Foundation Engineering Project

1.
0 INTRODUCTION TO SHALLOW FOUNDATION
A shallow foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth very
near to the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of depths as does a deep
foundation.
Shallow foundations can also be classified as stipulated below: \
1. Combined footing
2. Mat foundation
3. Wall footing
4. Cantilever or strap footing
5. Isolated column footing or pad footing

6. Strip Footing
1.1 COMBINED FOOTING
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns are so close to
each other that their individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided
when the property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would be eccentrically
loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior
column, the load is evenly distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal
in plan.
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1.2 MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATIONS
A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the
entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil
pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would
overlap or nearly touch each other.
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils
or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.
1.3 WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING
Wall footings are pad or spread and strip Footings. The basic purpose of this foundation is to
spread the load over a larger area so that the soil is able to withstand the stress, and the safe
bearing pressure is not exceeded. In such types of foundations, if the resultant of the load
deviates from the centre line by more than 116 of its least dimension at the base of the footing,
it should be suitably reinforced.
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1.4 CANTILEVER OR STRAP FOOTING
A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural
strap or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit. The
strap is designed as a rigid beam. The individual footings are so designed that their combined
line of action passes through the resultant of the total load. A strap footing is more economical
than a combined footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance
between the columns is large.
1.5 ISOLATED COLUMN FOOTING OR PAD FOOTING
A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual column. A
spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is
stepped or hunched to spread the load over a large area.
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2.0 SOIL PROFILE
2.1 GENERAL
We have proposed that a large automobile factory to be built in the industrial area in Shah
Alam, Selangor. The issues of concern are the suitability of proposed factory site with concerns
to settlement and bearing capacity, and the suitability of type of foundation for use in
constructing the automobile factory’s foundation.
2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATIONS
The soil work test that was used in this project was the Standard Penetration Test (SPT). The
standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide
information on the geotechnical engineering properties of soil. This SPT test covers the
determination of the resistance of penetration of a split barrel sampler and obtaining disturbed
samples of the soil for the identification purpose.
The standard penetration test uses a thick-walled sampler tube, with an outside diameter of
50.8 mm and an inside diameter of 35 mm, and a length of around 650 mm. This is driven into
the ground at the bottom of a borehole by blows from a slide hammer with a mass of 63.5 kg
falling through a distance of 760 mm. The sample tube is driven 150 mm into the ground and
then the number of blows needed for the tube to penetrate each 150 mm up to a depth of 450
mm is recorded. The sum of the number of blows required for the second and third 6 in. of
penetration is termed the "standard penetration resistance" or the "N-value".
At the end of spt, the sampler was withdrawn and some extracted soil was placed into plastic
container and then labelled. These samples used to describe the type of soil existing in the boring
points. Borehole report are attached in the appendix meanwhile details of borehole for this project
are stipulated below:
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a) BOREHOLE 1 (BH 1)
COORDINATES: (28620.222 E, 112668.863 N)
DEPTH: 20 METER
b) BOREHOLE 2 (BH 2)
COORDINATES : (28828.769 E, 112591.654N)
DEPTH : 20METER
2.3 USING OF SOIL PROFILE SOFTWARE VISLOG 3.0
Vislog is a computer program designed to convert the borehole data into a 3D, Interactive
model of subsurface soil layers without the hassle of using expensive and complex computer
programs. Needed input data that needed for this application to process is the : Borehole Name,
Total borehole depth, Coordinates(Easting Northing, Water Level, Azimuth and others.
The usage of the vislog software is relatively easy to use. First and foremost when we open the
application, and existing sample project appears where we can look through.
Then we have to click on the file tab and click new project button to create a new model. To
add all the information about the borehole we have to click on the borehole editor tab to enter
the information’s.
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In this borehole editor we can add the number of borehole through the + button. we can add
the bore hole data’s such as Borehole name, depth and coordinates. On the bottom left box
we can add the thickness of each strata and the soil type of the strata for each of the
boreholes. The associated group of the soil type will be determined automatically upon the
entry of the soil type (ML,CL-ML,GW-GC). On the bottom right box we can add the depth
and the number of blows for each of the boreholes. Once all the information is input into the
borehole editor then we can click the apply button for the software to create the two
boreholes.
To enable the soil profile we simply have to check the soil profiles checkbox on the data layers
options on the right of the screen. And finally the completed soil profile according to the data
we have entered in the borehole editor can be obtained.
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2.3.1 INFORMATION AND RESULTS IN VISLOG
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0.00m 0.00m
clayey sandy SILT with little gravel

[CL-ML](3.50m)
[CL-ML](4.00m)
3.50m
4.00m clayey SILT with little gravel and sand
clayey silty SAND with some gravel [ML](2.50m)
[SC-SM](2.00m)
6.00m clayey sandy SILT with little gravel 6.00m
sandy GRAVEL with traces of clay and silt [CL-ML](1.00m) 7.00m
[GW-GC](3.00m) clayey silty SAND with some gravel
[SC-SM](2.00m)
9.00m 9.00m
[CL-ML](2.00m) clayey sandy SILT with little gravel
[CL-ML](3.00m)
sandy GRAVEL with traces of fines
12.00
[GW](2.00m)
11.00 m
m silty medium SAND with some
gravel [SM](4.50m)
Clayey sandy SILT with little gravel

[CL-ML] (7.00m) 16.50
m
Very weak, highly fractured,
moderately weathered GRANITE
[BEDROCK](3.50m)
13.00 20.00
m m
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2.4 JUSTIFICATION FOR CHOSEN CRITICAL BOREHOLE SOIL
PROFILE
As per reviewing the borehole data, the borehole 2 is determined to be the critical borehole.
This is because the Borehole 1 has finer grained layer than the other Borehole 2. The borehole
1 has much lesser number of blows than the other counterpart. From the SPT number of blow,
its concluded that the soil layer are less dense than the borehole 2. These kinds of soils are
problematic geotechnically due to their high settlement depth or compressibility high and lower
shear strength compared to other soils. Fine grained soil like clayey and silty soil is a
consolidating soil. When the clay soil dries up, it shrinks, moving away from the foundation.
The Consolidation occurs due to step by step of loss of pore pressure due to external loading
and constant expulsion of water particle from the soil causing the volume and the shape of the
layer to change and affect the foundation.
The shape of the fine grained soil or the clayey or silty soil also depends on its moisture content.
When the moisture content changes rapidly (weekly or rapidly) it may result in structural
damages and affection the foundation and eventually disrupting the building. Besides that any
accidental situations which can cause this include changes in subsurface drainage such as a
water leak from a burst or blocked pipe or drain), localised drying of a soil (due to plant growth
or proximity of trees).
Quaternary erosion highlighted by climatic and ocean level changes has delivered broad thick
deposits of soft clays in the beach front regions and major stream valleys, of differing thickness,
from 5 m to 30 m. Not just that, soft clay deposit are across the board, and they display unique
problems in Malaysia.
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2.5 STANDARD PENETRATION NUMBER CORRECTED FOR FIELD CONDITIONS,
N60
N60 is a method of "standardizing" N values based upon the drilling methods. N-values
recorded during the drilling process are used in simpler evaluations of soil strength and
susceptibility to settlement. Some drillers have automatic hammers which are safer and provide
more repeatable energy levels while other drillers have the older "safety hammer" which
operates off of a rope and cathead. The energy delivered by an automatic hammer is greater
than the rope and cathead system as the rope and cathead system experiences losses through
friction and is not as repeatable. Other parameters which can be corrected include overburden
stresses, boring diameter, anvil size, sampler type, and rod lengths. Energy and overburden
have the greatest influence on the correction.
In this project, N60 is calculated from formula found in textbook (page 346) and from
NovoSPT software.
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COMMENTS
ITEM CALCULATIONS
N60 = (N*ղH* ղB *ղs *ղR)/60
Standard penetration number corrected for field

N60 = conditions
N = measured penetration number
1 ղH = hammer efficiency (%) (Taken from Table)

=60 %
12.3 (1) in textbook)
2 ղB = correction for borehole diameter

= 1
3 ղs = sampler correction
(taken from Table
= 1
12.3 (3) in textbook
4 ղR = correction for rod length

taken from Table
= 0.95 12.3 (4)
BOREHOLE 1
Depth(m) N N60
1.95 3 3
3.95 9 9
4.95 11 10
6.45 14 13
7.95 20 19
9.285 50 48
10.725 50 48
12.245 50 48
13.645 50 48
15.095 50 48
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COMMENTS
ITEM CALCULATIONS
N60 = (N*ղH* ղB *ղs *ղR)/60
Standard penetration number corrected for field

N60 = conditions
N = measured penetration number
1 ղH = hammer efficiency (%) (extracted from Table

=60 %
2 ղB = correction for borehole diameter (extracted from Table

= 1
3 ղs = sampler correction
(extracted from Table
= 1
4 ղR = correction for rod length

(extracted from Table
= 0.95 12.3 (4) in textbook)
BOREHOLE 2
Depth(m) N N60
1.95 39 37
3.45 45 43
4.95 48 46
6.33 50 48
7.78 50 48
9.255 50 48
10.72 50 48
12.195 50 48
13.745 50 48
15.175 50 48
16.725 50 48
18.15 50 48
19.635 50 48
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Figure : N60 for Borehole 1 from NovoSPT software
Figure : N60 for Borehole 1 from NovoSPT software(Continuation)
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Figure : N60 for Borehole 2 from NovoSPT software
Figure : N60 for Borehole 2 from NovoSPT software(Continuation)
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3.0 DESIGN CALCULATIONS
3.1 SOIL PROPERTIES
In soil mechanics the various properties of the soil is to be used for various engineering
construction works. Generally, all the Engineering structures ultimately rest on the soil. The
entire load from it transferred to the soil, thus foundations is constructed to retain these
structures. If in the case of having soil with adequate strength, the shallow foundations can be
proposed and if vice versa deep foundations shall be proposed.
Therefore, it is essential to determine the properties of soil in order to select the type of
foundations. In this project, properties of soil has calculated from SPT-N value. Several
formulas and graphs has been utilized to calculate the properties of soil.
3.1.1 Unit Weight of Soil
Unit Weight, ϒ, is defined as weight per unit volume(KN/M³). It is usually determined in the
laboratory by measuring the weight and volume of a relatively undisturbed soil sample obtained
from a brass ring. Measuring unit weight of soil in the field may consist of a sand cone test,
rubber balloon or nuclear densiometer.
In this project, unit weight is calculated from Graph -Correlation of SPT N160 with Unit
Weight (after Bowles, 1977) in Caltrans Geotechnical Manual using N1 (60). The unit weight
in graph is pound per cubic foot, therefore it is converted to kilo Newton per cubic metre by
multiplying with 0.5171. The unit weight is proportional to N1 (60). Consequently, the unit
weight increases as the soil drives deeper.
Figure Graph -Correlation of SPT N with Unit Weight
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BOREHOLE 1
Depth (m) N N60 N1(60) ϒ (kn/m3)

1.95 3 3 3 16
3.95 9 9 9 17
4.95 11 10 10 17
6.45 14 13 12 18
7.95 20 19 16 18
9.285 50 48 37 19
10.725 50 48 36 20
12.245 50 48 32 20
13.645 50 48 31 20
15.095 50 48 29 20
BOREHOLE 2
Depth (m) N N60 N1(60) ϒ (kn/m3)

1.95 39 29 46 20
3.45 45 34 41 20
4.95 48 41 41 19
6.33 50 46 41 20
7.78 50 47 38 20
9.255 50 48 35 20
10.72 50 49 33 20
12.195 50 49 31 20
13.745 50 49 29 20
15.175 50 50 28 20
16.735 50 50 27 20
18.15 50 50 26 20
19.635 50 50 26 20
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3.1.2 Friction Angle (Effective), ɸ’
Soil friction angle is a shear strength parameter of soils. Its definition is derived from the Mohr-
Coulomb failure criterion and it is used to describe the friction shear resistance of soils together
with the normal effective stress.In the stress plane of Shear stress-effective normal stress, the
soil friction angle is the angle of inclination with respect to the horizontal axis of the Mohr-
Coulomb shear resistance line.
In this project, ɸ’ is calculated by a formula provided by Kulhawy and Mayne (1975) foundtextbook
(page 361) as mentioned below:
N60 = field standard penetration number

σ’0 = effective overburden pressure
Pa = atmospheric pressure in same unit as σ’0 (≈ 100 kN/m2)
Here, σ’0 is calculated by multiplying unit weight of the soil and the depth of the soil (ϒ x Δz)
BOREHOLE 1
Depth ϒ
(m) N60 (kn/m3) ϒ * Δz Φ'
1.95 2 16 31.20 25.13
3.95 4 17 67.15 27.939
4.95 5 17 84.15 28.74
6.45 6 18 116.10 28.59
7.95 8 18 143.10 29.79
9.285 9 19 176.42 29.51
10.725 10 20 214.50 29.14
12.245 12 20 244.90 29.79
13.645 13 20 272.90 29.72
15.095 14 20 301.90 29.643
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BOREHOLE 2
Depth ϒ
(m) N60 (kn/m3) ϒ * Δz Φ'
1.95 29 20 39 48.55
3.45 34 20 69 47.53
4.95 41 19 94.05 47.63
6.33 46 20 126.6 46.89
7.78 47 20 155.6 45.69
9.255 48 20 185.1 44.65
10.72 49 20 214.4 43.75
12.195 49 20 243.9 42.76
13.745 49 20 274.9 41.81
15.175 50 20 303.5 41.21
16.735 50 20 334.7 40.42
18.15 50 20 363 39.76
19.635 50 20 392.7 39.11
From the calculation, we can conclude that the friction angle is also proportional to the depth
of soil. This is also verified through Graph -Correlation of SPT N160 with Friction Angle. This
is due to as presented in the graph the friction angle increases to N1(60).
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3.1.3 Undrained Shear Strength, Cu
Drained condition occurs when there is no change in pore water pressure due to external
loading. In a drained condition, the pore water can drain out of the soil easily, causing
volumetric strains in the soil. Undrained condition occurs when the pore water is unable to
drain out of the soil. In an undrained condition, the rate of loading is much quicker than the
rate at which the pore water is able to drain out of the soil. The shear strength of a fine-grained
soil under undrained condition is called the undrained shear strength and is denoted by Cu.
In this project, Cu is calculated by formula provided by Stroud (1974) found textbook (page
348) as mentioned below:
𝐶𝑢=𝐾𝑁60
K = constant ,3.5 – 6.5 KN/m2 = (average = 4.4 KN/m2)
BOREHOLE 1
Cu
Depth (m) N N60 N1(60) (Kn/m2)
1.95 3 3 3 13.2
3.95 9 9 9 39.6
4.95 11 10 10 44
6.45 14 13 12 57.2
7.95 20 19 16 83.6
9.285 50 48 37 211.2
10.725 50 48 36 211.2
12.245 50 48 32 211.2
13.645 50 48 31 211.2
15.095 50 48 29 211.2
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BOREHOLE 2
Depth Cu
(m) N N60 N1(60) (Kn/m2)
1.95 39 29 46 127.6
3.45 45 34 41 149.6
4.95 48 41 41 180.4
6.33 50 46 41 202.4
7.78 50 47 38 206.8
9.255 50 48 35 211.2
10.72 50 49 33 215.6
12.195 50 49 31 215.6
13.745 50 49 29 215.6
15.175 50 50 28 220
16.735 50 50 27 220
18.15 50 50 26 220
19.635 50 50 26 220
3.1.4 Modulus of Elasticity, Es

Soil Young's modulus (E), commonly referred to as soil elastic modulus, is an elastic soil
parameter and a measure of soil stiffness. It is defined as the ratio of the stress along an axis
over the strain along that axis in the range of elastic soil behavior. The elastic modulus is
often used for estimation of soil settlement and elastic deformation analysis. Soil elastic
modulus can be estimated from laboratory or in-situ tests or based on correlation with other
soil properties.
In laboratory, it can be determined from triaxial test or indirectly from oedometer test. On
field, it can be estimated from Standard penetration test, Cone penetration test , pressuremeter
or indirectly from dilatometer test.
In this project, Es is calculated from formula proposed by Davie (1988) as mentioned below:
𝐸 = 450 𝐶𝑢 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠)
𝐸 = 18∗ 𝑁60 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)
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BOREHOLE 1
Depth Cu ES
N N60 N1(60)
(m) (kn/m2) (kn/m2)
1.95 3 3 3 13.2 5940
3.95 9 9 9 39.6 17820
4.95 11 10 10 44 19800
6.45 14 13 12 57.2 25740
7.95 20 19 16 83.6 342
9.285 50 48 37 211.2 95040
10.725 50 48 36 211.2 95040
12.245 50 48 32 211.2 864
13.645 50 48 31 211.2 864
15.095 50 48 29 211.2 864
COARSE
GRAINED
FINE
GRAINED
BOREHOLE 2
Depth N N60 N1(60) Cu ES
(m) (kn/m2) (kn/m2)
1.95 39 29 46 127.6 57420
3.45 45 34 41 149.6 67320
4.95 48 41 41 180.4 738
6.33 50 46 41 202.4 828
7.78 50 47 38 206.8 846
9.255 50 48 35 211.2 95040
10.72 50 49 33 215.6 97020
12.195 50 49 31 215.6 882
13.745 50 49 29 215.6 97020
15.175 50 50 28 220 99000
16.735 50 50 27 220 99000
18.15 50 50 26 220 99000
19.635 50 50 26 220 99000
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3.1.5 Cohesion, c’
Cohesive soils are clay type soils. Cohesion is the force that holds together molecules or like
particles within a soil. Cohesion, c, is usually determined in the laboratory from the Direct
Shear Test. Undrained Shear Strength, Cu, can be determined in the laboratory using the
Triaxial Test.
In this project, we calculated c’ using the formula found in “Geotechnical Info” website as
mentioned below:
𝑐′=𝐶𝑢/2
BOREHOLE 1
Cu C'
Depth (m) N60 N1(60) (kn/m2) (Kn/m2)
1.95 3 3 13.2 10
3.95 9 9 39.6 19.8
4.95 10 10 44 22
6.45 13 12 57.2 28.6
7.95 19 16 83.6 41.8
9.285 48 37 211.2 105.6
10.725 48 36 211.2 105.6
12.245 48 32 211.2 105.6
13.645 48 31 211.2 105.6
15.095 48 29 211.2 105.6
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BOREHOLE 2
Depth Cu C'
(m) N60 N1(60) (kn/m2) (Kn/m2)
1.95 29 46 127.6 63.8
3.45 34 41 149.6 74.8
4.95 41 41 180.4 90.2
6.33 46 41 202.4 101.2
7.78 47 38 206.8 103.4
9.255 48 35 211.2 105.6
10.72 49 33 215.6 107.8
12.195 49 31 215.6 107.8
13.745 49 29 215.6 107.8
15.175 50 28 220 110
16.735 50 27 220 110
18.15 50 26 220 110
19.635 50 26 220 110
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3.2 DESIGN FOR FOUNDATION
We have 3 types of calculations for this design project, the calculations are listed below
• BEARING CAPACITY
• ELASTIC SETTLEMENTS
• ANGULAR DISTORTION
3.2.1 BEARING CAPACITY
In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads
applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure
between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil.
Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported
without failure; allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a
factor of safety. Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded
foundations without actual shear failure occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing
capacity is based on the maximum allowable settlement.
There are three modes of failure that limit bearing capacity: general shear failure, local shear
failure, and punching shear failure.
As of for the factor of safety, we have determine to use the factor of safety more than 3 as per
standard. Bearing Capacity can be calculated with the help of mayerhof equation
𝑞𝑢=𝑐′𝑁𝑐𝐹𝑐𝑠𝐹𝑐𝑑𝐹𝑐𝑖+𝑞𝑁𝑞𝐹𝑞𝑠𝐹𝑞𝑑𝐹𝑞𝑖+0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝑦𝐹𝑦𝑠𝐹𝛾𝑑𝐹𝑦𝑖
c’ = Cohesion
q = Effective stress at the level of bottom of foundation
ɣ = Unit weight of soil
B = Width of Foundation
Fcs, Fqs, Fɣs = Shape Factors
Fcd, Fqd, Fɣd = Depth Factors
Fci, Fqi, Fɣi = Inclination Factors
Nc, Nq, Nɣ = Bearing Capacity Factor (Derived from Table 16.2 in text book)
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3.2.2 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT
Elastic settlement is the immediate settlement takes place as the load is applied or within a time
period of about 7 days.
The elastic settlement for this project is not more 30 mm. The formula to calculation is as per
follows;
𝑆𝑒=𝑞(𝛼𝐵′)1−𝜇𝑠2𝐸𝑠𝐼𝑠𝐼𝑓
qo = net applied pressure on foundation

μs = poison ratio of soil
= considered as 0.5 as the maximum value from text book
Es = Average Elastic Modulus
B’ = B/2 for center of foundation
Is = Shape Factor
If = Depth Factor
ɑ = 0.4 for settlement at center of foundation
3.2.3 ANGULAR DISTORTION
Non uniform settlement is the meaning of angular distortion. Angular distortion between two
points under a structure is equal, to the differential settlement between the points divided by
the distance between them.When the settlement is non-uniform (differential), as is always the
case, damage may be caused to the structure. The tolerable, settlements of different
structures, vary considerably.
The angular distortion that we use for this project is not more than (1/300). The formula that
we used to calculate angular distortion is ;
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (Δ)/𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑙)
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3.2.4 Trials for Design Calculation
In this project, 3 trials have been done in order to get best design by using different size of
foundation. The five trials fulfill the requirement for three design criteria as mentioned above.
The sizing used for the trial is stipulated below:
TYPE OF WIDTH OF THE LENGTH OF

TRIAL
FOUNDATION FOUNDATION (m) FOUNDATION (m)
Square 2.4 2.4
1
Rectangle 3 3.2
Square 2.5 2.5
2
Rectangle 3.2 3.3
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BEARING CAPACITY FOR TRIAL NO.1 FOOTING: 1 (SQUARE)
ITEM CALCULATION COMMENTS

1 Effective surcharge at the base level of
foundation (q), in kg/m²
q = ϒ x Df
ϒ = Unit weight of soil, in kg/m³
Df = Depth of foundation, in m
ϒ= 16 kg/m³
Df = 1.8 m
q = 28.8 kg/m²
2 Bearing capacity factors (Nc , Nq, N ϒ )

According to Modification to Terzaghi's Bearing
Capacity Equation Table
Ǿ = Angle of friction
Ǿ = 24 (page 574 in
Nc = 19.32 textbook)
Nq = 9.6
N ϒ = 9.44
3 Shape factors (Fcs , Fqs, Fϒs )

Width of foundation , B =2.4 m
Length of foundation, L =2.4 m
(Note : L > B)
Fcs = 1 +((B/L ) (Nq/Nc))
Fcs =1.34
Fqs = 1 + ((B/L)tanǾ)
Fqs =1.305
Fϒs = 1 -(0.4 x(B/L))
Fϒs =0.726
4 Depth factors (Fcd , Fqd, Fϒd )
For Df/B ≤ 1
For Ǿ > 0
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan Ǿ (1 - sin Ǿ)² (Df/B)
Fqd =1.235
27
Fcd = Fqd - ((1 - Fqd)/(Nc tan Ǿ))
Fcd =1.262
Fϒd =1.0
5 Inclination factors (Fci , Fqi, Fϒi)

Fci =1
Fqi =1
Fϒi =1
6 Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu) in KN/m²

qu =c'NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + (1/2 )*
ϒBN ϒFysFydFyi
c' = cohesion
= 10
qu = 862.3883 KN/m²
7 Total allowable gross load

Q = 1000 KN
Q= qall*B’*L’
qall=B’*L’/Q
qall=253.45 KN/m2
FS = qu/qall
FS=3.402 OK!(FS should be more than 3)
28
BEARING CAPACITY FOR TRIAL NO.2 FOOTING: 1 (SQUARE)

q = ϒ x Df
ϒ= 16 kg/m³
Df = 1.8 m
q = 28.8 kg/m²

Ǿ = 24 (page 574 in
Nq = 9.6
N ϒ = 9.44

Width of foundation , B =2.5 m
Length of foundation, L =2.5 m
(Note : L > B)
Fcs = 1 +((B/L ) (Nq/Nc))
Fcs =1.348
Fqs =1.312
Fϒs = 1 -(0.4 x(B/L))
Fϒs =0.720
For Df/B ≤ 1
For Ǿ > 0
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan Ǿ (1 - sin Ǿ)² (Df/B)
Fqd =1.225
29
Fcd =1.252
Fϒd =1.0

Fci =1
Fqi =1
Fϒi =1

ϒBN ϒFysFydFyi
c' = cohesion
= 10
qu = 865.3693 KN/m²

Q = 1000 KN
Q= qall*B’*L’
qall=B’*L’/Q
qall=228.57 KN/m2
FS = qu/qall
FS=3.78 OK!(FS should be more than 3)
30
FOOTING : 2 TRIAL 1 (RECTANGULAR)
q = ϒ x Df
ϒ = 16 kg/m³
Df = 1.8 m
q = 28.8 kg/m²

Ǿ = 24 (page 574 in
Nq = 9.6
N ϒ = 9.44

Width of foundation , B =3 m
Length of foundation, L = 3.2 m
(Note : L > B)
Fcs = 1 +((B/L ) (Nq/Nc))
Fcs =1.34
Fqs =1.305
Fϒs = 1 -(0.4 x(B/L))
Fϒs =0.726
For Df/B ≤ 1
For Ǿ > 0
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan Ǿ (1 - sin Ǿ)² (Df/B)
Fqd =1.188
31
Fcd =1.210
Fϒd =1.0

Fci =1
Fqi =1
Fϒi =1

ϒBN ϒFysFydFyi
c' = cohesion
= 10
qu = 861.6948 KN/m²

Q = 2000 KN
A = Area of foundation
= B’*L’
qall = B’*L’/Q
qall=285.39 KN/m2
FS = qu/qall
FS = 3.019 OK! (FS should be more than 3)
32
FOOTING : 2 TRIAL 2 (RECTANGULAR)
q = ϒ x Df
ϒ = 16 kg/m³
Df = 1.8 m
q = 28.8 kg/m²

Ǿ = 24 (page 574 in
Nq = 9.6
N ϒ = 9.44

Width of foundation , B = 3.2 m
Length of foundation, L = 3.3 m
(Note : L > B)
Fcs = 1 +((B/L ) (Nq/Nc))
Fcs =1.366
Fqs =1.328
Fϒs = 1 -(0.4 x(B/L))
Fϒs =0.705
For Df/B ≤ 1
For Ǿ > 0
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan Ǿ (1 - sin Ǿ)² (Df/B)
Fqd =1.176
33
Fcd =1.197
Fϒd =1.0

Fci =1
Fqi =1
Fϒi =1

ϒBN ϒFysFydFyi
c' = cohesion
= 10
qu = 877.1301 KN/m²

Q = 2000 KN
A = Area of foundation
= B’*L’
qall = B’*L’/Q
qall=249.20 KN/m2
FS = qu/qall
FS = 3.519 OK! (FS should be more than 3)
34
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT FOR TRIAL NO.1
FOOTING: 1 (SQUARE)
ITE COMME
CALCULATION
M NTS
1 Shape Factor, Is (Steinbrenner,1934)
Height from bottom of foundation to rock, H =14.7 m
Width of foundation , B = 2.4m
Length of foundation, L = 2.4m
(Note : L > B)
Settlement at center of foundation:
m' = L/B =1
n' = H/(B/2) =12.25



Aₒ = m' In(((1+√(m'² +1)) (m'² + n'²))/(m'(1+√(m'²+n'²+1))
=0.8
A₁ = In(((m'+√(m'²+1))*(√1+n'²))/(m'+(√(m'²+n'²+1)))
=0.8001
A₂ = m'/(n'(√(m'²+n'²+1))
=0.00662
F₁ = (1/π)( Aₒ + A₁)
=0.50929
F₂ = (n'/2 π (tanh A₂)
=0.0129
μs = 0.5
Is =F₁+(((1-2μs)/(1-μs))*F2)
=0.50929
Depth Factor, If (Fox,1948)

If =0.783 (extracted from Table 17.5 in textbook)
35
Average Modulus of Elasticity of the soil under the foundation from z= 0 to z =
5B ,EsAVG=64187.627
3 Dept
Soil Es (i) ΔZ*Es(i Gam gamma* Gamma
h, ΔZ Es Avg
Type (kn/m2) ) ma ΔZ Avg
(m)
Cl-
ML 1.7 5940 10098 16 27.2
44705
ML 2.5 178820 0 17 42.5
Cl-
ML 1 25740 25740 17 17
SC-
SM 2 342 684 18 36
CL- 28512
ML 3 95040 0 18 54
SM 1.8 864 1555.2 19 34.2
TOT 77024 64187.2
AL 12 7.2 67 210.9 17.575
Z = H or 5B, whichever is smaller = 12 m

Es = (ΣEs(i) x Δz) /(z) = 64187.267 KN/m²
Elastic Settlement Based on Theory of Elasticity (Drained Soil), Se (mm)
qₒ = net applied pressure on the foundation in KN/m²

= 173.611 KN/m²
B' = B/2
= 1.2 m
Se(flexible) = qₒ(αB')*((1-μs²)/Es)*IsIf
=3.883 mm
Se(rigid) = 0.93(Se(flexible))
4 = 3.611 mm
36
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT FOR TRIAL NO.2
FOOTING: 1 (SQUARE)
ITE COMME
CALCULATION
M NTS
(Note : L > B)
m' = L/B =1
n' = H/(B/2) =11.76



Aₒ = m' In(((1+√(m'² +1)) (m'² + n'²))/(m'(1+√(m'²+n'²+1))
=0.797
A₁ = In(((m'+√(m'²+1))*(√1+n'²))/(m'+(√(m'²+n'²+1)))
=0.79675
A₂ = m'/(n'(√(m'²+n'²+1))
=0.00718
F₁ = (1/π)( Aₒ + A₁)
=0.50716
F₂ = (n'/2 π (tanh A₂)
=0.01343
μs = 0.5
Is =F₁+(((1-2μs)/(1-μs))*F2)
=0.50716

37
5B ,EsAVG=61654.366
3 Dept
Soil Es (i) ΔZ*Es(i Gam gamma* Gamma
h, ΔZ Es Avg
Type (kn/m2) ) ma ΔZ Avg
(m)
Cl-
ML 1.7 5940 10098 16 27.2
44705
ML 2.5 178820 0 17 42.5
Cl-
ML 1 25740 25740 17 17
SC-
SM 2 342 684 18 36
CL- 28512
ML 3 95040 0 18 54
SM 2.3 864 1987.2 19 43.7
TOT 77067 61654.3
AL 12.5 9.2 36 220.4 17.632
Z = H or 5B, whichever is smaller = 12.5 m

EsAVG = (ΣEs(i) x Δz) /(z) =61654.336 KN/m²
Elastic Settlement Based on Theory of Elasticity (Drained Soil), Se (mm)

= 160 KN/m²
B' = B/2
= 1.25 m
=3.889 mm
4 Se(rigid) = 0.93(Se(flexible))
= 3.626 mm
38
FOOTING: 2 TRIAL NO 1(RECTANGULAR)
ITE COMMEN
CALCULATION
M TS
Width of foundation , B = 3m
(Note : L > B)
m' = L/B =1.06667
n' = H/(B/2) =9.8



Aₒ = m' In(((1+√(m'² +1)) (m'² + n'²))/(m'(1+√(m'²+n'²+1))
=0.784
A₁ = In(((m'+√(m'²+1))*(√1+n'²))/(m'+(√(m'²+n'²+1)))
=0.81967
A₂ = m'/(n'(√(m'²+n'²+1))
=0.01098
F₁ = (1/π)( Aₒ + A₁)
=0.51047
F₂ = (n'/2 π (tanh A₂)
=0.01713
μs = 0.5
Is =F₁+(((1-2μs)/(1-μs))*F2)
=0.51047

39
H=14.7
3 Dept
Soil Es (i) ΔZ*Es( Gamm gamma* Gamma
h, ΔZ Es Avg
Type (kn/m2) i) a ΔZ Avg
(m)
Cl-
ML 1.7 5940 10098 16 27.2
44705
ML 2.5 178820 0 17 42.5
Cl-
ML 1 25740 25740 17 17
SC-
SM 2 342 684 18 36
CL- 28512
ML 3 95040 0 18 54
SM 4.5 864 3888 19 85.5
TOTA 77258 52556.4
L 14.7 0 63 262.2 17.837
Z = H or 5B, whichever is smaller =14.7 m

Es = (ΣEs(i) x Δz) /(z) =52556.463 KN/m²
4 Elastic Settlement Based on Theory of Elasticity (Drained Soil), Se (mm)

=208.333 KN/m²
B' = B/2
= 1.5 m
= 7.521 mm
= 6.995 mm
40
FOOTING: 2 TRIAL NO 2 (RECTANGULAR)
ITE COMMEN
CALCULATION
M TS
(Note : L > B)
m' = L/B =1.03125
n' = H/(B/2) =9.1875



Aₒ = m' In(((1+√(m'² +1)) (m'² + n'²))/(m'(1+√(m'²+n'²+1))
=0.775
A₁ = In(((m'+√(m'²+1))*(√1+n'²))/(m'+(√(m'²+n'²+1)))
=0.79194
A₂ = m'/(n'(√(m'²+n'²+1))
=0.01207
F₁ = (1/π)( Aₒ + A₁)
=0.49881
F₂ = (n'/2 π (tanh A₂)
=0.01765
μs = 0.5
Is =F₁+(((1-2μs)/(1-μs))*F2)
=0.49881

If =0.837 (TAKEN from Table 17.5 in textbook)
41
Average Modulus of Elasticity of the soil under the foundation from z= 0 to z
= H=14.7
3 Dept
Soil Es (i) ΔZ*Es Gam gamma* Gamma
h, ΔZ Es Avg
Type (kn/m2) (i) ma ΔZ Avg
(m)
Cl-
ML 1.7 5940 10098 16 27.2
44705
ML 2.5 178820 0 17 42.5
Cl-
ML 1 25740 25740 17 17
SC-
SM 2 342 684 18 36
CL- 28512
ML 3 95040 0 18 54
SM 4.5 864 3888 19 85.5
TOT 77258 52556.4
AL 14.7 0 63 262.2 17.837
Z = H or 5B, whichever is smaller =14.7 m

Es = (ΣEs(i) x Δz) /(z) =52556.463 KN/m²
4 Elastic Settlement Based on Theory of Elasticity (Drained Soil), Se (mm)

=189.394 KN/m²
B' = B/2
= 1.6 m
= 7.222 mm
= 6.716 mm
42
ANGULAR DISTORTION
FOR TRIAL 1 FLEXIBLE FOOTING
Make angular distortion (Δ/ℓ) between Footing 1 and Footing 2

ℓ = Length between Footing 1 and Footing 2 ℓ= 5 m
Δ = Difference in Settlement
3.638
(Δ/ℓ) MM
= OK!
Se , Flexible (mm)
Square 3.883
Trial 1
Rec 7.521
AD 0.000728
Angular distortion (Δ/ℓ) should be less than (1/300)
TRIAL 2 FLEXIBLE FOOTING

3.477
(Δ/ℓ) MM
= OK!
Se , Flexible (mm)
Trial 2 Square 3.745

Rec 7.222
AD 0.000695
43
ANGULAR DISTORTION
FOR TRIAL 1 RIGID FOOTING

3.384
(Δ/ℓ) MM
= OK!
Se , Rigid (mm)
Square 3.611
Trial 1
Rec 6.995
AD 0.000677
TRIAL 2 RIGID FOOTING

3.233
(Δ/ℓ) MM
= OK!
Se , Rigid (mm)
Square 3.483
Trial 2
Rec 6.716
AD 0.000647
44
4.0 METHOD OF STATEMENT
4.1 Introduction
Method of statement, also known as safe system of work is the documentation in details of the
way a work task or process is to be completed. For the foundation construction, method of
statement is used to layout the general requirement and the precaution to be taken in a
foundation work of a project. The scope of the work will description also includes the
following:
i. Earthwork for concrete foundation

ii. Concrete work for the foundation
a. Reference
Relevant documents associated are as follows:
No. Descriptions Remarks
1 Code of Practice for Earthworks BS 6031
2 Code of Practice for Foundations BS 8004
Method of test for Soils for Civil

3 BS 1377
Engineering Purpose
Specification for Carbon Steel Bars
4 BS 4449
for the Reinforcement Concrete
5 Excavation SP 2054
5 Fill SP 2055
45
b. Materials
List of materials for construction of foundation are as follows:
No Material
1 Portland Cement
2 Sika
3 RC Steel Bars
4 Formworks
4.2 Portland cement

Portland cement is known as common or general-purpose cement. It is generally
assumed unless another type is specified. It is commonly used for general construction
and the type that will be used is Type II. Type II provides moderate sulphate resistance,
and gives off less heat during hydration. This type is for general construction exposed
to moderate sulphate attack, and is meant for use when concrete is in contact with soils
and ground water.
Figure 4.3.1: Portland Cement
46
4.3 Sika
Sika Grout is a type of cement that is used for grouting under stanchion plates. It is
mostly used for filling cavities, voids, gaps and recesses for concrete repairs once
normal cements were used. It can be used for both interior and exterior of a building
and also for steel reinforced anchoring. The type of Sika Grout to be used is Sika Grout
212. Below are the characteristics and advantages of Sika Grout 212:
• Excellent flow properties
• Pre batched for quality
• Just add water
• Compatible with Sika Ferro Gard corrosion inhibitors
• High compressive strength gain
• Easy to mix and apply
• Contains no chloride admixtures
• Overcoat able with Sika profiling/levelling mortars and coatings
• Low shrinkage
• Generally more durable than equivalent class of concrete
• Does not segregate or bleed
• Fire rating and protection properties comparable to concrete
• Can be pumped or poured
• Good mechanical properties
• Grouting thickness between 10-75mm
Figure 4.3.2: Sika
47
4.4 Reinforced Concrete Steels
Concrete is a composite material with a cement matrix with aggregates for
reinforcement that works well in compression, but not in tension. We can solve that
problem by casting wet concrete around strong, steel reinforcing bars (tied together to
make a cage). When concrete is set and hardens around the bars, we get a new
composite material, reinforced concrete that works well in either tension or
compression. The concrete resists squeezing (provides the compressive strength), while
the steel resists bending and stretching (provides the tensile strength). In effect,
reinforced concrete is using one composite material inside another: concrete becomes
the matrix while steel bars or wires provide the reinforcement.
The RC steel bars also known as rebar are typically made from twisted strands with
nobbles or ridges on them that anchor them firmly inside the concrete without any risk
of slipping around inside it. All kind of materials could be used to reinforce concrete
but steel is commonly used because it expands and contracts in the heat and cold
roughly as much as concrete itself, which means it won't crack the concrete that
surrounds it as another material might if it expanded more or less. According to the
Standard EN 10080 (BS4449) the suitable metric size to be considered for the
foundation is 14 with 1.21 kg/m linear mass density and a nominal diameter of 14mm
cross-sectional area of 154 mm².
Figure 4.3.3: RC Steel
48
4.5 Formwork
Formwork (shuttering) is a temporary mould to provide support to fresh concrete when
placed in structural member until the concrete has set. This helps the structural member
to gain sufficient strength to carry its self-load and load from other members. There are
many types of structural formwork or shuttering based on its material, their use and the
type of structural members. They can be named based on that. However, core
functioning of the formwork remains the same. Formworks are used in construction of
reinforced concrete foundations, columns, slabs, walls etc., and these are named as
follows:
1. Footing Forms
2. Column Forms
3. Wall Forms
4. Floor Forms
The type of formwork that will be emphasized is the footing formwork. Based on type
of structural member, the shape and size of footing are designed. Thus formwork size
and shape depends on the type and dimension of the footing.
Figure 4.3.4: Footing
49
c. Equipment and Machinery
List of machinery, equipment and tools for execution of activities stated in this MS are
as follow:
Equipment / Machinery
No. Description
To excavate soil and carry heavy

Back Hoe
1 equipment
Excavator To excavate soil to (excavate

2
deeper)
For site and excessive soil

Lorry
3 clearance
To transport cement from plant to

Cement Lorry
4 site
Is used to blow the dust and debris
Air Compressor Pump before the foundation concrete

5
casting
Used to suck out water from the

Robin Engine
6 water ponding
Scaffolding Provides access for workers to do

7
their work
50
d. Manpower
Persons directly involve with site activities stated in this method statements are as
follows:
No. Position Responsibility Quantity

Responsible for overall
commercial, contractual,
& technical
Project Manager
performances associated 1 person
1 (Senior)
with specific projects.
Responsible to the
Project Director.
Head – monitoring
Site Engineer overall construction

2 1 person
activities, safety &
environmental issues.
Planning, coordinating
Supervisor and supervising site 1 person
3
activities.
Surveyor Setting out of work 1 person

4
To control and ensure the
Safety & Health Safety, Health and
1 person
5 Personnel Environmental is adhere
at site.
To control and ensure the
QA/QC Personnel quality of works is 1 person
6
adhere at site.
Conduct general works
General Workers 5 people
7 at site
Waterproofing Conduct waterproofing 2 people
8 Skilled Workers works
51
4.6 Preparation of Foundation Work
4.6.1. Preliminary Preparation
Soil Investigations for Building Foundations

Before any work can be proceed at the site, soil investigation should be first done.
Soil Investigation involves the following steps:
1. Planning the details and sequence of operations

2. Conducting Standard Penetration Test (SPT) to determine the strength, characteristics
and parameters of soil.
3. Preparation of drawing and table
4. Analysis of the results from the test
5. Preparation of report
Site Clearance
Before the excavation for the proposed foundation is commenced, the site shall be
cleared of vegetation, brushwood, stumps of trees etc. Roots of the trees shall be
removed to at least 30 cm below the foundation level. The pits formed due to roots of
trees etc. shall be filled up with soil and compacted. The depth will depend on the lay
of the land, and if it is a sloping site then the ground may need to be levelled. If
required, retaining walls may be constructed to create level development platforms.
52
Figure 4.6.1.1: Site Clearance
Site Surveying and Setting Out
One of the most important tasks before initiating the practical work of a project is to
survey the site on which the task is intended. This not only provides insight to the
project manager, but also can save a lot of trouble and potential dangers to the task.
With the use of technology, many hazards involved can be reduced in the planning
stage of the project. Typically, a site survey involves a series of visits to the site and
numerous aspects are kept in perspective while doing so.
The method of setting out is the reverse of surveying process. The process involves
the positions and levels of building lines and road alignments shown on the
construction plans to be established on the ground by various techniques and
instruments.
Methods of Setting Out:
1. Setting out buildings by coordinates

2. Setting out with theodolite and level
3. Checking verticality
4. Setting out and alignment in steel framed buildings
5. Alignment and verticality in formwork Control and calculation for route surveying
53
Figure 4.6.1.4: Site Survey
4.6.2.Earth Work for Foundation
Excavation of Soil
The excavation process must be taken care in a proper way in safety perspective.
Different soil layers may be encountered while excavation and the correct measurement
of excavation are required because excavation cost is major part of the foundation
construction. At places where the soil is soft, loose or slushy, the width of steps shall
be suitably increased or side slopes or the soil shored up as per direction of supervisor.
The site engineer shall be responsible for obtaining clear instructions in writing from
engineer in charge regarding the stepping, sloping or shoring to be down for excavation
deeper than 2 meter.
The method of stockpiling of materials shall take into consideration all requirements
for protection from the weather and from contamination through mixing. Stockpiles
will be maintained in a stable condition and in a safe manner and the area used to store
the stockpile should be kept clean and tidy. Materials that are intended for re-use will
be used as soon as possible after excavation otherwise they will be stock-piled on the
work site and materials not intended for re-use will be removed from the work site and
disposed of in accordance with relevant regulations.
54
Figure 4.6.2.1: Excavation
Dewatering
During construction, excavations must be kept free of standing water. Water may come
from precipitation or it may come from ground-water such as surface water percolating
through the soil, underground streams, perched water moving over impervious soil
strata, or adjacent permanently saturated soil areas where the excavation extends below
the water table.
The method of dewatering that will be used to remove water by pumping as it

accumulates in pits, called sumps, created at low points in the excavation. Where the
volume of ground-water flowing into the excavation is great, or with certain types of
soils, particularly sands and silt, that may be softened by constant, it may be necessary
to keep groundwater from entering the excavation at all. This can be done either by
pumping water from the surrounding soil to depress the water table below the level of
the bottom of the excavation or by erecting a watertight barrier, such as a slurry wall,
around the excavation.
55
Figure 4.6.2.2: Dewatering
Backfilling and Compaction
Before proceeding to backfilling, compaction should be made and the compacted

surface should be accepted by the Site Engineer. Once approved, the excavated
materials or any material source approved by the Site Engineer should be placed in
layers followed by compaction test when the surface level is ready. In-situ dry density
test (compaction test) will be performed at the rate indicated in the specification. Back
filling followed with compaction shall continue till final level is achieved.
Figure 4.6.2.3: Backfilling
56
4.6.3. Concrete Works for Foundation
Reinforcement
Cleaning
The steel of the reinforcement must not be contaminated with rust, oil, grease before
placed into the concrete.
Cutting, Bending and Welding

The steel should be cut, bent and wielded according to the BS Code; the bending
machine used for the steel should be used with a low steady pressure. For the cutting
part, the steel should be cut as per drawing of the plan specification. The welding of the
reinforcement will be done will also be done as per the plan specification.
Placing of the Steel

All reinforced steel should be placed as shown on the plan drawings, in which the
dimensions and scheduling of bars should be in accordance with BS Code. Bars shall
be tied together using annealed iron wires to form rigid cages that will maintain during
the placing and compaction of the concrete.
Figure 4.6.3.1: Steel Bending
57
4.6.4. Formwork
The formwork should be constructed so that it remains sufficiently rigid during the
concrete placing and should be tight enough to prevent loss of cement slurry from the
concrete. The most important qualities of good formwork are rigidity and strength,
economy of material, re-use and good surface finish. Execution of form work should
be take into account climatic conditions, the expected heat of hydration and finishing
of concrete surfaces.
The surface of the formwork and embedded materials will be cleaned before concrete
is poured in them to avoid the concrete to be mixed with grout or mortar from the
previous concrete work. In accordance to the BS Code the formwork will be removed
as follows:
➢ 48 hours for column, wall, beam and part that is not supporting the weight of the
concrete.
➢ 14 days for part that supports the weight of the concrete
➢ 7 days for supporting slab
➢ 14 days for supporting beam
Figure 4.6.3.1: Formwork
58
4.6.5. Pouring of Concrete
Measuring, Mixing, Production and Transporting
The concrete transported to the site should not be added with water and all mixing,
measuring and production of the concrete must be according to the BS Code.
Placing and Compaction
Before concrete is poured, the Site Engineer or Supervisor should give an advance
notice of at least 1 day to the company so that inspection work can be made before the
concrete work is done. The total time required for mixing, transportation and the
pouring of concrete should not exceed 45 minutes. The concrete will be consolidated
by vibration so that the concrete is thoroughly worked around the reinforcement and
around the embedded items and the time interval between concrete layers shall not
exceed 45 minutes. The Site Engineer and Supervisor will keep a complete record of
the works showing the time and date when concrete is placed in each part of the work.
A sample of concrete shall be taken and a cube test is needed to be done by the QA/QC
Engineer to ensure that the concrete poured achieved the strength desired for the
foundation.
Figure 4.6.4.1.: Concrete Work
59
Curing
The curing process will be done as per the project specification and the concrete will
be kept in a moist condition for 24 hours or more (at least 7 days for structural concrete).
During the final curing process the concrete will be covered with polyethylene sheet.
Water storage will be kept nearby to ensure there is sufficient water for the curing
process.
Figure 4.6.4.2.: The Final Curing Process
Surface Finishing
After removal of form the surfaces of concrete shall have the following finish:
• Rough form finish : for all concrete surfaces not exposed to view
- Tie holes and defects shall be patched. Otherwise, surfaces shall be left with
the texture imparted by the forms
• Smooth form finish : for all exposed surfaces

- The form facing material shall produce a smooth, hard, uniform texture on the
concrete. It may be plywood, temperature concrete-form-grade hardboard
60
Figure 4.6.4.3.: Surface Finishes
Repair
After all the process above is done touching up of concrete surfaces can be done.
But first, the concrete must inspected and released in accordance with the quality
procedures. Special attention should be paid to the cracks in the concrete. Below
is the specification that should be noticed:
i. Members located below ground and members exposed to seawater: 0.2 mm
ii. All other members: 0.3 mm
The repair method of the concrete including materials and the extent of the repair
works to repair the imperfections of the concrete will be specified and approved
according to the BS Code.
Figure 4.6.4.4.: Repairing Crack
61
4.6.6. Surface Protection
Before applying the bitumen membrane and coating the concrete shall be cured, all
honeycombs properly patched and the surface dry. There is different specification
for above ground and below ground as stated below:
Below Ground
- A protective bitumen membrane 2 mm thick shall be applied on the blinding

and on concrete surfaces not less than to level +98.4 m.
- Above this level the concrete below ground shall be coated with project Paint
System A or similar.
Above Ground
- External concrete surfaces above ground shall be coated with project Paint
System B or similar.
Figure 4.6.3.3.e: Surface Protection
62
5.0 Costing for Building of Shallow Foundation
5.1 Introduction
For the cost of building the proposed shallow foundation, we tried to optimize the usage of all
resources in conjunction with ongoing market price for materials and rental of equipment and
machinery. By adding up the possible delay cause by nature and the wastage on site. A table
of cost estimation and duration for work estimation progress is constructed.
5.2 Selection of Foundation
From the table above, we can compare the different in price for each of the foundation.
Although both design satisfied the code and parameters given. The cost to build the foundation
is now taken into account. From the table above, the chosen one is the square footing of trial 1
and rectangular footing of trial 1 as they are more economical design.
63
5.3 Cost Estimation
64
Total Cost Without 6% GST = RM 48,575.88
65
5.4 Duration for Work Progress Estimation Table
66
6.0 Additional Information
From all the calculations, discussion and research, we have concluded that borehole 1
is the critical borehole. The justification for the selection has been highlighted above.
According to the design criteria standard, factor of safety should exceed 3. The soil parameters
that we have calculated based on correlation equations and graphs, seems to be logical, thus all
the calculations has been done successfully with minimum error and complied to all the criteria.
Furthermore, as an engineer we know that the more the factor of safety the more the building
cost. Therefore we have done two trials to determine the optimum design for both the footing
in terms factor of safety, cost, and settlement. Based on the values obtained, we have chosen
trial no.1 as our optimum design. Since the F.O.S and settlement for both trials meet the
minimum requirement, construction cost become the deciding factor. As shown above, trial
no.1 design cost much less than trial no.2 design.
67

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1.

0 INTRODUCTION TO SHALLOW FOUNDATION

4. Cantilever or strap footing

5. Isolated column footing or pad footing

1.1 COMBINED FOOTING

1.3 WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING

1.5 ISOLATED COLUMN FOOTING OR PAD FOOTING

2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATIONS

COORDINATES: (28620.222 E, 112668.863 N)

COORDINATES : (28828.769 E, 112591.654N)

2.3 USING OF SOIL PROFILE SOFTWARE VISLOG 3.0

clayey sandy SILT with little gravel

Clayey sandy SILT with little gravel

N60 = (N*ղH* ղB *ղs *ղR)/60

Standard penetration number corrected for field

1 ղH = hammer efficiency (%) (Taken from Table)

12.3 (1) in textbook)

2 ղB = correction for borehole diameter

12.3 (2) in textbook)

12.3 (3) in textbook

4 ղR = correction for rod length

N60 = (N*ղH* ղB *ղs *ղR)/60

Standard penetration number corrected for field

1 ղH = hammer efficiency (%) (extracted from Table

12.3 (1) in textbook)

2 ղB = correction for borehole diameter (extracted from Table

12.3 (2) in textbook)

12.3 (3) in textbook)

4 ղR = correction for rod length

Figure : N60 for Borehole 1 from NovoSPT software(Continuation)

Figure : N60 for Borehole 2 from NovoSPT software(Continuation)

3.1 SOIL PROPERTIES

3.1.1 Unit Weight of Soil

Figure Graph -Correlation of SPT N with Unit Weight

Depth (m) N N60 N1(60) ϒ (kn/m3)

Depth (m) N N60 N1(60) ϒ (kn/m3)

N60 = field standard penetration number

K = constant ,3.5 – 6.5 KN/m2 = (average = 4.4 KN/m2)

3.1.4 Modulus of Elasticity, Es

𝐸 = 450 𝐶𝑢 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠)

𝐸 = 18∗ 𝑁60 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)

3.95 9 9 39.6 19.8

6.45 13 12 57.2 28.6

7.95 19 16 83.6 41.8

9.285 48 37 211.2 105.6

10.725 48 36 211.2 105.6

12.245 48 32 211.2 105.6

13.645 48 31 211.2 105.6

15.095 48 29 211.2 105.6

3.2.1 BEARING CAPACITY

Fci, Fqi, Fɣi = Inclination Factors

qo = net applied pressure on foundation

3.2.3 ANGULAR DISTORTION

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛= 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (Δ)/𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

TYPE OF WIDTH OF THE LENGTH OF

ITEM CALCULATION COMMENTS

2 Bearing capacity factors (Nc , Nq, N ϒ )

3 Shape factors (Fcs , Fqs, Fϒs )

5 Inclination factors (Fci , Fqi, Fϒi)

6 Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu) in KN/m²

7 Total allowable gross load

ITEM CALCULATION COMMENTS

2 Bearing capacity factors (Nc , Nq, N ϒ )

N60 = (NղH ղB ղs ղR)/60

N60 = (NղH ղB ղs ղR)/60