Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
in Gifted Education
vol. 2 | no.1
17
Excellence and Diversity in Gifted Education
of state standards than the students who were traditionally district-wide screening of a particular sample of students
identified, the differences in the test scores were minimal (e.g., all students in Grade 1). Generally, the scores
(VanTassel-Baska, Feng, & deBrux, 2007). This suggests that represent the abilities of students for the year in which the
performance tasks are an effective means of identifying test was administered. The small sample size may pose
low-income and minority students. validity issues. However, this may not be problematic for
Performance tasks are a strong addition to the gifted school districts making decisions based on a rank system
identification process because they can give a clearer (Lohman, 2012).
picture of the student’s area of strength to be accelerated Empirical evidence, though limited, shows small or no
(Erwin & Worell, 2011). Additionally, they may assist in mean score differences when local norms are utilized on
highlighting a student’s verbal ability that a nonverbal scores from gifted rating scales. Similar scores were found
test would miss (VanTassel-Baska, Feng, & de Brux, 2007). between gifted Caucasian and gifted African American
Because performance tasks are open-ended, and have students on the GRS-School Form (Pfeiffer & Jarosewieh,
potentially myriad “right” answers, they offer more 2007) and on the Universal Multiple Abilities Scales(Jordan
academic information, about the student such as process et al., 2012) when local norms were employed. Additionally,
skills and creative approaches to problem solving that a this group of students scored significantly higher than
standardized test may not reveal (Pierce et al, 2007). nongifted African American and nongifted Euro-American
An example of a performance task in an elementary students using the same scale and local norms.
classroom might be the building of one or more simple
machines from a given set of random materials. The Discussion
student demonstrates knowledge of simple machines and The underrepresentation of racially diverse
how they work by designing, building and demonstrating populations of students from gifted programs has been
its use. In the gifted identification process, a student may documented since the early 20th century (Jenkins,
be shown a picture and then asked to create a story and 1936).In recent years, students from low socioeconomic
title for the picture. A quantitative task may ask the student backgrounds (SES)and English language learners (ELLs)
to devise multiple ways of solving the same problem: The have also been recognized as underserved populations.
answer is 8, what is the question? Performance tasks are Heated debates have played a vital role in raising
open-ended and untimed. They can produce many “right” awareness of this nationwide phenomenon (Erwin &
answers and demonstrate the student’s fluid thinking. Worrell, 2011; Lohman, 2005b; Naglieri & Ford, 2003). The
current trend in identification processes in many school
Use of Local Norms districts across the United States is to employ alternative
Learning is a social, cultural construct (Lohman, measures of ability rather than traditional standardized
2005b). Intelligence, ability, and learning cannot exist tests of IQ and achievement. Minority students display
outside of motivation, experience, and culture. Giftedness, intellectual abilities not necessarily found in school
therefore, cannot be measured outside the context of curricula (Naglieri & Ford, 2005). Therefore, educators
one’s culture (Sternberg, 1985, as cited in Lohman, 2005b). must look for ways that illuminate those intelligences.
Ability is not static or innate; it is dynamic and grows Nonverbal measures of ability are often regarded
with time and experience in one’s surroundings. Lohman as equalizers in their ability to level the playing field
(2005b) further stated that the purpose of school is to equip for minority students and ELLs (Naglieri & Ford, 2003).
students with knowledge of a domain that is valued by a Minority and low-SES students often arrive to school with
culture. less verbal ability than their Caucasian classmates, and
Based on this assertion, all students’ abilities should nonverbal tests of ability remove that element from the
be measured against other students who have similar equation, measuring students’ fluid problem-solving skills,
opportunities and cultural experiences. The performance rather than acquired knowledge.
of a local group of students rarely mirrors that of a national Performance tasks allow students to demonstrate
distribution (Lohman, 2005a). Local norms accomplish abilities that may not appear on a normed test of scholastic
this. They give an accurate picture of how students in a achievement. These assessments also afford educators the
local school district scored on a test of ability. Local norms opportunity to gain a clearer picture of which domains
may even compare the ability of one student measured to accelerate or enrich. When used in conjunction with a
against his or her classmates. Decisions regarding gifted nonverbal assessment, a performance task may highlight
programming can be better tailored to a group of students verbal ability that such a measure would miss (VanTassel-
who are measured against their classmates, given the Baska, Feng, & de Brux, 2007).Finally, performance tasks
large variance between school districts and indeed schools focus on process more than product, allowing the student’s
in average ability and opportunity (Lohman, 2012). fluid reasoning and problem-solving abilities to be more
This is especially true if characteristics of the group are evident than an achievement test would reveal (VanTassel-
different from the nationally normed sample (Jordan, Bain, Baska, Feng, & Evans, 2007).
McCallum, & Mee Bell, 2012). The use of local norms is a controversial trend (Erwin
Census testing within school districts should & Worrell, 2012). There is limited empirical evidence
be conducted if local norms will be used to make analyzing its use. However, what little research exists
programming decisions. Census testing refers to the supports the idea that comparing students’ abilities against
18
Costis
other students of similar background experiences, culture, Implications for Educators and
and opportunities successfully identifies more minority, Administrators
disadvantaged, and ELL students (Lohman, 2012). In The argument has been made that ability is acquired
other words, comparing apples to apples tends to level the through a combination of experience, motivation, and
playing field for all students. culture (Lohman, 2005b). If this is so, then how can a
Learning, knowledge, and intelligence cannot exist single assessment be culturally fair for all students? The
outside of experience and culture (Lohman, 2005b). In commonwealth of Virginia, like most states, mandates
order to accurately measure a student’s ability in one or a multiple criteria gifted identification process in its
more domains, the student must be measured against regulations for educating the gifted (Virginia Department
students of similar circumstance and opportunity for of Education, 2012). Gifted education researchers agree
development of that ability (Lohman, 2012). Consequently, that no single measure could or should include or exclude
Lohman (2012) suggested that school districts use multiple a student from identification (Baldwin, 2005; Callahan,
norming scenarios when making decisions about the 2005; Lohman, 2005a, 2005b, 2012; Naglieri & Ford, 2003;
identification of minority students as gifted. The use of Shaunessy et al., 2004; VanTassel-Baska, Feng, & Evans,
local norms will compare students of similar demographic, 2007).The difficulty rests in choosing which assessment
circumstance, socioeconomic status, and opportunity for measures should be employed to cast the widest possible
talent development. net to identify all gifted students, regardless of culture,
At the heart is this debate is the lack of a mutually language or SES.
agreed upon conceptualization of what it means to be The confusion and lack of shared meaning about the
gifted. Lohman (2005b) stated that giftedness must be basic constructs associated with the gifted identification
measured in terms of verbal, quantitative, and spatial process serve to exacerbate the dilemma faced by gifted
reasoning because these are the tools by which our society education coordinators. The current trend of utilizing
measures academic success. Naglieri and Ford (2005) stated alternative identification measures seems to be effective
that intellectual giftedness exists outside of the confines of in identifying more minority, disadvantaged, and ELL
a school building and verbal and quantitative assessments students. The use of combinations of these measures may
are unfair to students who have limited exposure to these make the process even more culturally fair. For example,
constructs due to cultural or socioeconomic differences. the use of a nonverbal assessment, recommendations
A lack of shared meaning exists in defining the three from teachers and parents, and performance tasks may
As: aptitude, ability and achievement. Many nationally give a gifted identification committee a clearer picture
normed tests of ability actually measure achievement rather of a student’s potential than a single test of academic
than ability (Naglieri & Ford, 2005). Many teachers believe achievement. However, school districts must be clear about
that aptitude, like IQ, is an innate, fixed characteristic of what is being assessed, and how that information will be
intelligence (Lohman, 2005a, 2005b). Others define aptitude used when making placement decisions.
as a measure of readiness to learn (Lohman, 2005a) that A reality that many school districts face is lack of
grows and changes with experience. funding for gifted identification. Group-administered
Predictors of academic success in school are standardized tests are expensive to purchase and score,
assessments that measure current achievement domains even though many of them can be administered by a
taught in school: verbal and quantitative skills (Lohman, classroom teacher with minimal training. The use of
2005b). If what Lohman (2005b) stated remains the measure local norms requires census testing (i.e., a district-wide
for identifying gifted students, then minority students screening) to maintain validity. This may be a cost that
and students from low-SES backgrounds will remain a school district is not willing to absorb for its gifted
underrepresented. Academic achievement is not the only programming. Consequently, the choice of standardized
indicator if intelligence (Naglieri & Ford, 2005). Many test must be made with careful consideration given to all
students exhibit intellectual giftedness and possess poor aspects of a gifted program.
academic skills.Therefore, students should be identified The trend of utilizing alternative identification
intellectually gifted rather than academically gifted, and methods for the purpose of identifying more minority,
their giftedness should be measured commensurate with disadvantaged, and ELL students is a move in the right
their label (Naglieri & Ford, 2005). direction for meeting the needs of all students. However,
National norms on intelligence tests that are widely all of these measures lose their impact if teachers are not
used to identify gifted students reveal scores that mirror trained in how to administer and interpret them. Further,
the achievement gap (Erwin & Worrell, 2012).Nationally ongoing professional development is needed in recognizing
normed tests measuring academic achievement should gifted behaviors in students outside of a teacher’s
show this result, because the achievement gap exists. This culture. Teachers are very often the gatekeepers to gifted
calls into question what is actually being measured when programming because they are relied upon to recommend
administering tests for the purpose of identifying gifted students for gifted identification. It is imperative that they
students: ability, aptitude, or achievement? Researchers are trained in understanding the unique characteristics of
disagree on the basic constructs underlying their gifted minority students. Unless all students are census
identification processes. tested each year, the gifted identification process cannot
19
Excellence and Diversity in Gifted Education
even begin until a nomination is made, and this most often
comes from the classroom teacher (McBee, 2006). Jordan, K. R., Bain, S. K., McCallum, R. S., & Mee
Bell, S. (2012). Comparing gifted and nongifted
Conclusion African American and Euro-American students on
The use of alternative identification methods is a trend cognitive and academic variables using local norms.
that will, in this author’s opinion, ultimately become a Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 35, 241-258.
matter of course among gifted identification processes doi:10.1177/0162353212451701
across the United States. Our ever-increasing diversity Kaplan, R. M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2009). Standardized tests
among school children demands that educators become in education, civil service, and the military. In R.M.
more culturally responsive, and the same mandate must Kaplan & D. P. Saccuzzo (Eds.), Psychological testing:
be so for gifted education. Students demonstrate different Principles, applications, and issues (pp. 325-327). Belmont,
abilities in different ways. In order to successfully meet CA: Wadsworth.
the needs of all learners, educators and administrators Lewis, J. D., DeCamp-Fritson, S. S., Ramage, J. C.,
must equip themselves with enough of the right tools to McFarland, M. A., & Archwamety, T. (2007). Selecting
accurately measure this myriad of ability. Ongoing research for ethnically diverse children who may be gifted
is needed to gauge the effectiveness of these alternative using Raven’s Standard Progressive Matricesand
measures so that gifted students will be identified Naglieri Nonverbal Abilities Test. Multicultural
regardless of culture, language or socioeconomic condition. Education, 15(1), 38-42. Retrieved from http://web.
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Costis
Naglieri, J. A., & Ronning, M. E. (2000). Comparison of
White, African-American, Hispanic, and Asian children ABOUT THE AUTHOR
on the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test. Psychological Patty Costis, PhD, is currently a gifted resource
Assessment, 12, 328-334. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.12.3.328
teacher for the Norfolk Public School District in
Pfeiffer, S. L., & Jarosewich, T. (2007). The Gifted
Rating Scales-School Form: An analysis of the Norfolk, VA. A recent graduate of the Educational
standardization sample based on age, gender, race, and Policy, Planning, and Leadership program at The
diagnostic efficiency. Gifted Child Quarterly, 51,39-50. College of William and Mary, Dr. Costis’ research
doi:10.1177/0016986206296658 interests include twice-exceptionality, particularly
Pierce, R. L., Adams, C.M., Speirs-Neumeister, K. L.,
gifted students with autism spectrum disorder, and
Cassady, J. C., Dixon, F. A., &Cross, T. L.(2007).
Development of an identification procedure for a large other under-served populations of gifted students;
urban school corporation: Identifying culturally diverse education policy; and teacher education.
and academically gifted elementary students. Roeper
Review, 29, 113-118.
For reprints and permissions queries, please visit
Raven, J. & Raven, J. C. (2003) Raven Progressive Matrices.
http://cectag.org
In R. S. McCallum (Ed.), Handbook of Nonverbal
Copyright © 2016 the Author(s)
Assessment (pp. 223-237). New York, NY.: Kluwer
Excellence and Diversity in Gifted Education (EDGE)
Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Volume 2 Number 1
Raven, J., Raven, J. C., & Court, J. H. (1998). Manual for
Spring 2016
Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices. Oxford, UK:
Hosted at http://cectag.org
Oxford Psychologists’Press.
Shaunessy, E., Karnes, F. A., & Cobb, Y. (2004). Assessing
potentially gifted students from lower socioeconomic
status with nonverbal measures of intelligence.
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pms.98.3c.1129-1138
Terman, L.M. (1916). The measurement of intelligence:
An explanation of and a complete guide for the use of
the Stanford revision and extension of the Binet-Simon
intelligence scale. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
VanTassel-Baska, J., Feng, A. X.,& Evans, B. L. (2007a).
Patterns of identification and performance among
gifted students identified through performance tasks: A
three-year analysis. Gifted Child Quarterly, 51, 218-231.
doi:10.1177/0016986207302717
VanTassel-Baska, J., Feng, A. X.,& de Brux, E. (2007b). A
study of identification and achievement profiles of
performance task-identified gifted students over 6
years. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 37, 7-34.
doi:10.4219/jeg-2007-517
Virginia Department of Education. (2012). Regulations
governing educational services for the gifted (8VAC20-40-
40-D-1). Retrieved from http://www.doe.virginia.gov/
instruction/gifted_ed/index.shtml
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