Problem 7.

1:
The density of the composite is determined from the simple mixing rule given in equation
7.3.

c  m fm   f f f
where
m = 1,400 kg/m3 and fm = 0.65

The relative contribution of the fiber and matrix to handling the applied load is given by equation
7.9.
Ff Ef ff

Fm Em f m

where Em = 3.5 GPa and fm = 0.65

For Kevlar,

f = 1,440 kg/m3
So c = (1400 kg/m3)(0.65) + ( 1440 kg/m3)(0.35)

c = 1,414 kg/m3

and

Ef = 131 GPa and ff = 0.35

Ff (131)(0.35)
So   20.2
Fm (3.5)(0.65)

Thus, the fibers handle 20.2 times more of the applied load than the matrix.

For Titanium,

f = 4,500 kg/m3
So c = (1400 kg/m3)(0.65) + (4,500 kg/m3)(0.35)

c = 2,490 kg/m3

And

Ef = 116 GPa and ff = 0.35

1
 Ff (116 )(0.35)
So   17.8
Fm (3.5)(0.65)

Thus, the fibers handle 17.8 times more of the applied load than the matrix.

Other factors that may influence the selection of material would include cost, the need for
tensile versus compressive strength, and the type of atmosphere that the composite in which
the composite would be used.

2
Problem 7.2:

Particulate composites, including concrete, lack the systematic orientation of the

reinforcing phase that provides tensile strength in fiber reinforced composites. However, the
wide dispersion of small, hard particles in the concrete enables the material to withstand
significant compressive loads.

3
Problem 7.3:
Equation 7.9 defines the ratio of applied load on the fibers to those of the matrix as
Ff Ef ff

Fm Em f m

In this problem, we are given that

ff = 0.40, fm = 0.60, and Ef/Em = 35

Ff (35)(0.4)
As a result,  = 22.7 but this is a ratio of applied load on the composite.
Fm (0.6)

If the total load is (30,000,000,000 N/m2* 40 mm2 * (1 m/ 1000 mm)2 = 1.2x106 N) and the
matrix handles (1/22.7) of it, the load on the matrix is

Fm = 1.2x106 N /22.7 = 52,900 N

4
Problem 7.4:

The hydration reactions that form the final cement structure proceed for extended periods
of time and the mechanical properties of the concrete change with the extent of the reaction. To
provide a uniform standard for comparison, a standard reaction time is needed.

5
Problem 7.5:

Equation (7.14) relates modulus of elasticity to the density

E c  0.043w1c .5 f c' , in SI units which converts to

E c  33w1c .5 f c' in English units
We are given:
wc = 120 lb/ft3
f’c = 3500 psi

so

Ec = 33(120)1.5 (3500)0.5

Ec = 2.57 x 106 psi or 2,570 ksi

6
Problem 7.6:

Any significant recycling initiative would require the separation of the matrix
material from the fiber (or other reinforcing element). The stronger the bonding between
the fiber and matrix, the more difficult the separation becomes. For example, removing
the gravel from concrete is almost impossible. Reducing costs often result in the addition
of filler materials, which add an additional material to the separation and recycling
challenge.

7
Problem 7.7:

Tensile strength tends to be dominated by the fiber, not the matrix. However, the matrix plays a
pivotal role in a host of properties including compressive strength and thermal and electrical
conductivity. Additionally, the matrix must form a strong bond with the reinforcing fibers for the
fibers to perform their function properly.

8
Problem 7.8:

Aggregate size impacts nearly every mechanical property of particulate composites. Smaller
particles tend to result in stronger composites, but lessen modulus of elasticity, creep
resistance, and are harder to work with.

9
Problem 7.9:

Rebar-reinforced concrete is a hybrid composite with the steel serving as the reinforcing
fiber, but with a composite (concrete) as the matrix. Concrete is a particulate composite of
cement and gravel. It is so common in construction because of its excellent strength
(compressive and tensile), ease of use, and low cost.

10
Problem 7.10:

Asphalt concrete (commonly called asphalt) is used in parking lots and driveway for three
primary reasons:

1. It is cheaper than concrete (at least initially)

2. It can be remelted and recycled to fill holes and/ or damage
3. Most driveways and parking lots are not exposed to the weight of large trucks that are
often too heavy for asphalt.

11
Problem 7.11:

Weight is a major factor in all aircraft design issues. An outer aluminum shell with a high-
performance polymer honeycomb interior provides exceptional strength with limited total
material and most of the material is light.

12
Problem 7.12:

Fibers are aligned in composites such that the entire load pulls in the same direction and the
fibers can share the stress together. There is no transverse reinforcement or cooperation
between fibers, so there is little benefit. Woven mats can be designed so that some fibers
experience longitudinal stress, no matter the relative alignment of the composite to the
applied stress. This requires significantly more fiber and most of the fibers will not be
aligned to the direction of the applied strain.

13
 Problem 7.13

Voids reduce the mechanical properties (tensile strength, modulus, compressive strength) of
composites and lower their density. As a result, more material is needed to perform the same
function and the cost increases.

14
 Problem 7.14:

All of the listed equations assume that all of the fiber is contributing to the reinforcement of the
composite. However, if wet out is poor, the matrix cannot transfer load to the fibers
appropriately and the composite will underperform the predictions of the equations.

15
Problem 7.15:

There are many factors and the following list is representative, not exhaustive:

1. Tensile strength
2. Compressive strength
3. Elastic Modulus
4. Surface energy (to determine how it would wet out)
5. Cost
6. Polarity

16
Problem 7.16:

Cold-mix asphalt offers the advantage of not requiring heating to get the asphalt to set, making it
easier for patching. However, you do not get the same compaction behavior as in the HMAC
process asphalt used to make the roads in the first place.

17
Problem 7.17:

Steels belts serve as reinforcing fibers to add tensile strength, much like rebar in building
concrete. The polyisobutylene is the matrix material that protects, orients, and transfer load to
the fibers. Carbon black is primarily a filler material added to reduce costs, but also provides the
characteristic black color that consumers expect to see in tires.

18
Problem 7.18:

The difference between indoor and outdoor plywood is the type of resin used in their
production. Indoor-use plywood uses an inexpensive phenol formaldehyde resin that
dissolves in water. Outdoor-use plywood uses a more expensive, water-resistant, phenol-
resorcinol resin.

19
Problem 7.19:

Admixtures are added to a composite to alter a property of the composite (mechanical, color,
viscosity, etc.) while fillers are low-cost materials used to reduce costs.

20
Problem 7.20:

In composites, the different materials exist as distinct phases, while in alloys, the two or more
metals are integrated into a single phase.

21
Problem 7.21:

a) Equation (7.9) provides the relationship between distribution of load and fiber fraction

Ff Ef ff

Fm Em f m
We are also given:
Ff .85
 = 5.67
Fm .15

Em = 2.5 GPa

fm = 1- ff

For titanium; Ef = 116 GPa

We can rearrange (7.9) to provide:

ff Em F f (2.5)(5.67)
   0.122
1 f f E f Fm (116)

ff = .109

b) Density can be estimated by equation (7.3)

 c   m f m   f f f = (1.20 g/cm3) (0.891) + (4.500 g/cm3)(0.109) = 1.56 g/cm3

c) The fibers provide no reinforcement value transversely, so

E f Em
Ec =  2.8 GPa
E f f m  Em f f

22
Problem 7.22:

Equation 7.14 defines effective secant modulus:

E c  0.043wc1.5 f c'

We are given Ec = 450 MPa and asked to calculate f’c.

A typical value (given in the text) for concrete density (wc) is 2320 kg/m3

So f’c = {450 MPa/(0.043*(2320kg/m3)1.5)}2

f’c =.306 MPa

23
Problem 7.23:

Prepreg has the advantage of having the matrix material already in place on the fiber. The
prepreg can be woven into complex shapes. When the resulting piece is heated, the coating
melts and forms the composite. The contractor no longer must worry about getting the matrix
material into position against the fiber in the complex shapes.

24
Problem 7.24:

Chopped fibers result in an isotropic composite with uniform properties. They are less expensive
and easier to produce. However, they are far less strong than unidirectional composites.

25
Problem 7.25:

We are given:

For polyester matrix, Em = 45 GPa;  = 1350 kg/m3;

For E-Glass (from Table 7-1), Ef = 22 GPa;  = 2580 kg/m3;

Densities are given by equation (7.3)

c  m fm   f f f

and elastic modulus in the longitudinal direction from equation (7.8)

Ec = Emfm + Efff

For the 40% composite:

ff =0.40; fm = 0.60

 c   m f m   f f f = (1350 kg/m3)(.60) + (2580 kg/m3)(.40) = 1842 kg/m3.

Ec = Emfm + Efff = (22 GPa)(0.60) + (45 GPa) (0.40) = 31.2 GPa.

For the 50% composite:

ff =0.50; fm = 0.50

 c   m f m   f f f = (1350 kg/m3)(.50) + (2580 kg/m3)(.50) = 1965 kg/m3.

Ec = Emfm + Efff = (22 GPa)(0.50) + (45 GPa) (0.50) = 33.5 GPa.

It would not make sense to use 80% fiber because there is not enough matrix material to
completely surround the fiber and transfer the load.

26
Problem 7.26:

Equation (7.9) provides the relationship between distribution of load and fiber fraction

Ff Ef ff

Fm Em f m

while densities are given by equation (7.3)

c  m fm   f f f

and elastic modulus in the longitudinal direction from equation (7.8)

Ec = Emfm + Efff

We are also given:

ff =0.35; fm = 0.65

For epoxy resin, Em = 2.5 GPa;  = 1100 kg/m3;

For polyester resin, Em = 45 GPa;  = 1350 kg/m3;
For Kevlar-49, Ef = 131 GPa;  = 1440 kg/m3; (from Table 7.1)

For the epoxy resin,

Ff Ef ff (131)(.35)
 = = 28.2, so the fibers handle 28.2 times more load than the
Fm Em f m ( 2.5)(.65)
Matrix.

 c   m f m   f f f = (1100 kg/m3)(0.65) + (1440 kg/m3)(0.35) = 1220 kg/m3

For the longitudinal elastic modulus:

Ec = Emfm + Efff = (2.5 GPa)(.65) + (131 GPa)(.35) = 47.5 GPa

For the transverse modulus, the fibers provide essentially no reinforcement, so

E f Em
Ec =  3.8 GPa
E f f m  Em f f

For the polyester matrix,

Ff Ef ff (131)(.35)
 = = 1.57, so the fibers handle 1.57 times more load than the
Fm Em f m ( 45)(.65)

27
 Matrix.

 c   m f m   f f f = (1100 kg/m3)(0.65) + (1350 kg/m3)(0.35) = 1190 kg/m3

For the longitudinal elastic modulus:

Ec = Emfm + Efff = (45 GPa)(.65) + (131 GPa)(.35) = 75.1 GPa

For the transverse modulus, the fibers provide essentially no reinforcement, so

E f Em
Ec =  58.4 GPa
E f f m  Em f f

28
Problem: 7.27

A. Concrete can be cleaned crushed and used as aggregate in “new” concrete.

B. Automobile tires are used as filler material in basketball courts, shoes, and
pavements. Some tires are put through a pyrolysis technique that reforms their
original materials
C. Fiberglass can be have the polymeric material stripped away and be reprocessed into
usable glass.
D. Sandwich composites can be shredded and used as chopped fiber composite
reinforcement.

29
30
Problem 7.28:
Misalignment of fibers results in a decrease in the longitudinal strength of the composite
because the misaligned fibers cannot fully contribute, but increases the transverse strength as the
misaligned fibers can support some transverse load.

31
Problem 7.29:

The optimal fiber fraction is determined by the desired properties of the composite and the
relative costs of the fiber and matrix materials. In general, most fibers are more expensive than
the matrix materials so the goal is often to minimize the amount of fiber while obtaining the
desired properties. Similarly, cost and performance factor into fiber selection. Fibers with better
mechanical properties tend to be more expensive.

32
Problem 7.30:

The mechanical properties of polymers drop as temperature increases (especially as the glass
transition temperature is passed) and most polymers will eventually melt.

33