General Chemistry 1
 Homogenous – solution; particles are
Matter – anything having mass and volume
Mass – the amount of matter in an object
Weight – the pull of gravity in an object
Volume – the space an object occupies (units: L, dm3,
mL, cm3)
*in chemistry, mass =weight
Composition – what the matter is made of
Properties – describes the matter.
- what it looks like, smells like, its mass, etc.
- how it behaves (melting point, etc.)
Elements – one type of atom
 Monoatomic/ Monatomic – elements consist of
unbounded “like” atoms
(Fe, Al, Cu, He)
 Polyatomic- element consist of several “like”
atoms bonded
 Diatomic elements: (H2, O2, Br2, F2, I2,
N2, Cl2)
Allotropes – an element that has different forms in
different state of matter
(Oxygen and carbon)
Compound – contains two or more different type of
atom
 Has property that are different from
those of their origin or constituent
elements
*atoms can only be altered by nuclear means
*molecules can only be altered by chemical means
Electrolysis – process of separating oxygen and hydrogen
gases
Combustion is only possible with the presence of oxygen
*all samples of the given compound have the same
composition
*pure substances have chemical formula (symbols: element;
chemical formula: compound)
Mixtures - two or more substance mixed together
- has varying composition and properties
- not chemically bonded
- has no definite composition and retain their
constituents’ characteristics
Types of mixture
microscopic
-evenly mixed
 Alloy – homogenous metal
 Heterogeneous - unevenly mixed;
visible separation
 Suspension – settles over time
 Colloid – between solution and
suspension
-light can’t scattered called
Tyndal effect – scattering of light
Separating of mixtures
 Involves physical means or changes
1. Sorting –by color, shape, texture, etc.
2. Filter/Filtration – different particle size
(filtration-liquid form; sieving- solid form)
3. Magnet/ Magnetism – one substance must
contain iron
4. Chromatography –some substances dissolves
more easily than the others
5. Density – sink vs. float; uses centrifuge
6. Distillation – uses different boiling point
6.1. Fractional distillation – done for petroleum
7. Decantation – suspension of materials or
settling over time
Filtrate – particles that pass through filter
Residue – remaining substance on filter
Decantate – water that has no other particle due to settling
*no chemical reactions are needed to separate mixture;
substances are not bonded
Density – how tightly packed particles are in a matter
Mass has direct relationship to density
*you change mass to change density
Volume has indirect relationship with density
To find volume:
1. Formula
(Solid) V= lwh
(Liquid) V=πr2h
2. Displacement/water displacement
Density of water= 1g/mL or 1g/cm3
*the density of liquid or solid is nearly constant, no matter what the
samplers’ temperature. Density of gas is highly dependent on
temperature
Properties of matter Measurement
 Chemical Property -a quantitative description of a fundamental property or
-how substance reacts with other substance physical phenomenon
 Physical Property -comparing one quantity that of the other
-can be observed without chemically changing
the substance System of measurement:
Extensive – depends on the amount of the substance 1. Metric system (SI) – uses prefixes
present 2. English system – uses mostly of body parts
Intensive – doesn’t depend on amount of substance
Prefixes Table
Change of state Yotta Y 1024 Deci d 10-1
 Endothermic – energy releasing Zetta Z 1021 Centi c 10-2
 Exothermic – energy storing Exa E 1018 Milli m 10-3
Pexa P 1015 Micro ʯ 10-6
Energy – ability to work Tera T 1012 Nano n 10-9
 Potential – stored (PE= mgh) Giga G 109 Pico p 10-12
 Kinetic – motion (KE= ½ mv2) Mega M 106 Femto f 10-15
Kilo k 103 Atto a 10-18
Hecto h 102 Zepto z 10-21
Absolute Zero temperature (0K/ -273oc) - no deca da 101 yocto y 10-24
movement in particles; achieved only using Kelvin
Uncertainty – measurements that are rarely exactly the
Law of Conservation of Energy: same; somewhat different from “true value”
-energy before is always equals to energy after  True value – constant value
 Experimented value – obtained from
Scientific notation – uses number to indicate precision
experiment
Significant Notation – digits that has high certainty
Error – deviation from true value
--used to express measured quantity
Sources of error:
Rules of significant figures:
 Sources of errors in measurement
 all nonzero are significant
 Limitation in the sensitivity of the
 zeros between nonzero digits are considered instrument
significant  Imperfection of design or measurement
 zero that precede the first nonzero are not techniques
significant
 zero at the of a number that include a decimal Classification of error
point are significant  Systematic error – from equipment
 zero at the end of a number without decimal  Random error – from researchers
point are considered not significant
Precision – reproducibility; checked by repeating
considerations of significant figures: measurement
 addition/subtraction Accuracy – correctness; checked using different
-the sum/difference must have as many methods
significant number as the least number of
decimal places Graph – a diagram that exhibits a relationship between
 Multiplication / Division two sets of data, a pictorial representation between
-the quotient/product must have as many quantities
significant number as the least number of
significant figure count.
X-axis – dependent
Y-axis - independent
Proportionality relationship Radioactive isotopes – have many or few neutrons;
1. Direct proportion attains lower energy state by releasing extra energy as
 one affects the other proportionally radiation.
2. Indirect/Inverse proportionality Ex. Alpha-, beta-particle and gamma rays
 When one quantity increases the other
increases as well, and vice-versa Half-life – the time needed for radioactive sample to
3. Inverse squared proportion decay into stable matter
 It occurs where one quantity decreases Ex. C-14 half life is 5730 years into N-14
faster while the other quantity
increases Complete atomic designation
4. Direct square proportion -it gives precise information about an atomic particle
 both quantity increases but the other
increases faster 125 1-
BASICS OF ATOM
PARTICLE
Proton(p+)
0
Neutron(n )
CHARGE
+
0
LOCATION
Nucleus
MASS
-1amu
-1amu
I
Electron(e-) - e- clouds -0amu 53
*proton count is the identity of an atom HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC MODEL
Number of proton = atomic number  GREEKS (-400 BCE)
Mass number = (proton count) + (neutron count)  Democritus and Leucippus
- “matter is discontinuous”; tiny;
Atom: proton count = electron count indestructible
Ion: proton count is not equal to electron count  HINT AT THE SCIENTIFIC ATOM
 Antoine Lavoisier
Ion – charged atom/particle  Law of conservation of mass – wherein
 anion – more electron than proton; negative in mass cannot be created nor destroyed
charge  Joseph Proust (1997)
 cation – more proton than electron; positive in  Law of definite proportion – for every
charge compound has a fixed proportion
 John Dalton
description Net Atomic Mass Ion  Law of multiple proportion – (Mass A +
charge number number symbol Mass B = Mass C)
15 p+  Atomic theory
1) Elements are made of
16 n0 3- 15 31 P3- indivisible particle called atom
18 e-
(voided due to subatomic
particles)
Isotopes – different varieties of element’s atom; have
2) Same elements are exactly
different neutron count; different mass; some are
alike; they have the same mass
radioactive and others not.
(voided due to isotopes)
3) Compounds are formed by
Common
isotopes mass Proton neutron joining of atoms of two or more
name
elements in fixed, whole ratio.
H-1 1 1 0 Protium
 William Crookes (1870s)
H-2 2 1 1 Deuterium
 Rays causing shadows were emitted
H-3 3 1 2 Tritium from cathode
C-12 12 6 6 -  Crookes’ tube
C-14 14 6 8 -  Joseph john Thomson
 Discovered that cathode rays are
deflected by electric and magnetic field
  William Thomson
 Plum pudding model
- equal quantities of positive and
negative charge distributed uniformly in
atom
 James Chadwick
 Discovered neutron in 1932
 Neutron has no charge and are hard to
detect
 Purpose of neutron is to stabilize
nucleus
 Bubble chamber
 Ernest Rutherford
 Gold leaf experiment
- Beam of alpha-particles directed at the
gold leaf surrounded by
phosphorescent (ZnS)
- Conclusion:
A. Atom is mostly empty space
B. Positive particles are
concentrated at center
C. Negative are orbiting the
nucleus
 RECENT ATOMIC MODEL
 Max Planck (1900)
 Amount of energy are quantized
 *only certain value are allowed
 Niels Bohr (1913)
 Electron can possess only certain
amount of energy and can therefore be
only certain distance from nucleus
 Schrodinger, Pauli, Heisenberg, Dirac (~1940)
 Quantum Mechanical Model
- we never know for certain the
electron in an atom, but the
equation of the QMM tells us
the probability that we will find
an electron at a certain distance
from nucleus
AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS (AAM)
-this is the weight of all atom of an element measured
-average mass of isotopes
AAM = Mass A (A%) + Mass B (B%) +
… Xe, Rn)
Electron configuration – shows the distribution of
electron in an atom
 energy level/shell
 region outside nucleus where electrons
are found
 energy sub-level/sub-shell
 region within energy level
 has 4 types: sharp, principal, diffuse,
fundamental
Valence shell – outermost energy level or energy shell;
last energy level
Valence electron – electrons at the valence shell
Orbital diagram
Atomic Diagram
n0
p+
Electron jogging rule
1. max of 2 electron per jogging track (i.e. orbital)
2. easier orbital fills up first
3. electron must go 100x around
4. all orbital of equal difficulty must have one
electron before any doubling up
5. electron on the same orbital must go opposite
ways
3 principles about electron
1. Aufbau Principle
 electron will take lowest energy orbital
available
2. Hund’s Rule
 For equal energy orbital, each must
have one electron before any take a
second
3. Pauli’s exclusion principle
 two electron in same orbital have
different direction
Core method electron configuration
 short-cut of the electron configuration
 uses core elements/noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr,
I = [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5
Kernel Electrons – an inner energy level; close to
nucleus
Valence electron – in outer energy level (*involve in
chemical atom)