Liceo de Cagayan University College of Medical Laboratory SciencePage 1

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

Introduction

The occurrence of water contaminants such as microorganisms specifically

Escherichia coli, pH level, and chlorine level in drinking water presents a detrimental effect

on an individual's health which ranges from no physical impact to severe illness ( Livestrong

2016). Thus, the evaluation for the presence of water contaminants in drinking water is

essential to ensure a safe and quality drinking water to the public.

The study of Zoleta et al. (2016) on drinking water from well and spring water

sources revealed the presence of bacterial contamination, especially at the treatment source.

It is very alarming to know that a lot of people could become ill even with the simple act of

drinking water. People will never know how safe the water they drink unless they have it

tested and monitored on a periodic basis by the City Health Sanitation Officer.

In order to minimize water contaminants, it is a necessity for the water to be

disinfected. One of the disinfectants that are widely used is chlorine, it contains chemical

properties that are able to kill harmful microorganisms, which can reside in the water.

According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, the presence of chlorine

residues in drinking water indicates the absence of bacteria or an effective bacteria

inactivation in drinking water.

In addition, the pH of the water is also one of the factors to be considered in

producing a quality drinking water. A pH of < 6.5 indicates a drinking water that could be
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acidic, soft, and corrosive. An increased level of toxic metals in the drinking water is

associated with an acidic pH.Thus, acidic water brings serious health risks when associated

with these toxic metals. On the other hand, water with a pH > 8.5 denotes that the water is

hard. Even though hard water does not pose a serious health risk, but it can cause aesthetic

problems. (APEC Water, 2016).

In order to minimize the health risks from drinking contaminated water, it is a

necessity that water refilling stations should follow the Department of Health (DOH)

Implementing Rules and Regulations of the Sanitation Code of the Philippines, stated

in Presidential Decree 856. As stated in the DOH regulations, the location of the water

refilling station should be 25 meters away from any source of pollution. Water refilling

station owners should have their water tested in compliance with PNSDW or the Philippine

National Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW) (Rappler, 2014).

It is a requirement that a water refilling station should ensure the potability of the

drinking water they produce. A quality drinking water should have a pH of 7.2-7.6 (APEC

Water, 2016)., a chlorine content of >4mg/L 1.0-1.5 (Home Plus Products 2016), and

microorganisms such fecal coliform and E. coli should have a maximum contaminant level of

5% in mg/L or <1.1mpn/100mL (EPA,2008) and should not be detectable in every 100 mL

sample (DOH, 2008).

In addition, there are a number of deaths here in the Philippines such as the case in

Pampanga wherein 20 children died due to the consumption of water contaminated with E.

coli (Manila Times, 2011). A poso was pointed out as the source of the contaminated water

which was consumed by the people in the area. In order to avoid such incident, it is
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recommended to have the drinking water disinfected. As a result, a lot of people consume

bottled water from water refilling stations since it is expected that these water refilling

stations are producing safe and clean water for it had undergone steps to purify water.

However, in two cities in Metro Manila, comprising of 630 licensed water refilling

stations, 70% did not fully comply with the strict guidelines of the Philippine National

Standards for Drinking Water or also known as the Department of Health Administrative

Order 2007-012 (Philippine Star, 2015). And shockingly, 80 percent of the water refilling

stations did not apply the proper wearing of a mask, scrub, gloves, etc. while 35 percent of

the water refilling stations deviated from the DOH requirement in the correct procedure for

sanitizing the water containers (Philippine Star, 2015).

With the cases presented wherein a number of water refilling stations violated the

strict guidelines of Department of Health, the assurance of having a clean and safe drinking

water is not totally attained.

The researchers were driven by the fact that in the Philippines, water refilling stations

who are non-compliant to the guidelines established by the DOH really exist.The researchers

assumed that water contaminants may be detected in drinking water produced by some water

refilling stations. To help the community, the researchers conducted a study concerning about

the quality of bottled water in water refilling stations around the locality. In this manner, it

would be very beneficial for the individuals in the community.

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Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The present study is anchored on the Germ Theory of Disease. (Pasteur, 1850; Koch,

1880). The theory postulates that the presence of bacteria and other microorganisms in a

medium like water can cause many diseases. This theory is also essential in the

understanding the implications with regards to the result of the study. In Pasteur’s and

Koch’s efforts to explain the Germ Theory of Disease, they initiated experiments to prove

their hypothesis; that the presence of germs can cause diseases.

The findings of Pasteur’s and Koch’s works did not only help in providing

explanation for the nature and cause of certain diseases, but also gave insights on how the

proper treatment of water can eliminate the presence of germ-causing diseases (EPA,2000).

We can assume therefore, that irregularities in the treatment of water for drinking could have

possible adverse effects to the health of individuals.

In the Philippines, many people from rural and urban areas get their drinking water

from water refilling stations. These stations sell water that is treated or purified by a machine

designed to do so. Even with these procedures of treating water, some cases from different

areas in the country report the presence of coliform bacteria (Rappler, 2014). The concerns

on the reliability and quality of water manufactured in these water refilling stations are the

main reasons for the conception of the present study.

The researchers believe that it is important to test for presence of microorganisms in

the water supplied by local water refilling stations. The researchers also assume that there

might be presence of certain microorganisms such as coliforms in the water from water
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refilling stations. Furthermore, there are other variables that must be looked into to provide

information on the quality of drinking water from local water refilling stations.

These other variables include chlorine and pH levels of the drinking water. According

to the World Health Organization (2004), the level of chlorine for drinking water should not

exceed 5 mg/litre. In addition, the pH level of drinking water should be ranging from 6.5 to

9.5 (World Health Organization, 2004). Getting the measures for these two variables would

ensure a safe and quality drinking water.

Overall, the main assumption of the researchers is that drinking water from local

water refilling stations have traces or presence of microorganisms, specifically, coliforms.

The researchers are also proposing the measurement of chlorine and pH levels of the water.

The results will render significant data on the quality of drinking water from the mentioned

sources.
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Schematic Presentation

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

 Biological
 E.coli
 Chemical QUALITY OF DRINKING
 pH WATER
 Chlorine

Figure 1. The schema of the study shows the interplay of independent and dependent
variables

Objectives of the Study

The study aimed to determine the incidence of contamination by coliform bacteria

among select water-refilling stations around Cagayan de Oro City. Particularly, it sought to

attain the following objectives:

1. To determine the quality of bottled water from select water refilling station in

terms of:

1.1.Bacterial Contamination

1.2.Chlorine

1.3.pH

2. To determine if the samples have significantly different levels of E.coli in 3

weeks

3. To determine if the samples have significantly different levels of pH in 3

weeks
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4. To determine if the samples have significantly different levels of Chlorine in 3

weeks

Null Hypothesis

Ho1; In terms of Bacterial Contamination, pH and Chlorine, there is no significant

difference in the quality of drinking water.

Significance of the study

This section will provide a brief description of the significanceof the study given the

five categories: homeowners; water refilling station owners and employees; local government

agency; international health agency; and educational.

Homeowners. The study will give homeowners assurance that the drinking water

from refilling stations is safe and uncontaminated.

Water refilling station owners. This study will be beneficial to water refilling

station owners in establishing a good reputation in providing safe, quality, and clean drinking

water. It will also help their business excel and gain more trust to the people that will make

their water refilling station, a reliable one.

Water refilling station employees.This study will benefit the workers to be

completely informed about the purity of the drinking water they produced and to be more

cautious in their service. It can also help the workforce to be more confident in their daily

amenity and produced more satisfying products to the community.

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Department of Health. This study helps their agency in assuring that all water

refilling stations provides a safe and clean drinking water to the individuals in the community

Future researchers. The study will benefit the future researchers and guide them in

their research in determining the incidence of coliform contamination around the city of

Cagayan de Oro.

CDC. The Center for disease control and prevention agency can benefit in this study

through the prevention of coliform borne diseases.

Scopes and Delimitations of the Study

The study aimed to investigate on the quality of bottled water that covers the

detection of water contaminants such as microorganisms, disinfection byproducts and as well

as the pH of the water only. However, it did not include the detection of the presence of

inorganic and organic chemicals, minerals, and radionuclides.

In this study, the specific bacteria were the total Escherichia coli. The study included

in its scope those select water refilling stations located within the area of Barangay Carmen,

Cagayan de Oro City. Additionally, the study focused only on small water refilling station

businesses. The method of subject determination that was applied is the random sampling.

From the three (3) water refilling stations selected, a total of nine (9) samples were collected.

One (1) sample obtained for each refilling station within three (3) consecutive weeks.
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The research was only limited to identifying the presence of microorganisms,

chlorination byproduct and pH of the water but did not include preventive measures to inhibit

the bacteria from causing effects on the people drinking the contaminated water.

Definition of Terms

Bacteria. This refers to microorganisms that possess cell walls but lack organelles

and are anucleated

Coliform. This refers to a type of bacteria that could cause possible intestinal illness.

Coliform inhabits the intestinal tract of warm blooded animals, as well as in plants, soil, air,

and the aquatic environment

Chlorine. This refers to a substance used for disinfecting any contaminants in

drinking water

Contamination. When a certain substance ( in this case drinking water) contains or

is infected with Coliform bacteria of any sort, then the substance is known to be what we call

contaminated.

Disease. This refers to a disorder caused by coliform bacteria that affects the structure

or function in a human, especially one that produces specific signs or symptoms or that

affects a specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury.

Escherichia Coli. This refers to a rod shaped bacteria that colonize the intestine of

humans and animals. Some strains can be pathogenic causing diarrhea and vomiting
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Fecal coliforms. This refers to coliforms found in the feces of various warm-blooded

animals.

Incidence. This refers to the number of cases of coliform contamination in the area

covered by the study.

Purification. This refers to the process of removing undesirable contaminants ( in

this case coliform bacteria). The goal of this process is to produce water fit for a specific

purpose.

Total coliforms. This refers to a total large collection of coliform which is generally

harmless. If presence is detected, it would indicate environmental contamination rather than

fecal contamination.