Chapter 2

Line, Area, Volume, and Surface

Integrals

2.1 Scalar and Vector Fields

A field is a physical quantity having a value at every point within some region of space.
Examples of fields are air pressure, temperature, velocity of water in the ocean, force,
electric and magnetic fields. One distinguishes between scalar fields and vector fields:

• A scalar field is a physical quantity having a value but no direction at every point in
space. Examples are pressure and temperature.

• A vector field is a physical quantity having both direction and magnitude at every
point in space. Examples include velocity, force, and electric and magnetic fields.

Figure 2.1: An example of a vector field G(r).

A lot of physics depends upon the properties of fields. In particular, we often need to
integrate fields over lines or regions, which is what we will look at in this chapter.

36
2.2 Line integrals
2.2.1 Mathematical concept
If we have a vector field G(r), then we can define a line integral
Z
I= G(r) · dr
C

along any path C going from an initial point rA to a final point rB .

The mathematical definition of a line integral is obtained by breaking the path into small
displacement elements dr, and defining the line integral to be the sum of all the elementary
contributions G · dr in the limit where division of the path into elements becomes infinitely
fine. In this limit, the lengths of all the elements go to zero and the sum becomes and
integral.

R
Figure 2.2: Illustration of the line integral I = C
G(r) · dr.

Note two important things:

• The result of a line integral is a scalar, not a vector; this is because the line integral
contains a scalar product G·dr of the vector filed G and the infinitesimal displacement
vector dr.

• The notation for a line integral includes a specification of the path C, which is written
as a subscript on the integral sign. In general, a line integral depends on the initial
and final points rA and rB and on the choice of path running from rA to rB .

2.2.2 Work done in moving a particle along a path

Consider a particle in a force field F(r). If the particle is moved by an infinitesimal dis-
placement vector dr from r to r + dr, the work done is equal to

dW = F(r) · dr. (2.1)

37
Now suppose that we repeat this process a large number of times to move the particle
along a given path C from an initial position rA to a final position rB . The total work
done is then given by the sum of all the small contributions dW . As stated above, this the
definition of a line integral,
Z Z
C
WA!B = dW = F(r) · dr. (2.2)
C C

2.2.3 Loop integrals

A loop integral is a line integral in which the initial and final points are the same: rA = rB .
The path running from rA to rB then forms a closed loop. A special notation is sometimes
used for a loop integral, consisting of a normal integral sign with a circle drawn in the
middle of it, I
I= G · dr .
C
There is an important class of vector fields, called “conservative vector fields”, for which
line integrals do not depend on which path is taken from rA to rB , and for which all loop
integrals are zero.

2.2.4 Practical evaluation of line integrals

If you have a vector field G, which is a given function of x and y (and perhaps z), how do
you evaluate its line integral along a given path C?
The key step is to choose a parameter specifying the position on the path, and express the
line integral as an ordinary integral with respect to this parameter. As an example, we
want to evaluate the line integral
Z
I= G(r) · dr,
C

with ✓ ◆
xy
G(r) = G(x, y) = = xy êx y 2 êy (2.3)
y2
for two di↵erent paths:

(a) the straight-line from the initial point rA = (0, 0) to the final point rB = (2, 1);

(b) the parabolic path y = x2 /4 joining the same two points.

The crucial step is to choose a parameter to specify the position on the path. If the path
is determined by a function y = f (x) for x 2 [a, b], it is convenient to use the x coordinate.

(a) The straight line from (0, 0) to (2, 1) is parametrised by y = 12 x for x 2 [0, 2]. Using
this relation between x and y we can eliminate y and write the vector field as a
function of x only. Using that dy = 12 dx, the displacement along the path can be
written as dr = dx êx + dy êy = dx êx + 12 dx êy . We then obtain

38
 Z
I = G(r) · dr
ZC
= (xy êx y 2 êy ) · (dx êx + dy êy )
ZC ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 1 2 1
= x êx x êy · dx êx + dx êy
C 2 4 2
Z 2✓ ◆
1 2 1 2
= x x dx
0 2 8
Z 2  2
3 2 1
= x dx = x3 = 1.
0 8 8 0

(b) For y = 14 x2 we have G = xy êx y 2 êy = 14 x3 êx 161 4

x êy and dy = 12 xdx. Therefore:
Z
I = G(r) · dr
C
Z 2✓ ◆
1 3 1 4 1
= x êx x êy · (dx êx + xdx êy )
0 4 16 2
Z 2✓ ◆
1 3 1 5
= x x dx
0 4 32
 2
1 4 1 6 1 2
= x x =1 = .
16 192 0 3 3

Note that even though the two paths we have just considered run from the same initial
point (0, 0) to the same final point (2, 1), the numerical values of the line integrals are not
the same. This tells us that the vector field G is not conservative.

39
2.2.5 Worked example
R p
Calculate the line integral I = C G(r) · dr along the contour y = x from the initial point
(0, 0) to the final point (1, 1), where the vector field is given by
✓ ◆
y
G(r) = .
x

40
2.3 Area integrals
2.3.1 Mathematical concept
For any scalar field f (r) of the 2-dimensional position r, we can define an area integral
Z
I= f (r) dA, (2.4)
A

where the integral goes over a specified 2-dimensional region A. It is defined conceptually
in a similar way to the line integral: the region is divided up into area elements dA, in each
of which the function has some value f (r). We add up all the elementary contributions
f (r) dA and take the limit that the area elements become infinitesimally small.

Figure 2.3: Division of a 2-dimensional area A into infinitesimal area elements dA.

An area integral is a double integral, because we have to perform integrals over both the x
and y variables. When integrating over one variable, the other is held constant.
Note that an important
R special case is f (r) ⌘ 1. In this case, the area integral is equal to
the total area, A = A dA.

2.3.2 Area integrals in physics

As an example of an area integral in physics we consider a flat plate with electric charge
spread on its surface. To start with, take a rectangular plate in the x-y plane. The corners
of the rectangle are at the points (0, 0), (a, 0), (a, b) and (0, b), where a and b are the
lengths of the sides of the rectangle. The charge density (charge per unit area) is called
(r) = (x, y).

Figure 2.4: Charge density (x, y) on a rectangular plate.

41
We’d like to calculate the total charge Q on the plate, given by the area integral
Z Z x=a Z y=b Z a Z b
Q= (r)dA = (x, y) dxdy = dx dy (x, y). (2.5)
A x=0 y=0 0 0

Note that the latter notation for the double integral is commonly used for brevity.
Example 1: charge is spread evenly, so that charge density is uniform everywhere on the
plate. This means that is a constant (no dependence on x and y). We obtain
Z a Z b
Q= dx dy = ab = A.
0 0

Of course, in this simple case the homogeneous charge density is equal to the total charge
divided by the total area, = Q/A.
Example 2: the charge density is non-uniform and given by the function (x, y) = xy + y 2 .
We could first calculate the y-integral, keeping x constant,
Z a Z b Z a  y=b Z a ✓ ◆
2 1 1 1 2 1 3
Q= dx dy xy + y = dx xy 2 + y 3 = dx b x+ b .
0 0 0 2 3 y=0 0 2 3

This one-dimensional integral has a simple interpretation. It is equal to the sum of the
charges on strips of infinitesimal thickness dx, running parallel to the y-axis. After per-
forming the remaining x integral we obtain
 x=a
1 2 2 1 3 1 1
Q= b x + b x = a2 b2 + ab3 .
4 3 x=0 4 3

Note that we could also perform the x and y integrals in the opposite order, starting with
the x integral,
Z b Z a Z b  x=a Z b ✓ ◆
2 1 2 2 1 2 2
Q= dy dx xy + y = dy x y + xy = dy a y + ay .
0 0 0 2 x=0 0 2

The remaining integral corresponds to a sum of charges on strips of infinitesimal thickness

dy, running parallel to the x-axis. Performing the y integral, we obtain the same final
result as before,
 y=b
1 1 1 1
Q = a2 y 2 + ay 3 = a2 b2 + ab3 .
4 3 y=0 4 3
As one might have expected, it does not matter in which order the contributions from the
area elements are added. And, as we shall see a bit later, the value of an area integral does
not depend on the coordinates
R we use to describe r or dA. This is both implied by the
general definition I = f (r)dA of the area integral.

42
2.3.3 Non-rectangular regions
The region A in the plane over which we integrate does not have to be a rectangle. Let’s
for example integrate the function f (x, y) = x2 + 2xy over the interior of a triangle whose
corners are at the points (0, 0), (1, 0), and (0, 1).

To do this, we can imagine that we divide the triangular region into strips running parallel
to the y-axis. Because the region is a triangle, the strips have di↵erent lengths: the strip
at position x 2 [0, 1] runs from y = 0 to y = 1 x. So we can write the area integral as
the double integral
Z 1 Z 1 x
I= dx dy x2 + 2xy . (2.6)
0 0

This says: integrate first over y with x held constant, the limits on y being [0, 1 x]. Then
integrate over x, with limits [0, 1]. Let’s perform these integrations:

Z 1 h iy=1 x
I = dx x2 y + xy 2
y=0
Z0 1
⇥ ⇤
= dx x2 (1 x) + x(1 x)2
Z0 1
= dx (x x2 )
0
 x=1
1 2 1 3 1 1 1
= x x = = .
2 3 x=0 2 3 6

By generalising this procedure, it is possible to perform an area integral over a region in

the x-y plane that has a completely arbitrary shape.

43
2.3.4 Worked example
R
Perform the are integral I = A x2 y dA over an area A that is given by the shaded region
compose of a rectangle and a half circle.

44
2.3.5 Polar coordinates
In many applied problems it is often more convenient to use other coordinate systems that
better reflect the symmetries of the problem. While the results of line, area, or volume
integrals do not depend on the choice of the coordinate system, the integrations can become
much simpler using more appropriate coordinates.
So far, we have used rectangular or cartesian coordinates x and y. In theses coordinates,
the line and area elements are given by dr = êx dx + êy dy and dA = dx dy, respectively.
In many cases we use polar coordinates to specify the position of every point in the 2-
dimensional x-y plane. The position of the point r is uniquely defined by the distance r of
the point3.4
to theOther coordinate
origin (the length of thesystems
vector r) and the angle the vector r encloses with
the x axis.
3.4.1 Plane-polar coordinates

rdrδθ er
e
dA
dr
δr
yy
dδθ
r
r
θ
x
x
Plane-polar coordinates:

x = r cos ✓,
Figure 2.5: Illustration of polar coordinates.
y = r sin ✓,
Area
Since x, y, and r are the sides of a element dA = dr triangle,
right-angled r d✓. we obtain cos = x/r and
sin = y/r. The cartesian coordinatesdr = ê(x,
r dr y)
+ ê can
✓ rd✓ therefore be expressed by the polar
coordinates (r, ) as
where êr , ê✓ are the unit vectors in direction of increasing r and ✓ (just as î and ĵ are the
unit vectors in direction of increasingx x and= yr cos ,
for cartesians). That is, using the notation (2.7a)
of the previous chapter, ê1 = êr and yê2 = ê .
= r sin .
✓ (2.7b)
This is an example of a coordinate transformation. What are the line and area elements
in polar coordinates? The line element can be easily calculated using the transformation
(2.7),
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
dx dr cos r sin d
dr = =
dy dr sin + r cos d
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
cos sin
= dr + rd
sin cos
= êr dr + ê rd . (2.8)

45
43
 ◆ ✓ ✓ ◆
cos sin
In the last step, we have defined the unit vectors êr = and ê = .
sin cos
It is easy to check that êr · ê = 0, implying that the two vectors are orthogonal. êr points
along the direction of r. To find the area element we change both polar coordinates by
an infinitesimal amount dr and d , respectively. As illustrated in Fig. 2.5, this defines an
infinitesimally small rectangular area element with side lengths dr and r tan(d ) ⇡ rd .
Note that the latter approximation becomes exact in the limit d ! 0. The area element
in polar coordinates is therefore given by
dA = dr · rd = rdrd . (2.9)
To illustrate the advantage of polar coordinates in certain cases, let us calculate the area
of a half circle of radius R, using both cartesian and polar coordinates.

y
R p
y= R2 x2

R R x

Let us start with cartesian coordinates,

Z Z R Z p Z
R2 x2 R p
A = dA = dx dy = dx R2 x2 .
R 0 R

This integral is already not so nice. We can make a substitution, x = R sin t. Using that
dx = R cos t dt, we obtain
Z ⇡/2
2
A=R dt cos2 t.
⇡/2
2
To determine the integral of cos t, we use partial integration,
Z Z Z
2 2
dt cos t = cos t sin t + dt sin
| {z }t = cos t sin t + t dt cos2 t.
=1 cos2 t

The integral we want to compute appears on the r.h.s. as well. Re-arranging this equation
we obtain Z
1 1
cos2 t dt = t + cos t sin t,
2 2
and therefore  t=⇡/2
2 1 1 1
A=R t + cos t sin t = ⇡R2 .
2 2 t= ⇡/2 2
In polar coordinates, the are integral becomes trivial,
Z Z ⇡ Z R  r=R
1 1
A = dA = d r dr = ⇡ r2 = ⇡R2 .
0 0 2 r=0 2

46
Note: the most important things when choosing the easiest coordinate system for an
integral are the limits of integration, not the function being integrated.

2.3.6 Worked examples

(1) Calculate the loop integral I
I= G(r) · dr,

over the vector field G(r) = yêx + xêy around the circle of radius R lying in the x-y plane
and centred at the origin. The path is to be followed in the anti-clockwise direction.

47
(2) By using polar coordinates, calculate the value of the area integral
Z
I= f (r) dA,
A

over the area A given by a circle of radius 2 centred at the origin for the functions

x2
(a) f (r) = x2 , (b) f (r) = , and (c) f (r) = r.
x2 + y 2

48
2.4 Volume integrals
The concept of an area integral can be extended to volume integrals. The integration
region is now a volume having some shape. The integration region is divided up into
volume elements dV , and the function to be integrated f (r) has a value in each element.
Conceptually, the integral is the sum of all the contributions f (r) dV over all the elements,
in the limit where the volume elements become infinitesimally small.
In Cartesian coordinates, the volume element is simply dV = dx dy dz, and the volume
integral can be expressed as a triple integral over x, y and z,
Z ZZZ
I = f (r) dV = f (x, y, z) dx dy dz. (2.10)

The simplest case is when integration region is a cuboid. As an example, we want to

calculate the volume integral of the function f (r) = 12 r2 = 12 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) over a cube
whose 8 corners are at the points (±1, ±1, ±1):
Write the limits explicitly:
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1
I= dx dy dz (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) .
2 1 1 1

Do z-integral first:
Z 1 Z 1  z=1
1 1
I = dx dy x2 z + y 2 z + z 3
2 1 1 3 z= 1
Z 1 Z 1 ✓ ◆
1
= dx dy x2 + y 2 + .
1 1 3

Now do y-integral:
Z 1  y=1
1 1
I = dx x2 y + y 3 + y
1 3 3 y= 1
Z 1 ✓ ◆
2
= 2 dx x2 + .
1 3

And as a last step the x-integral

 1
1 2
I = 2 x3 + x
3 3 1
= 4.

As in the case of area integrals, the concept of volume integrals can be applied to integration
regions of arbitrary shape. Depending on the shape, the integrations could be much simpler
in other coordinate systems such as cylindrical or spherical coordinates.

49
2.4.1 Cylindrical coordinates
3.4.2 Cylindrical polar coordinates
z
dz
dV

dr
d dr d θ

z
z

y y
x θ
x r

Cylindrical-polar coordinates - ê1 = êr , ê2 = ê✓ and ê3 = k̂:

x = r cos ✓,

Cylindrical coordinates (⇢, , z) are just polar coordinates

y = r sin ✓, (⇢, ) in the x-y-plane with z for
z = z,
the third variable,
volume element dv = r dr d✓ dz.

x = ⇢ cos ,
dr = êr dr + ê✓ rd✓ + k̂dz (2.11a)
y = ⇢ sin , (2.11b)
z = z, (2.11c)
as illustrated in the figure above. Note that instead of ⇢ some books use r. We avoid this
44
notation to make clear that ⇢p is di↵erent from the distance of the point r = (x, y, z) from
the origin, which is r = |r| = ⇢2 + z 2 .
From the transformation (2.11), it is straightforward to calculate the line element
0 1 0 1
dx d⇢ cos ⇢ sin d
dr = @ dy A = @ d⇢ sin + ⇢ cos d A
dz dz
0 1 0 1 0 1
cos sin 0
= @ sin A d⇢ + @ cos A ⇢d + @ 0 A dz
0 0 1
=: ê⇢ d⇢ + ê ⇢d + êz dz. (2.12)
It is easy to check that ê⇢ , ê and êz are unit vectors that are orthogonal to one another.
Changing the coordinates by infinitesimal amounts d⇢, d and dz defines an infinitesimal
volume element
dV = d⇢ · ⇢d · dz = ⇢ d⇢ d dz. (2.13)

50
As an example, we calculate the volume of a cylinder with radius R and height H,
Z Z R Z H Z 2⇡
1
V = dV = ⇢ d⇢ dz d = R2 · H · 2⇡ = ⇡R2 H.
0 0 0 2

2.4.2 Spherical coordinates

3.4.3 Spherical-polar coordinates
z
dV dr
rd θ
rd sin dθ d
rrsin φ

r
θ r z

rs y y
in
x
φ
x

Spherical polar coordinates - ê1 = êr , ê2 = ê✓ and ê3 = ê :

x = r sin ✓ cos ,
Each point r = (x, y, z) is uniquely determined by its distance r from the origin, the angle ✓
y = r sin ✓ sin ,
the vector r forms with the z-axis, and the angle z = r cos ✓,
between the projection of r into the x-y-
plane and the x-axis (see above figure).
volume elementdv = r2 sin ✓ dr d✓ d . between spherical coordinates
The transformation
(r, ✓, ) and cartesian coordinates (x,dry,= z)
êr dris
+ êgiven by
✓ rd✓ + ê r sin ✓d

x = r sin ✓ cos , (2.14a)

y = r sin ✓ sin , (2.14b)
z = r cos ✓. (2.14c)

The line element in spherical coordinates is given by

0 1
dx
dr = @ dy A 45
dz
0 1 0 1 0 1
sin ✓ cos cos ✓ cos sin
= @ sin ✓ sin A dr + @ cos ✓ sin A rd✓ + @ cos A r sin ✓d
cos ✓ sin ✓ 0
=: êr dr + ê✓ rd✓ + ê r sin ✓d . (2.15)

51
The vectors êr , ê✓ and ê form a set of orthogonal unit vectors. As illustrated in the figure,
the volume element in spherical coordinates is given by

dV = dr · rd✓ · r sin ✓d = r2 dr sin ✓d✓ d . (2.16)

As a simple example, we calculate the volume of a sphere of radius R,

Z R Z ⇡ Z 2⇡  r=R h i✓=⇡
2 1 3 4
V = r dr sin ✓d✓ d = r · cos ✓ · 2⇡ = ⇡R3 .
0 0 0 3 r=0 ✓=0 3

52
2.4.3 Worked examples
(1) Use spherical coordinates to evaluate the volume integral
Z
I = (x2 + y 2 ) dV

over the interior of the sphere of radius 1 centred at the origin.

(2) Use cylindrical coordinates to calculate the value of the volume integral
Z
I = (x2 + y 2 )z 2 dV,

where the integration region is the interior of the cylinder of radius 1 and length 2
centred on the origin, and the axis of the cylinder coincides with the z-axis.

(3) Calculate the volume of a cone with radius R and hight H.

53
54
2.5 Surface integrals
In Sec. 2.3, we have introduced the area integral over two-dimensional regions in the x-y
plane. Here we will generalise this to integrals over (curved) surfaces S embedded in three-
dimensional space. For any scalar field f (r) = f (x, y, z) that is defined on all the points of
the surface S we can define the surface integral by by dividing S into infinitesimally small
surface area elements dS and summing all the individual contributions f (r) dS in the limit
that dS ! 0, Z
I1 = f (r) dS. (2.17)
S
We would have to compute such an integral if we wanted to calculate the total charge of a
curved surface for a given charge density. In physics we often need to calculate the total
flux of a vector field G(r) through a surface. For example, G(r) could be a current density
and we would like to compute the total current through S. The idea is to decompose G
into the components parallel and perpendicular to S. Only the perpendicular component
contributes to the flux. It can be written as G? = G · n̂, where n̂ is a unit vector normal
(orthogonal) to the surface. The total flux is therefore given by the surface integral
Z Z
I2 = (G · n̂) dS = G · dS, (2.18)
S S

where in the last step we have defined the vectorial surface element dS = n̂ dS normal to
S, as illustrated below.

In order to calculate such surface integrals we first need to parametrise the surface. As
for the line integral, the result of a surface integral does not depend on the choice of the
parametrisation. Since surfaces are two-dimensional objects, surface integrals are double
integrals. Let us first derive general expressions for surface integrals of the form (2.17)
or (2.18), assuming that S is parametrised by r = r(s, t) with s 2 [smin , smax ] and t 2
[tmin , tmax ]. We can easily express the vector fields as functions of s and t, using that
r = r(s, t). But how to calculate dS and dS?
To obtain the surface area element we need to calculate the infinitesimal changes of the
vector r(s, t) as we change the coordinates s and t by infinitesimal amounts ds and dt,
respectively. This defines infinitesimally small vectors
@r @r
du = ds and dv = dt
@s @t
55
tangential to the surface S. The surface area element dS is equal to the area of the
parallelogram formed by the two vectors du and bv. dS is the vector of length dS that
is perpendicular to the two tangential vectors du and dv. We can therefore calculate the
vectorial surface-area element form the vector product (cross product)
✓ ◆
@r @r
dS = du ⇥ dv = ⇥ ds dt, (2.19)
@s @t

leading to the final results

Z smax Z tmax
@r @r
I1 = ds ⇥
dt f r(s, t)
, (2.20a)
smin tmin @s @t
Z smax Z tmax ✓ ◆
@r @r
I2 = ds dt G r(s, t) · ⇥ . (2.20b)
smin tmin @s @t

Figure 2.6: Illustration and definition of the vector or cross product a ⇥ b. The resulting
vector is perpendicular to a and b and its length |a ⇥ b| is equal to the area of the
parallelogram formed by a and b.

56
2.5.1 Surface integrals in spherical coordinates
If the surface is part of a sphere of a fixed radius R the natural choice is to use spherical
coordinates and to parametrise the surface by the angles (✓, ),
0 1
sin ✓ cos
r = r(✓, ) = R @ sin ✓ sin A . (2.21)
cos ✓
We already know that
dS = R2 sin ✓ d✓ d êr , (2.22)
since dV = dS dr and since êr is the unit vector normal to the sphere. However, let’s
calculate the area element from the general expression (2.19),
✓ ◆
@r @r
dS = ⇥ d✓ d
@✓ @
0 1 0 1
cos ✓ cos sin ✓ sin
= R2 @ cos ✓ sin A ⇥ @ sin ✓ cos A d✓ d
sin ✓ 0
0 2
1
sin ✓ cos
= R2 @ sin2 ✓ sin A d✓ d
sin ✓ cos ✓
= R2 sin ✓ d✓ d êr .

As an example, we compute the surface area of a sphere of radius R,

Z Z 2⇡ Z ⇡
A= dS = R2 d sin ✓ d✓ = 2⇡R2 [ cos ✓]✓=⇡ 2
✓=0 = 4⇡R .
sphere 0 0

2.5.2 Surfaces defined by z = g(x, y)

Often the surface is defined by a function that relates
p the z coordinate to the x and y
coordinates, z = g(x, y). E.g., the equation z = R2 x2 y 2 describes an upper-half
sphere of radius R. In such cases we can paramtrise the surface by the coordinates (x, y),
0 1
x
r = r(x, y) = @ y A. (2.23)
g(x, y)

0 1 0 1 0 1
✓ ◆ 1 0 @g/@x
@r @r
dS = ⇥ dx dy = @ 0 A ⇥ @ 1 A dx dy = @ @g/@y A dx dy.
@x @y
@g/@x @g/@y 1
(2.24)
s ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
@g @g
dS = 1+ + dx dy. (2.25)
@x @y

57
2.5.3 Worked examples
R
(1) Calculate the surface integral I = S G(r) · dS for the vector field G(r) = zêx + xêz
and the surface that is determined by z = x2 + y for x 2 [0, 1] and y 2 [0, 1].

(2) Use cylindrical coordinates to calculate the area of the surface given by z = 1 x2 y 2
for x2 + y 2  1.

(3) Given is the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2  4 and the plane z = 1 parallel to the xy-plane.

(a) Calculate the surface area of the cap of the sphere that is above the plane (z > 1).
(b) Use spherical coordinates to calculate the volume of the part of the sphere that
is above the plane.
(c) Calculate the same volume using cylindrical coordinates.

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