
Let XY (Fig. 4.12) denote the section of the surface of a negative crystal by
the plane of the paper. Let OA indicate the direction of the optic axis, which is here
A
C
X Y
O
Ε OA
O
Ra
E R ay
Fig. 4.12.
assumed to lie in the plane of incidence and making an angle with the crystal face.
Let a plane wavefront AB be incident obliquely on the crystal surface. When the
edge A strikes the surface, the ether particle at A sends out two wavelets inside the
crystal, one ordinary and the other extraordinary. According to Huygens’ assumptions,
ordinary wave surface is spherical while the extraordinary wave surface is an ellipsoid
of revolution. Since, calcite is a negative crystal, the sphere lies inside the ellipsoid
and both touch at points which lie the optic axis. At the time when the wavelet from
BC
B , reaches C , the radius of the spherical wavelet is ì where m0 is the refractive
E
index of the O-wave. This is also the length of the minor axis of the ellipsoid, while
BC
the major axis of the ellipsoid is , where mE is the refractive index of E-wave, at
ìE
right angles to the optic axis.
As the wavefront AB advances, various ether particles between A and C give
rise to O and E-wave surfaces. The tangent plane from C to the O-wave surface
gives the ordinary refracted wavefront while CE, the tangent plane from C to the
extraordinary wave surface gives the position of the extraordinary refracted
wavefront. AO and AE are the O-ray and the E-ray. It is clear that double refraction
is taking place.
4.9. POLARIZATION BY DOUBLE REFRACTION : (NICOL
PRISM)
Experiments show that the ordinary and the extra-ordinary waves in a doubly
refracting crystal are linearly polarized in mutually perpendicular directions.
Consequently, if some means can be found to separate one wave from the otther, a
doubly refracting crystal may be used as a polarizer. One method of separating the
two components is by means of a Nicol prism.
4.9.1 CONSTRUCTION
A calcite crystal is taken whose length is little more than three times its width.
Z
P Q
90 °
14 °
AE 48 °
E
A B
Ao 90 °
14 ° 71 °
68° Z′
O
R S
Fig. 4.13.
The end faces are cut in such alway that the acute angles in its principal section
each becomes equal to 68° from 71° and the obtuse angles each becomes 112° in
stead of 109°. It is done so to increase the field of view. The crystal is cut in two
pieces by a plane perpendicular to the principal section as well as to the end faces
RP and QS. The two newly cut faces are ground and polished optically flat and are
cemented together by Canada Balsam, a transparent sticky liquid which has a
refractive index 1.55 for sodium D lines (Fig. 4.14).
4.9.2 WORKING OF NICOL PRISM
PQRS is the principal section of a
P Q
Nicol’s prism and ZZ¢ be the optic axis. Let a C an ada B alsam
ray AB of unpolarized light parallel to PQ be La ye r
incident on the face PR. On entering the Nicol
prism it is broken up into two refracted rays.
The O-ray and the E-ray. Each of them is
plane polarized. The O-ray is polarized in the R S
O ptic A xis
principal section (has vibrations perpendicular
Fig. 4.14.
to the principal section), while the E-ray is
polarized perpendicular to the principal section (has vibrations in the principal section).
The refractive index of O-ray for sodium D lines is 1.658 while that for E-ray is
1.486. It is, therefore, clear that canada balsam is optically rarer than calcite for O-
ray. Also the dimensions of the crystal are so chosen (length three times the breadth)
that the angle of incidence of the O-ray at the calcite-balsam surface becomes
greater than the critical angle for the O-ray (69° in the present case). Under these
conditions, The O-ray is totally reflected at the calcite-balsam surface and is absorbed
by the tube containing the nicol, as the inside of the tube is blackened. However,
under these very conditions. Canada balsam is denser for the E-ray than calcite,
hence E-ray is transmitted. Thus, the light emerging from the Nicol prism is plane
polarized with the vibrations parallel to the principal section. In the end on view
these vibrations are parallel to the shorter diagonal of the end face of the nicol. The
Nicol Prism can be used both as polarizer as well as analyzer of polarized
light.
Polarization 4.197
4.10. DICHROISM-POLARIZATION BY SELECTIVE

ABSORPTION
Some crystals have the property of selectivity absorbing one of the two
rectangular components of ordinary light. The best known mineral crystal for this
purpose is ‘tourmaline’. When a beam of ordinary light is sent through a thin slab of
tourmaline T1 (Fig.4.15), the transmitted light is polarized . This can be verified by a
second crystal T2. With T1 and T2 parallel to each other the light transmitted by the
first crystal is also transmitted by the second. When the second crystal is rotated
through 90°, no light gets through. As the beam of light enters T1 it splits into two
components, the O-ray having vibrations perpendicular to the plane of paper and the
E-ray having vibrations parallel to the plane of paper. The tourmaline crystal gradually
absorbs the vibration of O-ray but not those of E-ray. Thus as shown in the figure,
only the E vibrations are transmitted, so that no light will merge from the crossed
crystals. T1 T 2
P a ralle l
P o la roid film s
To urm a line
T1 T2
C ro sse d
Fig. 4.15. Dichroic crystals and polarizing films in the parallel and
crossed positions.
Polarizing crystal of large aperture were made by Herapath in 1852. He was
successful in producing small crystals of the organic compound quinine iodosulfate
(now known as herapathite), which completely absorbs one component of polarization
and transmits the other.
Polaroid was invented in 1932 by E.H. Land. These films consist of thin
sheets of nitrocelluclose packed with ultramicroscopic polarizing crystals of
herapathite with their optic axes all parallel. These crystals are highly dicroic which
absorb one of the doubly refracted rays while transmit the other one which is plane
polarized. When unpolarized light is passed through the polaroid, it splits into two
plane polarized beams. In one ray the vibrations of electric field vector are parallel
to the axis of hearpathite crystal. This ray is transmitted without any absorption . In
the other ray the vibrations are perpendicular to the axis of herapathite crystal.
These vibrations are totally absorbed. Thus, the light emerging out of the polariod is
completely polarized.
4.10.1 USES OF POLAROIDS
(i) Polaroids are used in sun glasses to cut off the glare of light reflected
from horizontal surfaces like roads, cover glasses, painting , polished tables,
books etc.
(ii) Polaroids are used in head lights and visors of cars to cut off the dazzling
light of another car approaching from the opposite direction. K-polaroids
on account of their dark tinge are specially suited for this purpose.
(iii) Polaroids are used to control the intensity of light entering trains and
aeroplanes.
(iv) Polaroid glasses are used for viewing three dimensional pictures.
4.11 POLARIZATION BY SCATTERING
Scattered sunlight from the clear sky is partially polarized. The incident
(unpolarized sunlight sets electrons in molecules of air into oscillations that are
perpendicular to the direction of the sunlight (Fig. 4.16). These vibrating electrons
reradiate the light, with polarizations related to the directions of accelerations of the
electrons. Vibrations along the line-of-sight do not radiate energy in that direction.
These vibrations will radiate energy at right angles to the line of sight.
10 0%
linea rly C om pon ent
po larize d direction s
of ind uced
vibra tion s
of ele ctro ns
In cid ent 10 0%
un polarized 90 ° linea rly
light po larize d
90 °
10 0%
linea rly
po larize d
U np ola rize d
10 0%
linea rly
po larize d
Fig. 4.16. Polarization by scattering.
As shown in the figure, an electromagnetic wave (light wave) from the sun is
propagating in x-direction. Transverse oscillating electric fields of this wave set
electrons into vibration in all directions in the y-z plane. In the figure these vibrations
are shown resolved into y and z directions. For an observer in the ± y-directions,
only the z-component of electron motion radiates in that direction, the scattered
radiation in the y-direction is 100% polarized. Similarly, only component motion of
electrons in the + y-directions contribute to radiation in the ± z-direction. Hence the
radiation in the z-direction is also 100% plane polarized. Scattering in the forward
and backward directions is unpolarized. At all other angles the scattered radiation is
partially polarized.
Polarization 4.199
This process, described above, of absorbing radiations by molecules and

reradiating them is called scattering. Both theory and experiment indicate that
shorter waves are scattered more than the longer ones. In fact the intensity of
scattered radiation (I) is inversely proportional to the fourth power of its wavelength
l., i.e.,
1
Ia 4 ... (4.9)
λ
Thus the short waves of violet and blue are scattered more than the red. That
is why sky appears blue. Towards evening, when sun light travels a large distance
through the atmosphere to reach an observer, a large portion of blue light in the sun
light is removed from it by scattering, . White light without blue is somewhat yellow
and reddish in hue. This is the reason for Yellowish-red sun set. From this explanation
it follows that if the earth had no atmosphere we would receive no sky light and the
sky would appear black even during the day.
Example 4.1: Unpolarized light of intensity I 0 is incident upon two
polarizing sheets whose transmission axes are at an angle of 35° with respect
to each other. Find intensity of the light emerging from the second sheet.
Solution: After passing through the first sheet, the light intensity is reduced to
I0
. Now according to Mauls law,
2
I = I0 cos2 q
where I0 is the intensity of polarized light.
I0
Here, I0 = and q = 35°
2
I0 I0
\ I= cos2 35° = × 0.671 = 0.336 I0 Ans.
2 2
Example 4. 2: What is the polarizing angle for light incident on water of
4
refractive index ? What is the corresponding angle of refraction for light
3
transmitted into water?
Solution: From Brewster’s law tan ip = m
4
Here, m =
3
⎛4⎞
\ ip = tan–1 ⎜ ⎟ = 53.13° Ans.
⎝3⎠
The incident light is at the polarizing angle, hence the reflected and refracted
rays are mutually perpendicular, hence
ip + r = 90°
Þ r = 90° – ip = 90° – 53.13° = 36.87° Ans.
Example 4. 3. At night an underwater flood light is turned on in a pool.
At what angle of reflection is the light completely polarized ? Calculate the
⎛ 4⎞
corresponding angle of refraction also ⎜ ì aù = ⎟ .
⎝ 3⎠
Solution: From Brewster’s law

tan ip = m
1 3
Here, m = mwa = µ =
aω 4
⎛ 3 ⎞
\ ip = tan–1 ⎜ ⎟ = 36.87° Ans.
⎝ 4⎠
Since light is incident at the polarizing angel, hence the reflected and the refracted
rays will be perpendicular, hence
r = 90° – ip
Þ r = 90° – 36.87 = 53.13° Ans.
Example 4. 4 : Unpolarized light of intensity I0 is incident on two polarizing
sheets having their polarizing directions parallel. What is the intensity of light
emerging out of the second sheet? Through what angle must either sheet be
turned if the intensity is to drop to one quarter ?
Solution: The initial intensity is given by
I = E0 2 = E 2 01 + E 202
Where E01 and E02 are the components of amplitudes of light in two mutually
perpendicular directions. But the average values of E01 and E02 are same.
\ I0 = 2E201
When light passes through the first polarizing sheet, then vibrations at right
angles to the polarizer axis are cut down. Hence, the intensity of light emerging out
of the first sheet will be
I0
I01 = 2 E 01 +
2
2
As the polarizing direction of two sheets are parallel, hence the whole energy
incident on the second sheet will emerge out of it. Hence, the intensity of light
emerging out of the second sheet is
I0
I01 = Ans.
4
From Mauls law
I = Im cos2 q
where Im is the intensity of polarized light incident on the second sheet.
I0 I
Here, Im = and I = 0
2 4
I0 I
\ = 0 cos2 q
4 2
1 1
Þ cos2 q = Þ cos q =
2 2
\ q = 45° Ans.
Polarization 4.201
Example 4.5: The critical angle of light in a certain substance is 42°.

What is the polarizing angle ?
Solution: The critical angle is given by
1
sin ic =
µ
and from Brewster’s law
m = tan ip
1
\ tan ip = m = sin i
c
Here, ic = 42°
1
\ tan ip = sin i = 1.49
c
\ ip = 56.2° Ans.
Example 4.6: Plane polarized light is incident normally on a plate of
doubly refracting uniaxial crystal with faces cut parallel to the optic axis.
Compare the intensities of extraordinary and ordinary rays, if the light is
incident with vibrations making an angle of 30° with the optic axis. Given
l = 6000 Å , me= 1.5532, m0 = 1.5442.
Solution: Let E0 be the amplitude of the incident polarized light wave and q is
the angle which the incident vibrations make with the optic axis. On entering the
crystal, the light will split up into two components, an extra-ordinary component
E0 cosq having vibrations parallel to the optic axis and an ordinary component
E0 sin q having vibrations perpendicular to the optic axis. Hence, the ratio of intensities
of extra-ordinary and ordinary rays will be : 2
⎛ 3⎞
⎜ ⎟
IE E0 2 cos 2 θ cos 2 300 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= = sin 2 300 = ⎛ 1 ⎞2 = 3 : 1 Ans.
I0 E0 2 sin 2 θ
⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
Example 4.7: Two Nicols have parallel polarizing directions so that the
intensity of transmitted light is maximum. Through what angle must either Nicol
be turned if the intensity is to drop to one third of the intensity of incident
light?
Solution :Let the intensity of the incident unpolarized light is I0. After passing
through the first Nicol the intensity falls to I0/2 and this is the maximum intensity Im
(say). According to Mauls laws :
I = Im cos2 q
I0 I0
Here, I= , and Im =
3 2
I0 I0
\ = cos2q
3 2
2
Þ cosq = = 0.8165
3
\ q = 35. 36° Ans.
Example 4.8: Light is incident on a water surface (ma=1.33) at such an

angle that the reflected light is completely linearly polarized. What is the
angle of incidence ? A block of glass (mag=1.50) having a flat upper surface is
immersed in water in such a way that the former ray after being refracted into
water, is reflected back from the upper surface of the glass block. This reflected
light is found to be again completely linearly polarized. Find the angle between
the surface of water and surface of the glass.
tan ip = m = 1.33
\ ip = tan –1 (1. 33) = 53.06° Ans.
ìg
Now, m wg = = = 1.1278
ìw
For complete polarization at the interface of water
and glass
tan ip = 1.1278
\ ip = tan–1 (1.1278) = 48.44° ip
From Snell’s law
sin i p
m aw =
sin r r i
p
sin i p sin 53 .06 0
\ sin r = = = 0.6009
1.33 1.33
\ r = sin –1 (0.6009) = 36.94°
\ Angle between water and glass surfaces
= angle between the normals
= ip – r
= 48.44° – 36.940 = 11.50° Ans.
Example 4.9: Canada balsam has a refractive index 1.528. What is the
minimum angle of incidence that the ordinary ray may make with canada balsam
layer of Nicol prism to be totally reflected at this layer ? (Refractive index of
calcite = 1.66).
Solution: The minimum angle of incidence for total internal reflection is the
critical angle. Refractive index of calcite w.r.t. canada balsam
µ calcite 1.66
m= =
µ canada 1.528
If ic is the critical angle then
1 1.528
sin ic = µ = = 0.9205
1.66
\ ic = 67° Ans.
Exmaple 4.10: If the polarising angle for a piece of glass for green light
is 60°, find the angle of minimum deviation for green light for its passage
through a 60° prism made of the same glass. [UPTU II Sem. 2000–2001]
A + δm
sin
2
m = tan ip =
sin A / 2
Polarization 4.203
Here ip = 60°
\ tan ip = 3 = 1.732
60 + δm 3
sin = = sin 60°
2 2
60 + δm
\ = 60°
2
or dm = 60° Ans.
4.12. SUPERPOSITION OF TWO DISTURBANCES
4.12.1. SUPERPOSITION OF T WO LINEARLY POLARIZED WAVES W ITH
THEIR OPTICAL V ECTORS PARALLEL
Let us consider two linearly polarized electromagnetic waves of same frequency w
and both propagating along the same direction (z-axis say) with their electric vectors
oscillating along the x-axis. The electric field associated with these waves can be
r
written as E 1 = x̂ E01 cos (w t – d1) (4.10)
r
E2 = x̂ E02 cos (w t – d2) (4.11)
The superposition of these vibrations results in the resultant vibration given by:
r H H
E = E1 + E2
H
Þ E = x̂ E01 cos (wt – d1) + x̂ E02 cos (w t – d2)
= x̂E01 (cos wt cos d1 + sin w t sin d1)
+ x̂E02 ( cos wt cos d2 + sin wt sin d2)
r
= x cos wt (E01 cos d1 + E02 cos d2 )
r
+ x sin wt (E01 sin d1+ E02 sin d2 )
Let us put, E01 cos d1 + E02 cos d2 = E0 cos d
E01 sin d1 + E02 sin d2 = E0sin d
r
\ E = x̂ E0 cos wt cos d + x̂ E0 sin wt sin d
H
Þ E = x̂ E0 cos (wt – d) (4.12)
where the amplitude of resultant wave is given by :
E02 = E201 + E202 + 2E01 E02 cos (d1 – d2) (4.13)
Eq. (4.12) tells us that the resultant is also a linearly polarized wave with its
electric vector oscillating along the same axis i.e. x-aixs.
4.13. SUPERPOSITION OF TWO LINEARLY POLARIZED
WAVES WITH THEIR OPTICAL VECTORS
MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR:
(Elliptically and Circularly Polarized Light)
When ordinary light is incident normally on a thin plate of uniaxial crystal cut with
faces parallel to the optic axis, both the ordinary and the extra-ordinary rays travel
along the same path but with different velocities. Similarly if plane polarized light is
made to fall normally on such a thin crystalline plate cut parallel to the optic axis, it
is split up into ordinary and extra-ordinary rays which travel through the plate in the
same direction but with different velocities (Fig.4.17). Since the E-wave and the
O-wave travel in the crystal in same X

direction but with different velocities,
a path difference (or a phase
difference) is created between the
two. Since the velocity of E-wave for O
P E
calcite is greater than that of the O-
wave, the length of the the former in
crystal is greater than that of the O-
wave.
Thus the O-wave falls behind the
E-wave. If the refractive indices of
the E-ray and O-ray for calcite are Y
m E and m O respectively, the path t
difference (D) created between them Fig. 4.17. Section of a calcite crystal
w ith optic a xis parallel to XY.
in traversing a thickness ‘t’ of the
calcite plate is given by :
D = (mO – mE) t (4.14)
The corresponding phase difference is given by
2π 2π
d= D= (mO – mE) t (4.15)
λ λ
E 0 co sθ
E θE 0 O
Fa
st
E0
sin
S lo θ
w
P C
Fig. 4.18. The incident plane polarised light w hile passing through the crystal
is split into E, the fast com ponent and O , the slow com ponent.
The calcite crystal used as above is known as a phase retardation plate.If
the incident plane polarized beam of light, of wavelength ‘l’ falls on the calcite
crystal C , Fig. 4.18, so that the direction of vibration is inclined at an angle q to the
optic axis.
If E0 in Fig. 4.18 is the amplitude of the incident beam (vibration), then the
amplitude of vibrations along the optic axis is E0 cos q (amplitude of E-wave, say
E01) and perpendicular to optic. Axis is E0 sin q (amplitude of O-wave, say E02)
\ E01 = E0 cos q (4.16)
E02 = E0 sin q
Now, we consider superposition of two linearly polarized electromagnetic waves
(both propagating along z-direction) but their electric vectors oscillating along two
mutually perpendicular directions. The equations of such waves may be written as :
H
E1 = x̂ E01 cos w t (4.17)
H
E2 = ŷ E02 cos (w t– d) (4.18)
Polarization 4.205
These equations may be re-written in scalar form as

Ex = E01 cos wt (4.19)
Ey = E02 cos (wt – d) (4.20)
From Eq. (4.20) we have
Ey
E = cos wt cosd + sin wt sin d
02
(4.21)
From Eqs. (4.19) and (4.21), we get
Ey Ex E 2x
= E cos δ + 1 − sin δ
E02 01 E 2 01
2
⎡ Ey Ex ⎤ E2x
Þ ⎢ − cos δ ⎥ = sin d – 2 sin δ
2 2
E
⎣ 02 E01 ⎦ E 01
2 2
Ey E x 2 E E
x y
Þ + 2 – cos d = sin2 d (4.22)
E02 E 01 E01E02
This equation, in general, represents an ellipse. Hence, the emergent light is
elliptically polarized. The following are however, the special cases.
4.12.1 LINEARLY POLARIZED LIGHT
If the phase difference between the waves is d = np, Eq. (4.22) becomes
2
⎡ Ex Ey ⎤
⎢ − ( − 1) n
⎥ =0
⎣ E01 E02 ⎦
Ey E
Þ = (−1)n 02 (4.23)
E
x E 01
This represents the equation of a straight line in the Ex – Ey plane implying a
linearly polarized wave. The slope of this line is given by :
n E02 E02
tan q = ( − 1) E = ± E (4.24)
01 01
where q is the angle that this line makes with the Ex-axis. For even values of n (=
0,2,4,..) the slope is positive and the two vibrations are in phase [Fig. 4.19 (a) and
(k)]. For odd values of n (= 1,3,5, ...) the slope is negative and two vibrations are out
of phase [Fig. 4.19 (f)].
4.13.2. ELLIPTICALLY P OLARIZED LIGHT
⎛ 1⎞ π 3π 5π
For d = ⎜n + ⎟ π = , , , ...... Eq. (4.16) becomes
⎝ 2⎠ 2 2 2
E2x E2y
+ 2 =1 (4.25)
E 2 01 E 02
which represents a symmetrical ellipse. In this case the tip of the electric vector
rotates on the circumference of an ellipse and consequently the light is said to be
elliptically polarized light , the plane of the ellipse being normal to the direction of
propagation (propagation is out of the paper).
π 5π 9π
For even values of n , d = , , ,.... the tip of electric vector rotates in
2 2 2
the anti-clockwise direction, Such a wave is known as right elliptically polarized
wave. (Fig. 4.19 (c)).
Ey
Ex
δ=0 δ = π/4 δ = π/2

(a ) (b ) (c )
δ = π/2 δ = 3 π/4 δ= π
(d ) (e ) ( f)
δ = 5 π/4 δ = 3 π/2 δ = 3 π/2

(g ) (h ) (i)
δ = 7 π/4 δ = 2π
(j) ( k)
Fig. 4.19. Various states of polarization.
3ð 7ð 11ð
For odd values of n, d =, , , ..... the tip of electric vector rotates
2 2 2
in the clockwise direction. Such a wave is known as left elliptically polarized
wave. (Fig. 4.19 (h)).
π 3π 5π
For the values of d = , , ,.....Eq. (4.22) becomes
4 4 4
E 2x E y2 2 Ex E y 1
+ 2 + = (4.26)
E 201 E 02 E01 E02 2
Polarization 4.207
This is the equation of an oblique ellipse. The light is again elliptically polarized.
For values of d, 0 < d < p , ellipse is described in anticlockwise direction and the
light is said to be right elliptically polarized. [Fig. 4.19 (b) (e)]. For p < d < 2p ,
the elliptic vibration is described in the clockwise direction and the light is said to be
left elliptic polarized (Fig. 4.19 (g) (j)).
4.13.3 CIRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT
A special case arises when q = 45°. In that case we have
E0
E01 = E0 cos 45° =
2
E0
and E02 = E0 sin 45° =
2
i.e., E01 = E02
⎛ 1⎞
Phase diff. d = ⎜ n + ⎟ π then Eq. (4.22) reduces to
⎝ 2⎠
E 2 x + E 2 y = E201 (4.27)
This represents the equation of a circle of radius E01. Thus the emergent light
is circularly polarized.
π 5π 9π
For even values of n (= 0,2,4,.....), i.e., d = , , ,.... the tip of electric
2 2 2
vector rotates along the circumference of a circle in the anticlockwise direction in a
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation ( + z-direction). The wave is said
to be right circularly polarized wave (Fig. 4.19 (d)). For odd values of n
3π 7 π 11π
(= 1, 3, 5, ..), i.e., for d = , , , ... the tip of electric vector rotates in a
2 2 2
circle in clock-wise direction and the wave is said to be left circularly polarized
(Fig. 4.19 (i)).
Thus from the above discussion it is inferred that the plane polarized and
circularly polarized light are the special cases of elliptically polarized light.
4.14. QUARTER WAVE PLATE
A plate of doubly refracting uniaxial
crystal cut with its optic axis parallel to the M o no chro m a zic
refracting faces and capable of producing light
λ
a path difference of (or a phase
4 O ptic
π axis
difference of ) between the ordinary and O
2
the extraordinary waves is called a quarter
λ E
wave plate or a plate.
4 E m e rge nt
When a beam of monochromatic light
light of wavelength l is incident normally Fig. 4.20 Q uarter w av e plate.
on such a plate (Fig. 4.20),. it is broken up into O and E waves inside the plate.
Both these waves travel in the same direction (perpendicular to the face) but with
different velocities.
In the case of negative crystals such as calcite, the E-ray travels faster than
the O-ray, so that mO > mE where mO and mE are the principal refractive indices of
the crystal for O and E rays respectively. If ‘t’ is the thickness of the crystal plate
then path t in the crystal is equivalent to mOt and mEt in air for O and E waves
respectively. Hence, the path difference between the two waves on emerging out of
the crystal will be
D = (mO – mE) t
If the plate is to act as a quarter wave plate, this path difference must be equal
λ
to , i.e.,
4
λ
D = (mO – mE) t = ...(4.28)
4
Hence, the minimum thickness of a quarter wave plate must be
λ
t = 4(µ − µ ) ...(4.29)
O E
For a positive crystal such as quartz, mE > mO
λ
\ t = 4(µ − µ ) ...(4.30)
E O
In general, Eq. (4.27) may be written as
⎛ 1⎞ λ
D = (m0 – mE) ⎜ 2n + ⎟ ...(4.31)
⎝ 2⎠ 2
where n = 0,1,2,3,.....
Then, for a negative crystal
(4n + 1) λ
t = 4 (µ – µ ) ...(4.32)
0 E
(4n + 1)λ
and for a positive crystal t = 4 (µ − µ ) ...(4.33)
E o
A quarter wave plate is used for producing circularly and elliptically polarized
light. If plane polarized light with its vibrations making an angle of 45° with the optic
axis is passed through a quarter wave plate, the emergent light is circularly
polarized. If, however, the plane of vibration of the incident plane polarized light is
inclined to the optic axis at an angle other than 45°, the emergent light is elliptically
polarized.
4.15. HALF-WAVE PLATE
A plate of double refracting uniaxial crystal cut with its optic axis parallel to
λ
the refracting faces and capable of producing a path difference of ( or a phase
2
difference of p) between O and E waves is called a ‘half wave plate’.
λ
or – plate
2
If ‘t’ is the thickness of such a plate, then in case of a negative crystal such as
calcite (mE > mO ) , the path difference between the O and E waves is given by
D = (mO – mE) t
If this plate is to act as a half wave plate, then
λ
D = (mO – mE) t = (2n + 1) ...(4.34)
2
Polarization 4.209
The minimum thickness of half wave plate is given by

λ
t = 2(µ − µ ) ...(4.35)
O E
In general
(2n + 1) ë
t = 2 (µ − µ ) ...(4.36)
O E
For a positive crystal like quartz (mE > mO) the minimum thickness of half
wave plate is given by
λ
t = ...(4.37)
2(µ E − µ O )
(2n + 1)λ
In general, t = ...(4.38)
2(µ E − µ O )
If plane polarized light is incident on a half wave plate such that it makes an
angle q with direction of optic axis, the emergent light is also plane polarized with
vibrations inclined at an angle of 2q.
Example 4.11: Find the thickness of a quarter wave plate for the
wavelength of light of 589 nm and mo = 1.55 and me = 1.54.
[UPTU II Sem. 2003–2004]
Solution: The thicknesss of quarter wave plate is given by
λ
t = 4(µ − µ )
o e
Here l = 589 nm = 5.89 × 10– 5 cm
m o = 1.55 and me = 1.54
5.89 × 10−5
\ t = 4 (1.55 1.54)
× −
= 1.47 × 10– 4 cm Ans.
Example 4.12: Calculate the thickness of a quarter wave plate of quartz
for sodium light of wavelength 5893 Å. The ordinary and extra ordinary
refractive indices for sodium are 1.54425 and 1.55336 respectively
[UPTU, .B. Tech I Q. B. 2000]
Solution: As mE > mO , hence the crystal is positive. The thickness of quarter
wave plate is given by
λ
t=
4(µ E − µO )
Here mO = 1.54425 , mE = 1.55336
and l = 5893 Å = 5.893 × 10– 5 cm
5.893 ×10 −5
\ t=
4 × (1.55336 − 1.54425)
5.893 × 10−5
= = 1.62 × 10– 3 cm Ans.
4 × 911 ×10 −5
Example 4.13: The values of mE and mO for quartz are 1.5508 and 1.5418
respectively. Calculate the phase retardation for l = 5000 Å when the plate
thickenss is 0.032 mm. [UPTU B. Tech I Q.B. 2001]
Solution: The path difference between O-and E-waves is given by

D = (mE – mO) t
The corresponding phase difference is given by
2π 2π(µ E − µ O ) t
d= D=
λ λ
Here mE = 1.5508, mO = 1.5418,
t = 0.032 mm = 0.0032cm, λ = 5 x 10-5 cm.
2 × 3.14 × (1.5508 − 1.5418) × 0.0032
\ d=
5 × 10−5
= 3.617 radian Ans.
Example 4.14 : A beam of plane polarized light is converted into
circularly polarized light by passing it through a crystal of thickness 3×10–5
cm. Calculate the difference in the refractive indices of the two rays inside the
crystal, assuming the above thickness to be minimum value required to produce
the observed effect. Wavelength of light used is 600 nm.
Solution: Thickness of quarter wave plate
λ
t = 4(µ − µ )
O E
Difference in refractive indices
λ
(mO – mE) =
4t
Here l = 600 nm = 6 × 10 –7 m
t = 3 × 10 –5 m
6 × 10 − 7
\ mO – mE = = 5 × 10–3 = 0.005 Ans.
4 × 3 × 10 −5
Example 4.15: Calculate the thickness of a quarter wave plate for light
of wavelength 6000 Å (mO = 1.554 ; me = 1.544).
Solution: The thickness of quarter wave plate is given by
λ
t = 4(µ − µ )
o e
Here, l = 6 × 10 –7 m , mO = 1.554 and me = 1.544
6 × 10 − 7
\ t = 4 (1.554 1.544) = 1.5 × 10 –5 m Ans.
× −
Example 4.16: A double refracting crystal plate is 12.5 m thick. Calculate
the wavelength for which it acts as a quarter wave plate. The difference in the
principal refractive indices is 0.011.
Solution: The thickness of a quarter wave plate is given by
λ
t=
4 (µ O : µe )
\ l = 4 (mO ~ me ) t
Polarization 4.211
Here, (mO ~ me ) = 0.011, t = 12.6 × 10 –6 m

\ l = 4 × 0.011 × 12.6 × 10 –6
= 5.5 × 10 –7m = 5500 Å Ans.
Example 4.17: Plane polarized light passes through a quartz plate with
its axis parallel to its face. Calculate the thickness of the plate so that the
emergent light may be plane polarized. For quartz me = 1.553 and
mO = 1.542 l = 5.5 × 10–7 m.
Solution: When a plane polarized light is passed through a crystal plate, the
emergent light will be plane polarized only if the plate is a half wave plate . For
positive crystal (quartz), the thickness of half wave plate is given by
λ
t=
2 (µ e − µ O )
Here, l = 5.5 × 10 –7 m, me = 1.553 and mO= 1.542
5.5 × 10 −7
\ t = 4 (1.553 1.542) = 2.5 × 10 –5m Ans.
× −
Example 4.18: Calculate the thickness of a calcite plate which would
convert plane polarized light into circularly polarized light. The principal
refractive indices are mO = 1.658, mE = 1.486 and the wavelength of light used
is 5890 Å.
Solution: It is a quarter wave plate which converts plane polarized light into
circularly polarized light. The thickness of quarter wave plate is given by
λ
t = 2 (µ − µ )
O e
Here, l = 5.89 × 10 –5 m, mO = 1.658 and me = 1.486
5.89 × 10 −5
\ t= = 8.561 × 10 – 5 m Ans.
4 × (1.658 − 1.486)
Example 4.19: A sheet of cellophane is a half plate for light of wavelength
4000 Å. If the refractive indices do not change with wavelength explain how
the sheet would behave with respect to light of wavelength 8000 Å.
Solution: The path difference produced by the sheet is given by
λ1
D = (mO – mE) t = = constant
2
⎛ λ2 ⎞
Let the path difference produced by the second wavelength is ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n ⎠
λ1 λ2
\ D= =
2 n
Here, l1 = 4000 Å, l2 = 8000 Å
4000 8000
\ =
2 n
Þ n=4
\ Path difference produced by second wavelength is

λ
D= 2
4
Thus, the given sheet will behave like a quarter wave plate with light of
wavelength 8000 Å. Ans.
Example 4.20: Quartz has refractive index 1.544 for the ordinary ray
and 1.553 for the extra-ordinary ray when measured with sodium light of
wavelength 5896 Å. What thickness of quartz between two crossed Nicols will
produce complete annulment of the light, the quartz being cut parallel to the
optic axis ?
Solution: No light is transmitted when two Nicols are crossed. If quartz is of
such a thickness that the phase difference between the O and E rays is 2p in
transmission through the plate, then on emergence they recombine to form linearly
polarized light, plane of vibration of which coinciding with that of the incident linearly
polarized light. Therefore, the second Nicol will be in crossed position for this emergent
light also and the field of view will again be dark through second Nicol.
The phase difference between O and E waves is given by
2π
d= (m – mO) t = 2p
λ E
λ
Þ t =
µE : µO
Here, l = 5.896 × 10 –7 m, mE = 1.553, mO = 1.544
5.896 × 10 −7
\ t = = 6.5 × 10 –5 m
1.553 − 1.544
Ans.
Example 4.21: Quartz plate of thickness 3 × 10 –5 m acts as a phase
retardation plate for light of wavelength 5400 Å. Calculate the value of
retardation in phase. Given that mE = 1.553 and mO = 1544 for quartz.
Solution: Phase difference between O and E waves for positive crystal
given by
2π
d= (mE – mO) t
λ
Here, l = 5.4 × 10 –7 m,
mE = 1.53, mO = 1.544 and t = 3 × 10 –5 m
2π × (1.553 − 1.544) × 3 × 10 −5
\ d=
5.4 × 10 −7
= p radian = 180° Ans.
Example 4.22: A thin plate of calcite is cut parallel to its optic axis and
inserted between two crossed Nicols in monochromatic sodium light (l = 5893
Å). Compute the minimum thickness of plate required to produce destructive
interference. Given for calcite mO=1.658, mE = 1.486 for sodium yellow light.
Solution: For destructive interference minimum (i.e., for intensity being
minimum), the minimum thickness t of the plate must be such as to produce a phase
shift of 2p between O and E rays. Hence, for destructive interference, we have
Polarization 4.213
2π
d= (mO – mE) t = 2p
λ
λ
Þ t=
µO − µE
Here, l = 5.893 × 10 –7 m, mO= 1.658, mE = 1.486
5.893 × 10−7
\ t= = 3.42 × 10 –6m Ans.
1.658 − 1.486
Example 4.23: A phase retardation plate of quartz has thickness 0.15
mm. For what wavelength in the visible region (4200 Å – 8000 Å) will it act as
(i) a quarter wave plate and (ii) a half wave plate ? Given
mE = + 1.553 and mO= 1.544 for quartz.
Solution: (i)The general expression of a quarter wave plate is given by
(4n + 1) λ
t = 4(µ − µ )
E O
4t (µ E − µ O )
\ l= 4n + 1
Here, t = 0.15 × 10 m, mE = 1.553, mO = 1.544
–3
4 × 0.15 × 10 −3 × (1.553 − 1.544)
\ l=
4n + 1
−6
×
5.4 10 54 × 10 −7
= =
4n + 1 4n + 1
= 54000 Å, 10800 Å, 6000 Å, 4154 Å
The given plate will act as quarter wave plate for wavelength 6000 Å for
visible region. Ans.
(ii) Thickness of half wave plate is given by
(2n + 1) λ
t = 2 (µ − µ )
E O
2t (µ E − µ O )
\ l = 2n + 1
2 × 0.15 × 10 −3 × (1.553 − 1.544)
Þ l=
2n + 1
27 × 10 − 7
= 2n + 1
Þ l = 27000 Å, 9000 Å, 5400 Å &, 3857 Å
The plate will act as half wave plate for 5400 Å in the visible region. Ans.
Example 4.24: A pair of crossed polarisers with axes at angles q = 0°
and 90°, is placed in a beam of unpolarised light with intensity Io , so that the
light emerges from the first with I1 = Io /2 and from the second with I2 = 0. A
third polariser is placed between the two at an angle of 45°.
(a) What is I2 then ?
(b) If the third polariser rotates at angular frequency w, show that
Io
I2 = (1 – cos 4 w t)
16
Solution:
45 °
90 °
A0 A1 A2 A3
I II III
(a) Amplitude of unpolarized light = A0 (say) = I o . Let A1, A2, A3 respresent
amplitudes of polarized light after passage through first, second and third polarizers
I I0
respectively. Then A12 = 0 or A1 = .
2 2
1 I0
Now A3 = A1 cos 45° ; A2 = A3 cos 45° = A1 cos2 45° =
2 2
I
\ I2 = A22 = 0
Ans.
8
(b) If the third polarizer rotates with an angular velocity w, then
A3 = A1 cos w t
and A2 = A3 cos (90° – wt)
A1
= A1 cos wt sin w t = sin 2 wt
2
1 I0
= sin 2wt
2 2
I0 Io
\ I2 = A22 = sin2 (zwt) = (1 – cos 4 w t) Ans.
8 16
Example 4.25: Plane polarised light passes through a quartz plate with
its optic axis parallel to the faces.Calculate the least thickness of the plate for
which the emergent beam will be
(i) Plane polarised (ii) Circularly polarised.
Given : mE = 1.5533, mo = 1.5442 and l = 5000 Å.
Solution: (i) Emergent beam will be plane polarized if the phase difference
between E-ray and O-ray is p. For this purpose half wave plate is required.
λ
\ t 1/2 =
2(µ E − µ o )
Here l = 5000 Å = 5 × 10– 7 m,
mE = 1.5533 and mo = 1.5442
5 × 10−7
\ t 1/2 = 2 (1.5533 1.5442)
× −
= 2.747 × 10 7 m
– Ans.
(ii) For circularly polarized light the phase difference between E-ray and
O-ray must be π 2 for which quarter wave plate is required.
λ 5 × 10−7
\
( E 0)
t1/4 = 4 µ − µ = 4 × 1.5533 − 1.5442
( )
-5
= 1.373 × 10 m Ans.
Polarization 4.215
Example 4.26: Discuss the stage of polarizations of the following light

waves
ur
(i) E = ĵ A cos (kx – wt) + k̂ 2A cos (kx – wt + p/4)
KH
(ii) E = ĵ A cos (kx – wt) + k̂ A sin (kx – wt)
Solution: (i) The given wave is the superposition of two mutually perpendicular
electric waves with unequal amplitudes. The general equation of resultant disturbance
is given by
Ex2 E y2 2Ex E y
2 + – cos d = sin2 d
A1 A2 2
A1 A2
π
Here, A1 = A, A2 = 2 A, and d =
4
Ex2 E y2 2Ex E y ⎛ π⎞ ⎛π⎞
So, 2 + – cos ⎜ ⎟ = sin2 ⎜ ⎟
A 4A 2
2A 2
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝4⎠
Ex2 E y2 2 Ex E y 1
or + – =
A2 4 A2 2 A2 2
This is the equation of an oblique ellipse described in anticlockwise
direction. So, the lght is right elliptically polarized.
(ii) The given wave is again the superposition of two mutually perpenducular
electric waves with equal amplitudes and a phase difference of p.
π
Here, A1 = A2= A and d =
2
So, Ex2 + Ey2 = A2
This is the equation of a circle described in anticlockwise direction. So, the
light is right circularly polarised.
4.16. PRODUCTION OF ELLIPTICALLY AND CIRCULARLY
POLARIZED LIGHT
4.16.1 ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT
Elliptically polarized light can be produced by the two waves of unequal
amplitudes vibrating at right angles to each other and having a phase difference of
π λ
(or a path difference of ). For this a plane polarized light is a allowed to fall
2 4
normally on a plate in such a way that the plane of vibration of incident light makes
an angle other than 45° with the direction of optic axis.
An experimental arrangement to produce elliptically polarized light is shown in
Fig.4.21. A beam of parallel light from a sodium lamp is passed through two Nicols
N1 and N2 placed at some distance apart and arranged in the crossed position. A
quarter wave plate q mounted on a tube T1 is inserted between them and held
normal to the incident beam. The tube T1 can rotate about the outer fixed tube T2
and thus the plate can be rotated about a horizontal axis through any desired angle.
π
Plane polarized light from N1 falls normally on Q and a phase difference of is
2
introduced by it between the two components O and E waves. Therefore,
Q
N1 N2
T2 T1
45
M
M o no chro m a tic E lliptica lly or
Light C ircula rly P ola rise d L igh t
Fig. 4.21. Production of elliptically polarized light.
the field of view as viewed through N2 is found to be illuminated. The light emerging
out of the quarter wave plate is elliptically polarized. On rotating the analyser N2, the
intensity of emergent light varies between a maximum and a minimum but is never
completely cut off. It resembles to the case when a mixture of plane polarized and
unpolarized light is examined by a rotating Nicol.
4.16.2 CIRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT
Circularly polarized light can be produced by the two waves of equal amplitudes
vibrating at right angles to each other and having a phase difference p/2 (or a path
difference of l/4). For this a plane polarized light is allowed to fall normally on a
l/4 plate in such a way that the plane of vibration of incident light makes an angle of
45° with the direction of the optic axis.
To obtain circularly polarized light, the arrangement of Fig. 4.21 can be used.
Parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall on two Nicols which are
crossed. Hence, the field of view is dark. Now l/4 plate Q is inserted in between
them so that the field of view is bright. Now the l/4 plate Q is rotated until the field
of view is again dark. It will happen when the optic axis of l/4 plate is parallel to the
principal plane of polarizing Nicol N1. Keeping Q fixed, tube T1 is rotated so that
mark M on Q coincides with the zero mark on T1. Now by rotating l/4 plate Q the
mark M on Q is made to coincide with 45° mark on T1. Thus, l/4 plate Q is rotated
through 45° and hence the vibrations of plane polarized light incident on the l/4 plate
make an angle of 45° with the direction of optic axis of the plate. The plane polarized
light entering the plate is spilt up into O and E components of equal amplitudes and
as a result the emergent light from the plate is circularly polarized. If now the analysing
Nicol is rotated, the field of view shows no change in intensity. This is just identical
to the case when ordinary light passes thought a Nicol prism.
4.17. ANALYSIS OF POLARIZED OF LIGHT
A plane wave can be characterized by different states of polarization, which
may be anyone of the following :
(a) linearly plarized,
(b) circularly polarized,
(c) elliptically polarized,
(d) unpolarized, mixture of linearly polarized and unpolarized.
(e) mixture of circularly polarized and unpolarized.
(g) mixture of elliptically polarized and unpolarized light.
Polarization 4.217
To the naked eye all the states of polarizations will appear to be the same. In
order to determine the state of polarization in a given light beam, we introduce either
a Nicol prism or a polaroid as analyzer, in the path of the beam and rotate it about the
direction of propagation. Either of the following three possibilities can occur.
(i) If there is complete extinction at two positions of the analyzer, then the
beam is linearly polarized.
(ii) If there is no variation of intensity then the beam is either unpolarized or
circularly polarized or a mixture of unpolarized and circularly polarized
light. Now we put a quarter wave plate on the path of the beam followed
by the rotating polaroid (or Nicol). If there is no variation of intensity, then
the incident beam is unpolarized. If there is complete extinction at two
positions, then the beam is circularly polarized. This is due to the fact that
a quarter wave plate will transform a circularly polarized light into a linearly
polarized light. If there is a variation of intensity without complete extinction,
then the beam is either elliptically polarized or a mixture of unpolarized
and circularly polarized light.
(iii) If there is a variation of intensity without complete extinction, then the
beam is either elliptically polarized or a mixture of elliptically polarized
and unpolarized light. We now put a quarter wave plate in front of the
polaroid with its optic axis parallel to the pass-axis of the polaroid at the
position of maximum intensity. The elliptically polarized light will transform
to a linearly polarized light. If we obtain two positions of the polaroid
where complete extinction occurs, then the original, beam is elliptically
polarized. If complete extinction does not occur, and the position of
maximum intensity occurs at the same orientation as before, the beam is
a mixture of unpolarized and linearly polarized light. Finally, if the position
of maximum intensity coccurs at a different orientation of the polaroid,
the beam is a mixture of elliptically polarized and unpolarized light.
4.17.1 ANALYSIS OF POLARIZED LIGHT-DIAGRAMMATIC
REPRESENTATION
N o cha ng e in in te nsity on C o nverse ly if

(1 ) ro tatio n on an a lysing N icol
Tw o m a xim a a nd tw o m inim a C o nverse ly if

(2 ) o n o ne co m p le te ro tatio n o f N icol
Tw o m a xim a a nd tw o p o sitio ns C o nverse ly if

(3 )
o f zero inte n sity on o ne com p le te
ro tatio n of N icol.
(4 ) N o cha ng e in in te nsity on C o nverse ly if

ro tatio n on N ico l a s in (1 ).
(5 ) Tw o m a xim a a nd tw o m inim a C o nverse ly if

d uring o ne ro tatio n o f N icol.
(a) Thus if we get two positions of maximum intensity and two of zero intensity
the incident light is definitely plane polarized and (3) is eliminated.
(b) Since ordinary light and circulary polarised light behave in the same manner,
we can distinguish between them by inserting a quarter-wave plate in the
path before it enters the analysing Nicol.
O rd in ary lig ht Q C o nverse ly if
N o cha ng e in in te nsity o n
ro tatio n of an alysin g N icol.
Q Tw o m a xim a a nd tw o p ositio ns C o nverse ly if

o f zero inte n sity.
(c) Since the behaviour of partially polarized light and elliptically polarized
light is the same after passing through Nicol, to distinguish between them,
we insert a quarter wave plate before it falls on Nicol.
P artially
po larize d Q
light Tw o m axim a a nd two m inim a
du ring on e rotatio n b ut n ever
ze ro in inten sity.
E lliptica lly
po larize d Q
≡
Tw o m axim a a nd two po sition s
light
of ze ro in ten sity.
Fig. 4.22. A nalysis of light.

4.17.2 ANALYSIS OF POLARIZED LIGHT IN A NUTSHELL
Incident Light
Incident on a rotating Nicol
V a riatio n in in te nsity V a riatio n in in te nsity N o ch a n ge in inte n sity

w ith m in im u m ze ro w ith m in im u m n o t R e sult – U np olarized
R e sult – Plane po larized e qu a l to ze ro or circu larly p olarized
light R e sult– Partially po larized ligh t
or elliptically polarized
ligh t
Lig ht incident on λ/4 p late an d exam in ed by ro tatin g N icol
V a riatio n in in te nsity V a riatio n in in te nsity

w ith m in im u m n o t eq u al to zero w ith m in im u m e q u al to zero
R e sult –Partially po larized lig ht R e sult – Elliptically
po larized lig ht
Lig ht incident on λ/4 p late an d exam in ed by ro tatin g N icol
N o va ria tion in in te nsity V a riatio n in in te nsity

R e sult – U np olarized ligh t w ith m in im u m e q u al to zero
R e sult –C ircularly
po larized lig ht
Fig. 4.23.
Polarization 4.219
4.18. ROTATORY POLARIZATION

When monochromatic light is passed through two Nicol prisms (polarizing
Nicol P and analyzing Nicol A) placed in crossed position, no light emerges out of
the analyzer (Fig 4.24 (a)) because the planes of vibrations of two Nicols are
N o light
(a) A na lyser (A )
P olrise r (P )
P A
S om e light
Q uartz plate
(b)
Fig. 4.24. R o ta tio n o f pla n e of p o la rizatio n .
perpendicular to each other. If now a thin plate of calcite cut with its faces
perpendicular to optic axis is placed between two crossed Nicols, still no light emerges
from the analyzing Nicol. If, however, a plate of quartz, cut with its faces
perpendicular to the optic axis is placed between two crossed Nicols, it is observed
that some light emerges from the analyzer (Fig 4.24 (b)). If now the analyzing Nicol
is rotated slowly about the direction of propagation, it is found that there is again
complete extinction of light for some different position of the analyzing Nicol. It
indicates that light after passing through the ‘quartz’ plate is still plane polarized ; but
the plane of polarization is rotated (due to the passage in the quartz plate) through a
certain angle which is equal to the angle analyzing Nicol has to be rotation in order
to restore the condition of complete extinction again. This property of rotation of
plane of polarization is also possessed by some other crystals like sodium chlorate,
cinnabar, sugar crystals and solutions like turpentine, sugar solution, quinine sulphate
solution etc.
The phenomenon of rotating the plane of polarization about the direction of
propagation of light by certain substances is defined as optical rotation or optical
activity and the substances which exhibit this phenomenon are called optically active
substances.
There are two types of optically active substances:
(i) Right-handed or dextro-rotatory : The substances which rotate the plane
of polarization in clockwise direction with respect to an observer looking
towards light travelling towards him are called right-handed or dextrorotaroy.
(ii) Left-handed or laevo-rotatory : The substances which rotate the plane
of polarization in the anticlockwise direction with respect to an observer
looking towards light travelling towards him are called left-handed or laevo-
rotatory.
Some crystals of quartz are dextrorotatory while others are laevo-rotatory.
Cane sugar is dextro-rotatory ; while fruit sugar is laevo-rotatory.
4.18.1 BIOT’S LAWS FOR ROTATORY POLARIZATION

Biot, in 1815, studied the phenomenon of optical rotation in detail and gave the
following laws :
(i) The amount of rotation of plane of polarization is directly proportional to the
length of optically active substance traversed.
i.e. q ∝l
(ii) In the case of solutions the amount of rotation is directly proportional to the
concentration of the solution.
i.e. q ∝ c
(iii) The amount of rotation is approximately inversely proportional to the square
of the wavelength. Thus the angle of rotation is the least for red and greatest
for violet.
1
i.e q∝ 2
λ
(iv) The rotation produced by a number of optically active substances is equal to
the algebraic sum of the individual rotations. The rotation in clockwise
direction is taken as positive while that in anticlockwise direction is taken as
negative
i.e. q = q1 + q2 + q3 + ...........
(v) The amount of rotation also depends on the nature and temperature of the
substance.
4.19. SPECIFIC ROTATION
For a comparison of optical activity, a term specific rotation or specific rotatory
power is adopted which is usually denoted by ‘S’. It is defined differently for solids,
liquids and solution.
(i) For Solids. In case of solids it is defined by the equation
q=S×l
where q is the rotation produced in degrees by l millimeter length of the
solid. Thus for solids the specific rotation is the angle of rotation produced
by 1mm thickness of the solid in the direction of optic axis.
(ii) For liquids. In case of liquids, it is defined by the equation :
q=S×l×d
where the path length l is measured in decimeters ( = 10 cm) and d is the
density in gm/c.c. Thus for liquids the specific rotation of the plane of
polarization produced by 1 decimeter column of the pure liquid divided by
its density.
(iii) For Solutions. In case of solutions e.g. dissolved in distilled water, the
specific rotation is defined by the equation.
q=S×l×d
where q is the rotation produced in degrees, l is the length of the solution in
decimeter and c is the concentration in gm/c.c. Thus specific rotation is
defined as the rotation (in degrees) of plane of polarization by 1 decimeter
length of solution when its concentration is 1 gm/c.c.
Polarization 4.221
θ Rotation is degrees
Thus, S= =
l×c length in decimeter × concentration in gm/cc.
θ θV
= = degree (decimeter)–1 (gm/c.c.)–1 ...(4.39)
⎛ m⎞ lm
l ×⎜ ⎟
⎝V ⎠
where m is the mass of active substance in gm in V cc. of solution. It is to be
pointed out that specific rotation is not a constant but it varies with wavelength
of light, the nature of active solvent, the concentration of the solution and its
temperature.
The product of specifice rotation and the molecular weight of the optically
active substance is called the molecular ratation.
4.20. FRESNELS THEORY OF OPTICAL ROTATION
This theory is based on the fact that a rectilinear vibration is equivalent to two
oposite circular vibrations of same frequency.
Assumptions of Fresnel’s Theory
(i) When a plane polarized beam enters a substance, it is broken up into two
oppositely directed circularly polarized beams ; one clockwise and the other
anticlockwise.
(ii) In an optically inactive substance these two circularly polarized beams travel
with the same velocity ; while in an optically active substance they travel
with different velocities. In a dextro-rotatory substance the velocity of right-
handed circularly polarized light is greater than that of left-handed circularly
polarized light. In a laevo-rotatory substance the velocity of left handed
circularly polarized light is greater than that of right-handed circularly
polarized light. Hence in an optically active substance a phase difference is
produced between the two beams while traversing the substance.
(iii) On emerging from the optically active substance, the two circularly polarized
beams recombine to form a plane polarized beam whose plane of polarization
has rotated with respect to that of incident light through a certain angle
which depends on the phase difference between the two beams.
Let a plane-polarized light beam be incident normally on a quartz
crystal cut with its faces perpendicular to the optic axis. Let the vibrations
in the incident light be represented by :
Ey = Eo cos wt ...(4.40)
where Eo is the amplitude of incident vibration.
Accroding to Fresnel’s hypothesis, just on entering the quartz plate, the
incident beam breaks up into two oppositely directed circularly polarized
beams (Fig 4.25 (a)).
Y Y
2y
L
δ δ
a a 2 2
a
X X
O
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.25 B reaking of a plane polarized beam into tw o
oppositely directed circularly polarized beam s.
The circular vibrations can be represented by the equations
E0 E ⎫
Ex1 =
cos ω t , Ey1 = 0 sin ω t ⎪
2 2
E0 E ⎬ ...(4.41)
Ex2 = − cos ω t , Ey 2 = 0 sin ω t ⎪
2 2 ⎭
As these circularly polarized beams travel through the optically active
substance with different velocities, when they emerge out of the quartz
plate, a phase difference d (say) is created between them (Fig 4.25 (b)).
Therefore, the emergent circular vibrations are represented by the equation:
E0 E ⎫
Ex1 = cos ωt , E y1 = 0 sin ωt ⎪
2 2
E E ⎬ ...(4.42)
Ex2 = – 0 cos(ωt + δ), E y2 = 0 sin(ωt + δ)⎪
2 2 ⎭
The resultant vibration is evidently given by :
E0 E0
EX = Ex1 + E x2 = cos wt – cos (w t + d)
2 2
δ ⎛ δ⎞
= E0 sin sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ ...(4.43)
2 ⎝ 2⎠
E0 E0
EY = E y 1 + E y2 = sin wt + sin (w t + d)
2 2
δ ⎛ δ⎞
= E0 cos sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ ...(4.44)
2 ⎝ 2⎠
Here EX and EY are two perpendicular vibrations in the same phase. Dividing
Eq. (4.43) by Eq. (4.44) we get
EX δ
EY = tan 2
δ
This is the equation of a straight line inclined at an angle with Ey-axis.
2
Thus light emerging from quartz plate is plane polarized with vibration inclined
δ
at an angle to the EY -axis, i.e. to the vibrations of incident light.
2
Polarization 4.223
As d is the phase difference between two emergent circularly polarized

vibration, the angle of rotation q of the plane of polarization is half of the phase
difference.
If mL and mR are the refractive indices of quartz along the optic axis of left
handed (anticlockwise) and right handed (clockwise) circularly polarized light
respectively and t is the thickness of quartz plate, the path difference between the
two beams is given by :
m = (mL ~ mR ) t ...(4.46)
The corresponding phase difference is
2π
d = (mL ~ mR ) t ...(4.47)
λ
Hence the rotation of plane of polarization is given by
δ πt
q = = (mL – mR )
2 λ
...(4.48)
If vL and vR are the velocities of the left handed and right handed circularly
polarized light, we have
c c
mL = vL and mR = vR
where c is the velocity of light in vacuum.
Substituting thses values in Eq. (4.48) we get :
πt ⎛ c ~ c ⎞
q = ⎜ ⎟
λ ⎝ vL vR ⎠
πt ⎛ 1 − 1 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
T ⎝ vL vR ⎠
...(4.49)
where T is the periodic time.
4.20.1. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF FRESNELS THEORY
Fresnel performed an experiment to show that the linearly polarized light on
entering an optically active crystal is broken up into two circularly polarized vibrations
travelling with different velocities.
A beam of plane polarized light is allowed to fall on a rectangular block ABCD
(Fig 4.26) which is made of alternate prisms of right handed (R) and left handed (L)
quartz, each prism having its optic axis parallel to its base.
A B
R L
P lane P olaris ed R R
Light
L L
R
D C
Fig 4.26. B reaking of linearly polarized
into tw o circularly polarized vibration.
If Fresnel’s theory is correct, then the plane polarized light will break up into
two opposite circularly polarized waves (clockwise and anticlockwise) which travel
the first prism (R) along the same direction with different speeds. When the beam is
incident on the oblique surface of the second prism (L), the R-wave which was
faster in the first prism (R) becomes slower in the second prism (L). Hence the
second prism (L) is denser medium for R-wave and R-wave bends towards the
normal i.e. towards the base (downwards). Similarly, L-wave bends away from the
base (upwards). Thus the two waves are separated apart while they travel through
the prism L. At the boundary of the next prism (R), the speeds are again interchanged
so that the R-wave bends away from the base and L-wave towards the base
(upwards). Thus the two opposite circularly polarized waves are separated more
and more while passing through the arrangement. When the two beams emerge out
of the combination of the prisms, they are widely separated.
When these beams are analyzed by a l/4 plate and a Nicol prism, both are
found to be circularly polarized in opposite directions. Thus the Fresnel’s theory of
optical rotation is verified.
4.21. POLARIMETER
Polarimeter is a device which measures the angle through which the plane of
polarization of a plane polarized beam is rotated by a given medium. When it is used
to determine the amount of sugar in a solution, it is called Saccharimeter.
4.21.1 LAURENTS HALF-S HADE POLARIMETER
Q
T1 N2
T E
S
L N1 G Te lesco pe
V2
H alf sh ade D evice
Fig. 4.27. Laurent’s half shade polarim eter.
S is a source of monochromatic light. L is a convex lens whose focus is at S.
N1 is a polarizing Nicol. Q G is Laurent’s plate consisting of a half-wave plate of
quartz Q covering on half of field of view while the other half G is a glass plate. The
glass plate G absorbs the same amount of light as the quartz plate Q. T is a hollow
glass tube having a large diameter at its middle portion. It contains optically active
solution. It is closed at the two ends by cover-slips and metal covers. N2 is analyzing
Nicol which can be rotated about the direction of propagation of light and its rotation
can be read on a circular scale graduated in degrees with the help of vernier V. E is
a telescope to observe the light emerging from N2.
4.21.2 ACTION OF HALF -SHADE PLATE
The half shade is a combination of two Q
B
P
semicircular plates BA¢B¢ and BAB¢ (Fig.
4.28)
The half plate BA¢B¢ is of quartz and is
αα
cut parallel at the optic axis, while the other
half BAB¢ is a glass. The two halves are O A
A′
cemented along the diameter BB¢. The
thickness of the glass plate is such that it
absorbs the same amount of light as the quartz
plate. Monchromatic light (say, from a sodium
lamp) made linearly polarized by Nicol N1 falls
B′
Fig. 4.28. Laurent’s half-shade plate.
Polarization 4.225
normally on the half shade with vibrations along OP. These vibrations emerge out of
the glass plate as such. Inside the quartz plate however, they are divided into two
components, one E-component parallel to the optic axis (OB) of the quartz and the
other O-component perpendicular to the optic axis i.e. along OA. Initially the two
components are in the same phase. The thickness of the quartz plate is so chosen
that it acts as a Half-wave plate. So, in quartz, as the O-component travels faster,
hence on emergence it gains a path of l/2 (or a phase of p) over the E-component.
Hence after emergence, if the E-component is represented by OB , the other must
be represented by OA¢. Therefore the light emerging from quartz has resultant
vibrations along OQ where ÐBOQ = ÐBOP. The light emerging from glass has
vibrations still along OP.
If the principal section N2 ON2 of the second Nicol N2 be placed parallel to AOA¢
(Fig. 4.29 (b)), both halves of the field appear to be equally illuminated because the
B B B
P P Q P
Q Q
αα αα αα
N′ E′ E N
A′ A A′ E′ E A A′ A
O E N′ O N
E′
O
N N′
B′ B′ B′
B rig ht D a rk E qu ally D a rk D ark B rig ht

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.29.
components (OE and OE¢) of OP and OQ respectively along the principal section
of N2 will be equal. Similarly, if N2ON¢2 be placed parallel to BOB¢, both havles of
the field will again be equally illuminated. But if Ð BOP be less than 45°, the intensity
in the position AOA¢ will be less than that in the position BOB’. The position AOA¢ is,
therefore, called equally dark (Fig. 4.29 (b)) as compared to equally bright position
BOB¢. The equally dark position is very sensitive because a slight rotation of N2
from this position in the clockwise direction (Fig. 4.29 (a)) produces appreciable
decrease in the OE component and appreciable increase in the OE¢ component.
Hence the right half of the field becomes darker and the left half brighter. Similarly
a slight rotation of N2 in the anticlockwise direction (Fig. 4.29 (c)) makes the right
half of the field brighter and the left half darker. Hence Q
B
Q′ P
we can accurately set N2 so that the two halves of the P′
field are equally dark.
To measure the optical rotation, the Nicol N2 is first N ′ θ θ 2
adjusted to obtain equally dark position without the A ′ O A

N
optically active substance. The optically active substance 2
is then placed between the half shade and N2. N2 is again

adjusted to obtain the equally dark position. In the second
case, the optically active substance rotates the plane of B′
Fig. 4.30.
vibration of OP and OQ through the same angle q (Fig. 4.30) in the same direction.
Hence to obtain equally dark position again, the Nicol N2 must be rotated through
the same angle q in the direction of rotation produced. In other words, the angular
separation between the two equally dark positions gives the amount of rotation
produced.
Half- shade device improves the accuracy for the following reasons :
1. Eye can detect the difference in brightness of two halves of the field more
accurately when they are simultanously presented to the eye.
2. Equally dark position is very sensitive.
Limitation : A given Laurent’s plate (half shade device) can be used only
for one special wavelength for which it has been designed.
4.21.3 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC ROTATION OF SUGAR
(i) The tube T is filled with water. The analyser N2 is adjusted to obtain equally
bright (or equally dark) field of view. The position of analyser N2 is read on
the scale.
(ii) The tube T is now filled with sugar solution of known concentration (without
any air gap). Sugar solution rotates the plane of polarization in clockwise
direction.
(iii) The analyser is rotated in the clockwise direction to obtain equally bright (or
equally dark) field of view again. This position of the analyser is again read
on the scale. The difference between the two positions of the analyser
gives the angle of rotation q.
(iv) q is measured for various concentration of the
solution. A graph is plotted between concentration
and the angle of rotation. This graph is a straight
line. From the graph a set of q and c is found and θ
the specific rotation of sugar is then given by :
100 c
S=
lc Fig. 4.31.
where ‘l’ is the length of the tube in cm.
4.22. BI-QUARTZ POLARIMETER
V
T N
L R T E
S
L N B iq uartz T eles co pe
V
Fig. 4.32. B i-q u artz p olarim eter.
S is a source of white light. L is a convex lens with S at its focus. N1 is a
polarizing Nicol. LR is a biquartz plate consisting of two semicircular plates of quartz
each of thickness 3.75 mm. One half consists of right-handed optically active
quartz,while the other half is left handed optically active quartz. T is a hollow tube
containing optically active solution. It is closed at the two ends by cover slips and
metal covers. N2 is an analysing Nicol which can be rotated about the direction of
propagation of light. Its rotation can be read on a circular scale graduated in degrees
with the help of a vernier V. E is a telescope to observe the light emerging from N2.
Polarization 4.227
4.22.1 ACTION OF BI-QUARTZ P LATE P

A biquartz is a combination of two semicircular R L R R
plates L and R (Fig. 4.33), one of left handed quartz 90° 90°
and other of right-handed quartz, cemented along a 0
Y Y
diameter. The plates are cut perpendicular to the optic
axis and have a thickness of 3.75 mm each. When white G G
light, rendered plane polarized with a polarizer, travels B B
through the biquartz normally, it is travelling along the V P′ V
optic axis. Therefore the phenomenon of rotatory Fig. 4.33. B i-q u artz p late.
⎛ 1 ⎞
dispersion ⎜Q θ ∝ 2 ⎟ occurs in each half of the biquartz. If the vibrations in the
⎝ λ ⎠
incident plane-polarized light are along POP¢, then, after passing through the biquartz,
the planes of vibration of different colours are rotated through different angles. The
thickness of the two halves is such that the rotation for yellow is 90° , so that YOY is
one straight line. If the principal section of the Nicol is placed parallel to POP¢, the
appearance of the two halves is similar and has a grayish violet tint, called the
sensitive tint or tint of the passage. A slight rotation of the Nicol from this position
makes one half blue and the other half red. The position of the sensitive tint is very
sensitive and is used for accurate determination of optical rotation.
To measure the optical rotation, biquartz replaces half shade and sodium lamp
is replaced by a white light source in a half shade polarimeter. The position of the
sensitive tint is obtained by rotating the second Nicol first without the optically active
substance. The angular separation between the position of the sensitive tint in the
two cases gives the optical rotation produced by the optically
active substances.
4.22.2 D ETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC ROTATION
OF SUGAR
(i) White light from the slit S is rendered parallel by θ
lens L and then linearly polarized by N1. The light
from N1 passes through the biquartz to reach N2 c
(the tube T now being absent). The position of tint Fig. 4.34.
of passage is obtained by rotating N2.
(ii) The tube T, containing the active solution is now introduced. The solution
rotates the plane of vibration. The position of tint of passage is again obtained
by rotating N2.
(iii) The difference between the two positions of the Nicol N2 gives the optical
rotation q by the optically active solution.
(iv) q is measured for various concentrations of solution. A graph is plotted
between concentration c and the angle of rotation q. The graph is a straight
line (Fig.4.34). From the graph a set of q and c is found. The specific
rotation of solution is given by:
10θ
S=
lc
where l is the length of the tube in cm.
Advantages :
(i) This is more sensitive than Laurent’s polarimeter.
(ii) It can be worked with a white light while Laurent’s polarimenter can be
worked with a light of particular wavelength suitable for half shade plate.
Example 4.27: 80 gm of impure sugar is dissolved in a litre of water. The
solution gives an optical rotation of 9.9° when placed in a tube of length 20
cm. If the specific rotation of pure sugar solution 66° dm–1 (gm cc)–1, find the
percentage impurity of the sugar sample. [UPTU II Sem. 2000–2001]
Solution: The specific rotation a and a solution of concentration c is given by
θ θ
a= or c =
l×c l×α
Here q = 9.9°, a = 66° dm–1 (gm cc)–1
l = 20 cm = 2.0 dm
9.9
\ c= = 0.0 75 gm/cc = 75 gm/ltr
2 × 66
In one litre of water 80 gm of impure sugar is dissolved which contains 75 gm
of pure sugar.
75
\ Percentage impurity of sugar solution = × 100 = 93.75% Ans.
80
Example 4.28: Calculate the specific rotation if the plane of plarisation
is turned through 26.4° traversing 20 cm length of 20% sugar solution.
[UPTU I / II Sem 2001–2002]
Solution: Specific rotation is given by
10θ
S=
lc
Here q = 26.4°, l = 20 cm,
c = 20% = 0.2 gm/cc
10 × 26.4
\ S= = 66° (dm)–1 (gm cc)–1 Ans.
20 × 0.2
Example 4.29: The refractive indices of quartz for the right handed and
left handed circularly polarised light of wavelength 7620Å are 1.53914 and
1.53920 respectively. Calculate the angle of rotation produced by its plate of
thickness 0.5 mm.
[UPTU II Sem 2001–2002]
Solution: The angle of rotation is given by
π
q= (ml– mr ) t
λ
Here l = 7620 Å = 7.62×10– 7 m
m l = 1.53920 , mr = 1.53914 and
t = 0.5 mm = 5 × 10– 4 m
3.14 × (1.53920 − 1.53914) × 5 × 10− 4
\ q=
7.62 × 10−7
0.1236 × 180
= 0.1236 rad = = 7.085° Ans.
3.14
Polarization 4.229
Example 4.30: A 20 cm long tube containing 48 cm3 of sugar solution

rotates the plane of polarisation by 11°. If the specific rotation of sugar is 66°,
calculate the mass of sugar in the solution.[UPTU II Sem. (C.O.) 2003–2004]
10θ
S=
lc
10θ
or c=
lS
Here q = 11°, l = 20 cm and
S = 66° (dm)–1 (gm cc)–1
10 × 11
\ c= = 0.0833 gm/cc
20 × 66
Hence mass of sugar in the solution
m = c × v = 0.0833 × 48 = 4 gm Ans.
Example 4.31: A sugar solution in a tube of length 20 cm produces optical
rotation of 13°. The solution is then diluted to one third of its previous
concentration. Find the optical rotation produced by 30 cm long tube containing
the diluted solution. [UPTU II Sem. 2003–2004]
Solution: The specific rotation is given by
10θ
S=
lc
θ
or = S/10 = constant
lc
θ1 θ2
\ l1 c1 = l2 c 2
θ1 × l2 × c2
or q2 = l × c
1 1
Here q1 = 13°, l1 = 20 cm, l2 = 30 cm,
c
c 1 = c, c2 =
3
13 × 30 × c
\ q2 = = 6.5° Ans.
3 × 20 × c
Example 4.32: A 20 cm long tube containing sugar solution rotates the
plane of polarisation by 11°. If the specific rotation of sugar is 66°, calculate
the strength of the solution. [UPTU I Sem. 2004–2005]
10θ
S=
lc
10θ
or c=
lS
Here q = 11°, l = 20cm, S = 66 (dm)–1 (gm cc)–1
10 × 11
\ c= = 0.0833 gm / cc Ans.
20 × 66
Example 4.33: A tube of solution 20 cm long is placed between crossed

Nicols and illumnated with light of wavelength 6000 Å. If the optical rotation
produced is 13° and the specific rotation is 65°, determine the strength of
solution.
10θ
S=
lc
10θ
Þ c=
lS
Here q = 13°, S = 65°, l = 20 cm
10 × 13
\ c= = 0.1 gm / cm 3 Ans.
20 × 65
Example 3.34: The refractive indices of quartz for left handed and right
handed circularly polarized sodium lights propagating along the optic axis
are 1.54420 and 1.54427 repectively. Calculate the specific rotation of quartz.
The wavelength of sodium light is 6 × 10– 5 cm.
Solution: The rotation of plane of polarization is given by
πt
q= (mR – mL )
λ
The specific rotation of a solid
δ π
S= = (m – mL )
t λ R
Here l = 6 × 10 cm, mR = 1.54427, mL = 1.54420
– 5
3.14 × (1.54427 − 1.54420)

\ S=
6 × 10 −5
= 3.66 radian / cm
3.66 × 180
\ S= = 210° / cm Ans.
3.14
Example 4.35: 20 cm length of certain solution causes right handed
rotation of 42° and 30 cm length of another solution causes left handed rotation
of 27°. What optical rotation will be caused by 30 cm length of a mixture of the
above solutions in the volume ratio 1:2. The solutions are not chemically reactive.
Solution: Since the solutions are not chemically reactive, hence volume ratio
of l :2 in 30 cm long tube may be taken as 10 cm of first solution and 20 cm of another
solution. Since the rotation produced is directly proportional to the length of optically
active substance.
42°
\Rotation produced by 10 cm length of first solution = × 10 = 21°
20
−27°
Rotation produced by 20 cm length of another solution = × 20 = – 18°
30
\The total rotation produced = 21° – 18° = 3° Ans.
Polarization 4.231
Example 4.36: A solution of camphor in alcohol in a tube 20 cm long is

found to effect a rotation of 33° of the plane of vibration of light passing
through it. What must be the density of camphor in gm per c.c. in solution ?
The specific rotation of camphor is + 54°.
Solution: Specific rotation by a solution is given by
10θ
S=
lc
10θ
Þ c=
lS
Here S = 54°, l = 20 cm, q = 33°
10 × 33
\ c= = 0.3.06 gm / c.c. Ans.
20 × 54
Example 4.37: A 200 mm long tube containing 48 c.c. of sugar solution
produces an optical rotation of 11° when placed in a saccharimeter. If the
specific rotation of sugar is 66°, calculate the quantity of sugar contained in
the tube in the form of solution.
Solution: The strength of sugar solution is given by :
10θ
c=
lS
Here q = 11°, S = 66°, l = 20 cm
10 × 11 1
\ c= = gm / c.c.
66 × 20 12
The quantity of sugar in 48 cc of solution
1
= × 48 = 4 gm Ans.
12
Example 4.38: The indices of refraction of quartz for right handed and
left handed circularly polarized light of wavelength 7620Å are 1.53914 and
1.53920 respectively. Calculate the rotation of plane of polarization of the
light in degrees produced by a plate of 0.5 mm thickness.
Solution: The rotation of plane of polarization is given by :
πt
q= (mL – mR )
λ
Here t = 0.05 cm, l = 7.62 × 10– 5 cm,
mL =1.53920, qR = 1.53914
π × 0.05 × (1.53920 − 1.53914)
\ q=
7.62 × 10− 5
π × 0.05 × 6 × 10− 5
= = 7.1° Ans.
7.62 × 10 − 5 × π
Example 4.39: 20 cm path of solution A shows 70° clcokwise optical
rotation, and 10 cm path of solution B shows 60° anticlockwise rotation.
Compute the rotation by 10 cm. path of a mixture of A and B in the ratio 1:2.
Solution: Rotation is directly proportional to path length.
Rotation of 20 cm of A = 70°
Rotation of 10 cm of B = – 60°
Rotation of 40 cm of B = – 60 × 4 = – 240°
Hence the resultant rotation by 20 + 40 = 60 cm
length in the ratio 1:2 = 70° – 240° = – 170°
Rotation by 10 cm of A and B in the ratio 1:2
170
=– = – 28.3° Ans.
6
Example 4.40: An optical rotation of 15° occurs when light is sent through
a certain length of 4% solution of a substance. If the light is sent through 8%
solution of the same substance, what length of the solution will be necessary
to produce an optical rotation of 30° ?
10θ θ
S= Þl ∝
lc c
l1 è1 è1 15 8
\ l2 = è 2 × è 2 = 30 × 4 = 1
\The length remains unaltered Ans.
Example 4.41: 80 gm of impure sugar when dissolved in a litre of water
gives an optical rotation of 9.9° when placed in a tube of length 20 cm. If the
specific rotation of sugar is 66°, find the percentage purity of sugar sample.
Solution: The strength of the solution is given by
10θ
c= (l in cm)
lS
Here q = 9.9°, l = 20 cm, S = 66°
10 × 9.9
\ c= = 0.075 gm/c.c. = 75 gm/litre
20 × 66
The sugar sample dissolved in a litre of water is 80 gm out which 75 gm is
pure. Therefore purity is :
75
= × 100 = 73.75% Ans.
80
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Discuss double refraction in calcite crystal. How can a phase retardation
plate be obtained from it ? What is quarter wave plate ?
[UPTU II Sem. 2000–2001]
2. What is Brewster’s law ? Show that when light is incident on a transparent
substance at the polarising angle, the reflected and refracted rays are at right
angles. [UPTU II Sem.2001–2002]
[UPTU I Sem. 2003–2004]
3. Explain the phenomenon of double refraction in a calcite crystal. Describe the
construction and working of a Nicol prism.
[UPTU II Sem. 2001–2002]
4. Describe, briefly, the double refraction in calcite crystal and define ordinary
and extra-ordinary rays. [UPTU I Sem. 2002–2003]
Polarization 4.233
5. What is a retardation plate? Draw a ray diagram for extraordinary and ordinary
rays before and after passing through a quarter wave plate.
[UPTU I Sem. 2002–2003]
6. Describe, briefly, the working principle of a polarimeter.
[UPTU I Sem. 2002–2003]
7. Explain how a polarimeter is used to measure the strength of a sugar solution?
[UPTU II Sem. 2002–2003]
8. How will you produce plane, elliptically and circularly polarise light ?
[UPTU II Sem. 2002–2003]
9. State Brewster’s law and use it to prove that when light is incident on a
transparent substance at the polarising angle, the reflected and refracted rays
are at right angles to each other.
[UPTU I Sem. (C.O.) 2003]
10. How will you detect plane, circulatary and elliptically polarised light ?
[UPTU I Sem. (C.O.) 2003]
11. Describe and explain the phenomenon of optical rotation.Show that
πl
q= (mL – mR )
λ
where symbols have their usual meaning. [UPTU I Sem. 2003–2004]
12. Describe how a Nicol prism can be used as polariser and analyser ?
[UPTU II Sem. (C.O.) 2003–2004]
13. Explain Fresnel’s theory of optical activity. [UPTU II Sem.2003–2004]
14. Light wave is transverse, but ordinary light is symmetric towards propagation
direction. Explain. [UPTU II Sem. 2003–2004]
15. Obtain the expression for the minimum thickness of a quarter wave plate.
[UPTU II Sem. 2003–2004]
16. Describe the construction and working of a Nicol prism and show how it can
be used as a polariser or as an analyser ? [UPTU I Sem. 2004–2005]
17. A transparent plate is given. Using two Nicol prisms (or polaroids) how would
you find whether the plate is a quarter wave plate, a half wave plate or a
simple glass plate? (Raj. B.E.I.2000)
18. Describe the construction of a ‘Nicol prism’ and explain its action in convert-
ing unpolarised into plane polarised light.
19. How will you distinguish plane polarised, circularly polarised and elliptically
polarised light ?
20. Explain double refraction in case of polarization of light. Describe working of
Nicol prism as polarizer and analyser ?
21. What is polarisation of light ? How is the transverse nature of light waves
established by the polarisation of light ? Explain how light is polarised by
reflection ?
22. Differentiate between the following :

(i) Quarter -wave plate and half wave plate.
(ii) Circularly and elliptically polarised light.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is polarised light ? How will you produce and detect plane, elliptically
and circularly polarised lights ? [UPTU I Sem. 2000–2001]
[UPTU I / II Sem. 2000–2001]
2. Describe a polarimeter and explain how it is used to measure the strength of
sugar solution ? [UPTU I Sem.2000–2001]
3. Define specific rotation. Describe the construction and working of Laurent’s
half shade polarimeter. Explain, how you will use it to determine the specific
rotation of sugar solution ? [UPTU I Sem 2001–2002]
4. Explain the phenomenon of double refraction and discuss Huygen’s explanation
of double refraction. Give the construction and theory of half wave plate.
[UPTU I Sem. 2004–2005]
5. Describe the construction of biquartz plate of a biquartz polarimeter and indicate
what should be the thickness of the plate ? Explain how the biquartz plate
helps in measuring the rotation of plane of polarisation of light produced by
optically active substances ?
6. (a) What is ‘polarization of light’? Distinguish polarized light from ordinary
(unpolarized) light.
(b) Explain the terms ‘plane of polarization’ and ‘plane of vibration’
(c) ‘Polarization requires that light waves are transverse’. Comment on this
statement.
7. (a) Describe the construction and working of Nicol prism. How can you use
it as a polarizer and an analyzer ?
(b) What is Quarter Wave Plate ?
8. Describe how you will produce elliptically polarized light and distinguish it
from partially polarized light ?
9. Define specific rotation. Describe the construction and working of Laurent’s
half shade polarimeter.
10. (a) How shall you differentiate the following ?
(i) Three sources of light having the same physical appearance; partially
polarized, elliptically polarized and mixture of unpolarized and circularly
polarized light ?
(ii) Half wave plate and quarter wave plate.
(b) How shall you measure specific rotation of glucose solution using a biquartz
device ?
11. (a) Explain the working and construction of a Nicol prism. Mention its
limitations.
Polarization 4.235
(b) Show that linearly polarized light can be represented as a superposition of

two circularly polarized lights of suitable amplitude and phase.
(c) What is optical activity ? Mention the laws of optical rotation.
12. How will you analyse to distinguish between the following :
(i) Unpolarized and polarized light.
(ii) Linearly polarized and elliptically polarized light.
(iii) Circularly polarized and elliptically polarized light .
(iv) Mixture of unpolarized, linearly polarized and elliptically polarized light.
(v) Clockwise and anticlockwise polarized light.
(vi) Circularly polarized and unpolarized light.
PROBLEMS
1. Compute the wavelengths of ordinary and extra-ordianry rays when a parallel
beam of plane polarized light (l = 5890 Å) is incident on a quartz crystal.
(Given :mO = 1.5418, me = 1.5508) (Ans. 3820 Å 3798 Å)
2. Plane polarized light is incident on a piece of quartz cut parallel to axis. What
is the least thickness for which the ordinary and the extraordinary rays combine
to form plane polarized light ?
(Given mO = 1.5442 ; me= 1.5533 ; l = 5000 Å) (Ans. 2.747 ×10– 5 )
3. What will be the Brewster angle for a glass slab (m = 1.50) immersed in water
(m = 1.33) ?
4. Quartz has a refractive index of 1.544 for the ordinary ray and 1.553 for the
extra-ordinary ray when masured with sodium light. What thickness of quartz
between a crossed polarizer and analyser will produce annulment of light , the
quartz being cut parallel to the optic axis ? (Ans. 0.003274 cm)
5. A beam of linearly polarized light is changed into circularly polarized light by
passing it through a slice of crystal 3 × 10 –5m thick. Calculate the difference
in the refractive index of the two rays in the crystal, assuming this to be the
minimum thickness that will produce the effect, given the wavelength of light
= 6000 Å. (Ans. 5 × 10–3)
6. Compute the thickness of quartz which will rotate the plane of polarization of
sodium yellow light by p/2. By how much angle will it rotate hydrogen red
(l = 6438 Å ) and mercury blue (l = 4358 Å ) ? Given S5893 = 21.72° /mm;
S6438= 18.02°/mm and S4358 = 41.55/mm.
(Ans. 4.15 mm; 74.8°; 172.4°)
7. A tube of sugar solution 20 cm long is placed between crossed Nicols and
illuminated with light of wavelength 6 × 10–45 cm. If the optical rotation pro-
duced is 13° and the specific rotation is 65°, determine the strength of the
solution. (Ans. 0.01.g/cm3)
8. 20 cm length of a certain optically active solution causes right-handed rotation

of 40° and 30cm of another solution causes left handed rotation of 24°. What
will be the optical rotation produced by 30 cm length of the mixture of above
solutions in volume ratio 1:2 ? It is given that the solutions do not react
chemically. (Ans. 4° right-handed)
9. The critical angle of light in a certain substance is 45°. What is the polarizing
angle ? (Ans. 35.26°)
10. Unpolarized light falls on two polarizing sheets placed one on the top of the
other. What must be the angle between the characteristic directions of the
sheets if intensity of transmitted light is (a) one third the maximum intensity of
the transmitted beam, (b) one third the intensity of incident beam ?
(Ans. ± 55° ; ± 35°)
11. An analysing Nicol examines two adjacent plane-polarized beams A and B
whose planes of polarization are mutually perpendicular. In one position of the
analyser, beam B shows zero intensity. From this position a rotation of 30°
shows the two beams as matched (i.e., of equal intensity). Deduce the
intensity ratio IA/ IB of the two beams. (Ans. 1:3)
12. Find the thickness of a quarter-wave plate when the wavelength of light is
equal to 5890 Å and mO = 1.55, mE = 1.54. (Ans. 1.47 × 10 –3cm)
13. Calculate the velocities of ordinary and extraordinary rays in calcite in a plane
perpendicular to the optic axis. Given that mO = 1.658 and mE = 1.486.

Polarization of Light Explained

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4

Fig. 4.1. Polarization of mechanical waves.

Fig. 4.2. Polarization of mechanical waves.

Fig. 4.3. Polarization of light.

( a ) All planes are

Fig.4.5. Pictorial representation of side and end view s

4.6. POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

R efra cte d (tra nsm itted)

θp Light polarized norm al to p ag e

Light alm ost po larize d

Fig. 4.8. Polarization B rew ster's law .

Tran sm issio n p lan e

The perpendicular component is eliminated in the analyser while the parallel

4.8.1. IMPORTANT INFERENCES OF D OUBLE REFRACTION EXPERIMENT

4.10. DICHROISM-POLARIZATION BY SELECTIVE

This process, described above, of absorbing radiations by molecules and

Solution: From Brewster’s law

Example 4.5: The critical angle of light in a certain substance is 42°.

Example 4.8: Light is incident on a water surface (ma=1.33) at such an

O-wave travel in the crystal in same X

These equations may be re-written in scalar form as

δ=0 δ = π/4 δ = π/2

δ = 5 π/4 δ = 3 π/2 δ = 3 π/2

The minimum thickness of half wave plate is given by

Solution: The path difference between O-and E-waves is given by

Here, (mO ~ me ) = 0.011, t = 12.6 × 10 –6 m

\ Path difference produced by second wavelength is

Example 4.26: Discuss the stage of polarizations of the following light

N o cha ng e in in te nsity on C o nverse ly if

Tw o m a xim a a nd tw o m inim a C o nverse ly if

Tw o m a xim a a nd tw o p o sitio ns C o nverse ly if

(4 ) N o cha ng e in in te nsity on C o nverse ly if

(5 ) Tw o m a xim a a nd tw o m inim a C o nverse ly if

Q Tw o m a xim a a nd tw o p ositio ns C o nverse ly if

Fig. 4.22. A nalysis of light.

V a riatio n in in te nsity V a riatio n in in te nsity N o ch a n ge in inte n sity

Lig ht incident on λ/4 p late an d exam in ed by ro tatin g N icol

V a riatio n in in te nsity V a riatio n in in te nsity

Lig ht incident on λ/4 p late an d exam in ed by ro tatin g N icol

N o va ria tion in in te nsity V a riatio n in in te nsity

4.18. ROTATORY POLARIZATION

4.18.1 BIOT’S LAWS FOR ROTATORY POLARIZATION

As d is the phase difference between two emergent circularly polarized

B rig ht D a rk E qu ally D a rk D ark B rig ht

adjusted to obtain equally dark position without the A ′ O A

is then placed between the half shade and N2. N2 is again

4.22.1 ACTION OF BI-QUARTZ P LATE P

Example 4.30: A 20 cm long tube containing 48 cm3 of sugar solution

Example 4.33: A tube of solution 20 cm long is placed between crossed

3.14 × (1.54427 − 1.54420)

Example 4.36: A solution of camphor in alcohol in a tube 20 cm long is

22. Differentiate between the following :

(b) Show that linearly polarized light can be represented as a superposition of

8. 20 cm length of a certain optically active solution causes right-handed rotation

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