Perancangan Tungku Berapi Industri

Silabus Ringkas
Mata kuliah ini membahas perancangan tungku industri dengan menganalisis
sistem dan perubahan energinya. Pembahasan meliputi: Energi: sistem, energi
termal, energi dalam industri proses, konversi, konservasi; Pembakaran: bahan
bakar gas, minyak, dan padat, batas keterbakaran, laju dan panas pembakaran,
analisis komposisi, sifat fisik, stoikiometri, termodinamika, efisensi termal,
penghematan energi, operasi pembakaran, pembakaran tidak sempuma, emisi
polutan, burner,premix, non-premix; Tungku industri berapi: tungku pemanasan,
konfigurasi tungku, metodapemasokan udara, instrumentasi, pengendalian, dinding
tungku, fluida kerja; Perpindahan panas:radiasi, konveksi, konduksi; Analisis kinerja
dan perancangan tungku berapi: pers.empiris, prosedur praktis, metoda
komputasi. Mata kuliah ini memberikan kemampuan merancang tungku industri
secara efektif dan efisien

Daftar Pustaka
1. Rhine, J. and Tucker, 1991, Modelling of Gas-Fired Furnaces and Boilers,
McGraw-Hill
2. Monnot,G., 1985, Principles of Turbulent Fired Heater, Gulf Publishing Company
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
 Introduction
Up to this point the heat Q in all problems and examples was
either a given value or was obtained from the First Law
relation. However in various heat engines, gas turbines, and
steam power plants the heat is obtained from combustion
processes, using either solid fuel (e.g. coal or wood). liquid fuel
(e.g. gasolene, kerosine, or diesel fuel), or gaseous fuel (e.g.
natural gas or propane).

Introduce the chemistry and thermodynamics of combustion

of generic hydrocarbon fuels - (CxHy), in which the oxydizer is
the oxygen contained in atmospheric air. Note that we will not
cover the combustion of solid fuels or the complex blends
and mixtures of the hydrocarbons which make up gasolene,
kerosene, or diesel fuels.
 Atmospheric Air
Contains approximately 21% oxygen (O2) by
volume. The other 79% of "other gases" is
mostly nitrogen (N2), so we will assume air to
be composed of 21% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen by volume. Thus each mole of oxygen
needed to oxidize the hydrocarbon is
accompanied by 79/21 = 3.76 moles of
nitrogen. Using this combination the molecular
mass of air becomes 29 [kg/kmol]. Note that it
is assumed that the nitrogen will not normally
undergo any chemical reaction.
 The Combustion Process
The basic combustion process can be described by the fuel (the
hydrocarbon) plus oxydizer (air or oxygen) called the Reactants,
which undergo a chemical process while releasing heat to form the
Products of combustion such that mass is conserved. In the simplest
combustion process, known as Stoichiometric Combustion, all the
carbon in the fuel forms carbon dioxide (CO2) and all the hydrogen
forms water (H2O) in the products, thus we can write the chemical
reaction as follows:

where z is known as the stoichiometric coefficient for the oxidizer (air)

Note that this reaction yields five unknowns: z, a, b, c, d, thus we need
five equations to solve. Stoichiometric combustion assumes that no
excess oxygen exists in the products, thus d = 0. We obtain the other
four equations from balancing the number of atoms of each element in
the reactants (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen) with the number
of atoms of those elements in the products. This means that no atoms
are destroyed or lost in a combustion reaction.

Amount in Amount in Reduced

Element =
reactants Products equation
Carbon (C) x a a=x
Hydrogen
y 2b b = y/2
(H)
Oxygen (O) 2z 2a+b z = a + b/2
Nitrogen (N) 2(3.76)z 2c c = 3.76z
 If d ≠ 0
Amount in Amount in Reduced
Element =
reactants Products equation
Carbon (C) x a a=x
Hydrogen
y 2b b = y/2
(H)
Oxygen (O) 2Z 2a+b+2d x+y/4+d
Nitrogen (N) 2(3.76)z 2c c = 3.76z

1. Neraca atom karbon (C)= a=x

2. Neraca atom hidrogen (H)= b=y/2

3. Neraca atom oksigen (O)= z=x+y/4+d

4. Neraca atom nitrogen (N)= 2(3,76)= 3,76 z

:z, a, b, c, d, thus we need five equations to solve

As an example consider the stoichiometric combustion of
methane (CH4) in atmospheric air. Equating the molar
coefficients of the reactants and the products we obtain:
 Theoretical Air and Air-Fuel Ratio
The minimum amount of air which will allow the complete combustion of
the fuel is called the Theoretical Air (also referred to as Stoichiometric
Air). In this case the products do not contain any oxygen. If we supply
less than theoretical air then the products could include carbon monoxide
(CO), thus it is normal practice to supply more than theoretical air to
prevent this occurrence. This Excess Air will result in oxygen appearing
in the products.

The standard measure of the amount of air used in a combustion

process is the Air-Fuel Ratio (AF), defined as follows:
Thus considering only the reactants of the methane
combustion with theoretical air presented above, we obtain:
Problem 1

Develop the combustion equation and

determine the air-fuel ratio for the complete
combustion of n-Butane (C4H10) with
a) theoretical air, and
b) 50% excess air.
Analysis of the Products of
Combustion

Combustion always occurs at elevated

temperatures and we assume that all the
products of combustion (including the water
vapor) behave as ideal gases. Since they
have different gas constants, it is
convenient to use the ideal gas equation of
state in terms of the universal gas constant
as follows:
In the analysis of the products of combustion there are a number of
items of interest:

1) What is the percentage volume of specific products, in

particular carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide
(CO)?
2) What is the dew point of the water vapor in the
combustion products? This requires evaluation of the
partial pressure of the water vapor component of the
products.
3) There are experimental methods of volumetric analysis of
the products of combustion, normally done on a Dry
Basis, yielding the volume percentage of all the
components except the water vapor. This allows a simple
method of determining the actual air-fuel ratio and
excess air used in a combustion process.
For ideal gases we find that the mole fraction yi of the i'th
component in a mixture of gases at a specific pressure P
and temperature T is equal to the volume fraction of that
component

Furthermore, since the sum of the component volumes Vi

must equal the total volume V, we have:
Using a similar approach we determine the partial pressure
of a component using Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures:
 Problem 2
Propane (C3H8) is burned with 61% excess
air, which enters a combustion chamber at
25°C. Assuming complete combustion and
a total pressure of 1 atm (101.32 kPa),
determine
a) the air-fuel ratio [kg-air/kg-fuel],
b) the percentage of carbon dioxide by
volume in the products, and
c) the dew point temperature of the
products.
Problem 3
Ethane (C2H6) is burned with
atmospheric air, and the volumetric
analysis of the dry products of
combustion yields the following: 10%
CO2, 1% CO, 3% O2, and 86% N2.
Develop the combustion equation, and
determine
a) the percentage of excess air,
b) the air-fuel ratio, and
c) the dew point of the combustion
products.
 The First Law Analysis of Combustion
The main purpose of combustion is to produce heat through a change of
enthalpy from the reactants to the products. From the First Law equation
in a control volume, ignoring kinetic and potential energy changes and
assuming no work is done, we have:

where the summations are taken over all the products (p) and the reactants
(r). N refers to the number of moles of each component and h [kJ/kmol]
refers to the molar enthalpy of each component.

Since there are a number of different substances involved we need to

establish a common reference state to evaluate the enthalpy, the common
choice being 25°C and 1 atm which is normally denoted with a superscript o
 Combustion Molar Enthalpy Tables
As an example, consider again the complete combustion of
Methane (CH4) with theoretical air:

Notice that in the reactants and the products of the above example we
have basic elements O2 and N2 as well as compounds CH4, CO2, and
H2O. When the compound is formed then the enthalpy change is called
the Enthalpy of Formation, denoted hfo, and for our example:
 hfo
Substance Formula
[kJ/kmol]
Carbon dioxide CO2(g) -393.520
Water Vapor H2O(g) -241.820
Water H2O(l) -285.820
Methane CH4(g) -74.850
Propana C3H8 -103.847
where (g) refers to gas and (l) refers to liquid
The negative sign means that the process is Exothermic, i.e. heat is
given off when the compound is formed. Note that the enthalpy of
formation of basic elements O2 and N2 is zero.
Consider first the case in which there is sufficient heat transfer
such that both the reactants and the products are at 25°C and 1
atm pressure, and that the water product is liquid. Since there is
no sensible enthalpy change the energy equation becomes:

This heat (Qcv) is called the Enthalpy of Combustion or the Heating Value of the
fuel. If the products contain liquid water then it is the Higher Heating Value (as in
our example), however if the product contains water vapor then it is the Lower
Heating Value of the fuel. The enthalpy of combustion is the largest amount of
heat that can be released by a given fuel.
N. Specie Mw,i (kg/kmol)  f H i (kJ/mol) N. Specie Mw,i (kg/kmol)  f H i (kJ/mol)
0 0

1 H 1.008 217.986 30 CH2OH 31.035 -58.576

2 HNO 31.016 99.579 31 CH4 16.043 -74.873
3 OH 17.008 39.463 32 CH3OH 32.043 -200.581
4 HO2 33.008 20.920 33 CO 28.011 -110.529
5 H2 2.016 0.000 34 CO2 44.011 -393.522
6 H2O 18.016 -241.826 35 CN 26.019 456.056
7 H2O2 34.016 -136.105 36 C2 24.022 832.616
8 N 14.008 472.645 37 C2H 25.030 476.976
9 NO 30.008 90.290 38 C2H2 26.038 226.731
10 NO2 46.008 33.095 39 C2H3 27.046 279.910
11 N2 28.016 0.000 40 CH3CO 43.046 -25.104
12 N2O 44.016 82.048 41 C2H4 28.054 52.283
13 O 16.000 249.194 42 CH3COH 44.054 -165.979
14 O2 32.000 0.000 43 C2H5 29.062 110.299
15 O3 48.000 142.674 44 C2H6 30.070 -84.667
16 NH 15.016 331.372 45 C3H8 44.097 -103.847
17 NH2 16.024 168.615 46 C4H2 50.060 465.679
18 NH3 17.032 -46.191 47 C4H3 51.068 455.847
19 N2H2 30.032 212.965 48 C4H8 56.108 16.903
20 N2H3 31.040 153.971 49 C4H10 58.124 -134.516
21 N2H4 32.048 95.186 50 C5H10 70.135 -35.941
22 C 12.011 715.003 51 C5H12 72.151 -160.247
23 CH 13.019 594.128 52 C6H12 84.152 -59.622
24 HCN 27.027 130.540 53 C6H14 86.178 -185.560
25 HCNO 43.027 -116.733 54 C7H14 98.189 -72.132
26 HCO 29.019 -12.133 55 C7H16 100.205 -197.652
27 CH2 14.027 385.220 56 C8H16 112.216 -135.821
28 CH2O 30.027 -115.896 57 C8H18 114.232 -223.676
29 CH3 15.035 145.686 58 C(solido) 12.011 0.000
 Adiabatic Flame Temperature
The opposite extreme of the above example in which we evaluated the
enthalpy of combustion is the case of an adiabatic process in which no
heat is released. This results in a significant temperature increase in
the products of combustion (denoted the Adiabatic Flame
Temperature) which can only be reduced by an increase in the air-fuel
ratio.

Problem 4
Determine the adiabatic flame temperature for the
complete combustion of Methane ( CH4) with 250%
theoretical air in an adiabatic control volume.
 This equation can only be solved by an iterative trial and
error procedure using the tables of Sensible Enthalpy vs
Temperature for all four components of the products -
CO2, H2O, O2, and N2. A quick approximation to the
adiabatic flame temperature can be obtained by assuming
that the products consist entirely of air

This approach was introduced to us by Potter and Somerton in their

Schaum's Outline of Thermodynamics for Engineers, in which they
assumed all the products to be N2. We find it more convenient to use
air assuming a representative value of the Specific Heat Capacity of
Air: Cp,1000K = 1.142 [kJ/kg.K].
 Thus summing all the moles of the products we have:

Using the tables of Sensible Enthalpy vs Temperature we

evaluated the enthalpy of all four products at a temperature of
1280K. This resulted in a total enthalpy of 802,410 [kJ/kmol
fuel], which is extremely close to the required value, thus
justifying this approach.
Determine the adiabatic flame temperature for
the complete combustion of Propane ( C3H8)
with 250% theoretical air in an adiabatic control
volume [T = 1300K].
 AFT CH4 Stokiometrik
Cp,i
Substance Formula hfo [kJ/kmol] (kJ/kmol.K)
@ 1200 K
Carbon
CO2(g) -393.520 56.21
dioxide
Water Vapor H2O(g) -241.820 43.87
Water H2O(l) -285.820 -
Methane CH4(g) -74.831 -
Nitrogen N2(g) 0 33.71
Oksigen O2 (g) 0 -
 CH4 + 2 (O2+3,76N2) →1CO2 + 2H2O + 7,52 N2

Hreak = Σni hi reaktan = Hproduk = Σni hi produk

Hreak = 1 −74.831 + 2 0 + 7.25 0 = −74.831 kJ

Hproduk = Σ𝑛𝑖 [ℎ𝑓,𝑖 + 𝑐𝑝,𝑖 (𝑇𝑎𝑑. -298)]

= 1 [-393.546+ 56,21 (Tad-298) + 2 [-241.845+ 43,87 (Tad-298)

+ 7,52 [0+ 33,71 (Tad-298)

Hreak = −74.831 kJ= Hproduk == 1 [-393.546+ 56,21 (Tad-298)

+ 2 [-241.845+ 43,87 (Tad-298) + 7,52 [0+ 33,71 (Tad-298)
Tad ?