Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MARS
EXPLORING
THE RED PLANET
CONTENTS
2 A fresh look at Mars
Seven spacecraft work to uncover Mars’ mysteries.
8 Curiosity’s latest findings from Mars
Curiosity continues its mission of discovery on the Red Planet.
14 How moon dust will put a ring around Mars
What will happen when Phobos is shredded into a ring?
MARS: NASA, ESA, THE HUBBLE HERITAGE TEAM (STSCI/AURA), J. BELL (ASU), AND M. WOLFF (SPACE SCIENCE INSTITUTE); ROVER: NASA
W W W.ASTR ONOMY.CO M 1
Fourth rock
NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MSSS/NMMNHS;
water once existed in this area. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/
CORNELL UNIVERSITY/ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY Endeavour
5 miles
It also has built up an impressive collec- The mission’s Context Camera has
tion of chemical and mineral maps of the imaged more than 90 percent of the mar-
surface that have helped scientists under- tian surface at a resolution of about 20 feet
stand the distribution of ground ice as well (6m) per pixel. An even higher-resolution
as new details about the planet’s geology camera, the High Resolution Imaging
and mineralogy. Thanks to the mission’s Science Experiment, helps scientists study
longevity, the Mars Odyssey team recently intricate details in small gullies apparently
was able to complete a global set of infra- created by seeping water, identify fresh
red geologic maps at a resolution of around impact craters formed within the past
330 feet (100 meters) per pixel. These are decade, and even spot alien spacecraft
Curiosity continues to explore the layered rocks the highest-resolution maps of surface parts on the surface — most recently, the
on Mount Sharp’s lower slopes. In September properties yet created for Mars and are likely wreckage from the 2003 crash of
2014, the rover drilled its first hole on the moun- Curiosity discovered these two-toned mineral veins on the lower slopes of Mount Sharp in March
2015. They apparently formed when water flowed through fractured rock and deposited minerals
helping researchers differentiate bedrock ESA’s Beagle-2 lander.
tain to collect samples for onboard analysis. The
hole measures 0.63 inch (1.6 centimeters) across in the cracks. The veins appear as a network of ridges, each of which measures up to 2.5 inches from sediments and dust-covered surfaces.
and 2.6 inches (6.7cm) deep. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MSSS (6 centimeters) thick and half that in width. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MSSS The second-oldest orbiter is ESA’s Mars The new arrivals
Express, which went into an elliptical orbit Two rookies recently joined these three vet-
formed when water alters basaltic volcanic between water and subsurface rock? Or around the planet in late 2003. The space- eran orbiters. ISRO’s Mars Orbiter Mission
rock, and jarosite, an iron- and sulfur- could it be from some subsurface biological craft’s instruments have been mapping the (MOM), also called Mangalyaan, is India’s
NASA/JPL-CALTECH/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
bearing mineral that can arise when volca- process? Although the latter seems unlikely, geology (in 3-D), mineralogy, and atmo- first interplanetary mission. And when it
nic rock interacts with mildly acidic water. mission scientists don’t want to discount spheric chemistry of Mars during each entered Mars orbit in September 2014, that
These kinds of mineral discoveries any possibilities until they perform addi- close pass ever since. They have discovered nation became the first to achieve success
coupled with spectacular images of finely tional measurements and analyses. minerals that can form only in the pres- at the Red Planet on its first try. MOM’s
layered sandstones and mudstones (fine- ence of water, vast amounts of water ice primary purpose is to test basic spacecraft
NASA/JPL-CALTECH/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
grained sedimentary rocks that typically The view from above beneath the martian surface, and lava and instrument capabilities as well as ISRO’s
form in water’s presence) are beginning to In the meantime, five active probes — three flows that might be only a few million ability to journey to Mars and operate suc-
paint a clearer picture of Mount Sharp. from NASA, one from the European Space years old. The High Resolution Stereo cessfully from orbit there. But in the process
Scientists now suspect it is an enormous Agency (ESA), and one from the Indian Camera continues to crank out spectacular of demonstrating these technologies and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter captured
this impact crater, which formed in the past five
accumulation of sediments deposited in an Space Research Organization (ISRO) — are topographic maps of volcanoes, craters, skills, the spacecraft has captured some years. This enhanced-color close-up reveals the
ancient lake that periodically filled Gale plying the orbital seas above Mars. Using a and canyons across the planet. The 3-D stunning color photos of the martian sur- 100-foot-wide (30 meters) scar and debris that
Crater early in the planet’s warmer and variety of sophisticated instruments, these images are helping scientists understand face and atmosphere from its highly ellipti- spreads up to 9 miles (15 kilometers) away.
wetter history. It’s an exciting hypothesis, spacecraft are scouting the planet’s geology, the details of past geologic processes and cal orbit.
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter captured
but Curiosity needs to do a lot more climb- mineralogy, and atmospheric composition adding key information to the search for NASA’s newest artificial martian satellite
Curiosity’s
sumably, once-flowing water. on Mars, strange things can happen.” just wet — it had Goldilocks conditions:
“We didn’t just stumble into this area,” While some of Curiosity’s discoveries have salty but not too salty, not too acidic, not
said John Grotzinger, Curiosity’s project not been surprising, others have changed too basic, and full of porridge-like chemical
scientist, in a press conference March 7, the public conception of Mars from a dead, energy for metabolism. These results came
2013. Scientists chose Gale Crater after dusty place to one that has been evolving from the first rock Curiosity drilled, Febru-
much debate about balancing safety and for billions of years and continues, even ary 8. The fine-grained rock, called John
science. After all, it doesn’t matter if inter- now, to do so. Klein, sits where streams appear to have
esting geology lies at the top of a boulder- When NASA launched Curiosity, it had descended from the crater’s rim, perhaps
strewn outcrop if your rover drives off a biological, geological, and chemical goals. leaving standing water, and is covered in
latest findings
cliff. Gale Crater presented few such physi- But the mission’s umbrella objective is to nodules and veins. The rover bored a 2.5-
cal obstacles and appeared to offer diverse determine whether Mars was ever habitable. inch (6.4 centimeters) hole into it, sending
geology within a small area. Proximity is Grotzinger was quick to point out, though, samples to its Sample Analysis at Mars
important: While the rover can move, engi- that the rover is not there to determine (SAM) and Chemistry and Mineralogy
neers expect it to drive only 12 miles (20km) whether metabolizing microbes actually (CheMin) instruments, which investigate
in its lifetime, making targets separated by were on Mars. “We are not a life-detection chemical makeup.
15 miles (24km) undesirable. mission,” he said in March. Curiosity A month passed before NASA
Gale Crater is also home to Mount instead will determine whether life could announced that the sample suggested a
from Mars
Sharp, a 18,000-foot-tall (5.5km) mountain have arisen and survived there. And the water-wet, life-friendly spot. When Curios-
toward which Curiosity currently is travel- answer is directly applicable to us mammals ity ran John Klein through its spectrometers
ing. But it’s going to take a while to get and microbes: If Curiosity discovers that and X-ray diffractors, the agency said, it
Mars used to be hospitable and has turned found sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen,
During Curiosity’s 177th day on the Red Planet barren, what does that mean for our planet? phosphorus, and carbon. Sulfates (sulfur
— February 3, 2013 — it took the dozens of im- Christopher Edwards, a postdoctoral plus oxygen) signal the presence of water.
ages that, combined, make this full self-portrait.
fellow at the California Institute of Technol- Ancient, hardy bacteria on Earth use sul-
Soon after, the rover drilled into its first rock,
becoming the first machine to sample the interior ogy and a member of the Curiosity science fides (compounds containing sulfur minus
of another planet. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MSSS team, confirms, “[We’re] going to look for two electrons) as fuel. DNA, meanwhile, is
© 2014 Kalmbach Publishing Co. This material may not be reproduced in any W W W.A S TR O N O MY.CO M 9
form without permission from the publisher. www.Astronomy.com
Drilling into John Klein
intersection called Glenelg. Its Dynamic
Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) detector
searched for slow neutrons, which indicate
the presence of water. Cosmic rays con-
i a l fan stantly strike the planet’s surface, kicking
Alluv neutrons out of their atoms. If the ejected After Curiosity drilled
Water into its first rock, the
neutrons interact with hydrogen atoms on
instruments heated the
their way out of the ground, they slow sample to 1535° Fahren-
down. DAN looks for low-energy neutrons heit (835° Celsius). As it
and, based on their abundance, can tell how became hotter, the dust
released water, carbon
full of water molecules the ground is. On its dioxide, oxygen, sulfur
travels, Curiosity sometimes saw water Carbon dioxide dioxide, and hydrogen
merely on the surface, but other times the Forms sulfide. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY,
Signal strength
chemistry extended more than 15 inches of sulfur AFTER NASA/JPL-CALTECH/GSFC
lakes. In addition to drilling rocks toward they also spewed plumes of methane, a
that end, the rover also has scooped soil. At powerful greenhouse gas, into the air. The
a sandbox called Rocknest, its SAM instru- gas trapped the Sun’s heat, and the heat re-
ment heated the dirt to 932° Fahrenheit radiated from the martian ground — a
(500° Celsius), and evidence of water, sulfur, combination that potentially warmed Mars
Scientists receive images directly from Curiosity — the raw files (left) — but from there, they have two Curiosity collected the first drilled sample from another planet. The next day, its Chemistry Camera
options. They can process the pictures to show the view as it would look if you were standing on Mars and chlorine compounds popped out. enough for liquid water to exist despite its sent laser pulses into the rock, creating the smaller holes. The larger hole has a diameter of 0.6 inch
(middle), or they can white-balance the photos so the scene looks as it would under Earth-lighting (right). But the most satisfying answer came distance from the Sun. (1.6 centimeters) and is 2.5 inches (6.4cm) deep. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/LANL/IRAP/CNES/LPGNANTES/IAS/CNRS/MSSS
from close-up pictures the MastCam took But Mars’ atmosphere is depleted now,
of three rocks. The images are from the first too thin to keep the planet warm, and Curi-
made of phosphates (phosphorus plus Water, water 40 days of the mission, but analysis did not osity discovered how, exactly, the once-thick element with different numbers of neutrons. as a generally dynamic place, rather than a
oxygen), carbohydrates (carbon, hydrogen, So now we know Mars was, at some point, come right away. In June, scientists deter- blanket became so threadbare. Its SAM The more neutrons an isotope has, the Pompeii-style preservation of a bygone era.
and oxygen), and nitrogen groups. In short, wet. But how long was the water there? How mined that “Goulburn,” “Link,” and “Hot- instrument analyzed the abundances of “heavier” it is. Scientists can compare the Mars’ surface is lively, a fact Curiosity
John Klein contains the ingredients neces- deep and extensive was it? Initial results tah” — as the rocks are affectionately isotopes, which are versions of the same light-to-heavy isotope ratio in today’s mar- must contend with to reach its next destina-
sary to whip up a batch of life. And the pH- from a third Curiosity instrument — the known — are glued-together pebbles. On tian atmosphere to that of the early solar tion. Simone Silvestro, a postdoctoral
balanced, fresh(ish) conditions would have Mast Camera (MastCam), which uses near- Earth — and so, presumably, on Mars — system. If Mars were not letting atoms researcher at the SETI Institute in Moun-
been favorable to that life’s survival. infrared vision to detect iron- and water- sediments stick together like this when they escape, the two would be the same. tain View, California, demonstrated that
“A fundamental question for this mis- bearing minerals — suggest the planet’s wet are immersed in flowing water. To create But SAM found that heavy isotopes of the martian wind is, as you read this sen-
sion is whether Mars could have supported habitability was not limited to the resting deposits the size of Goulburn’s, Link’s, and hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and argon are tence, reshaping the planet’s dunes. He
a habitable environment,” says Michael place of a single rock but extended at least Hottah’s, the martian stream would have more prevalent on Mars than they were in compared results from ground-level wind
Meyer, the lead astronomer for NASA’s up to Mount Sharp. been ankle- to hip-deep and flowing about the solar system’s early years. In other sensors to satellite images and saw that the
Mars Exploration Program located in Scientists have long had solid evidence 3 feet per second (1 m/s). words, the planet, which has low gravity wind pushed the dunes surrounding Mount
Washington, D.C. “From what we know that water used to flow across the surface of Although scientists speak of the streams and no significant magnetic field, can’t Sharp some 1.3 feet (0.4m) each year. “The
now, the answer is yes.” Mission accom- the Red Planet. Data dating back to the in the past tense, Mars retains some of its hang on to its lighter isotopes. It has evolved action of the wind is the most active process
plished, but far from over. Viking landers of the 1970s provided proof water in frozen form. Curiosity found out since its early years, losing lighter atoms. It in shaping the planet,” Silvestro says.
of the H2O molecule’s existence, but Curios- just how much is there, searching for ice Curiosity’s 1.6-inch-wide (4 centimeters) scoop
actively continues to lose its less substantive Silvestro works with research scientist
created these divots in the sand at Rocknest. At
Sarah Scoles is an associate editor at ity is doing its part to show that the H2O on-the-go as it traveled from Yellowknife this location, the sand consists of a crust of coarse substances today. And the more scientists Lori Fenton, who is excited by this proof
Astronomy magazine. came in the form of rivers, streams, and Bay to its next big landmark: a three-terrain grains atop finer dust. NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MSSS learn about the planet, the more they see it that Mars isn’t a “dead” planet. “You can
(centimeters)
30 Albedo of Neutrons
20 instrument detects the
Depth
10 presence of hydrogen,
0 and thus water. On
Mars, most of this water
5 is bound to minerals,
Bradbury Driving from Bradbury to Rocknest Point Lake Yellowknife which are then called
and Bay “hydrated.” The amount
Gillespie
Average water in
What’s inside martian sand?
actually see how wind and water have 2
ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER NASA/
JPL-CALTECH/RUSSIAN SPACE RESEARCH
played a role in martian history,” she says. INSTITUTE
“To me that’s living, breathing.” The rover Some martian geology is remarkably similar to 1
will have to travel up and over this lively that of Earth. The Link outcrop on Mars (top) has
O2 16 16
O2 Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide The sand that Curios-
surface in the coming months to continue ity scooped at Rocknest
small gravel pieces called clasts embedded in the
106(oxygen (oxygen
0
its scientific work. 106 larger rock. Erosion can release clasts, which fall to 0 200 400 600
isotope) isotope) contains sulfur, chlorine,
the ground and create piles of pebbles. A similar Odometry (meters)
and oxygen compounds.
sedimentary formation on Earth is on the bottom.
A time machine O O 16O18O
16 18
HydrogenHydrogen
To determine the mate-
rial’s composition, the
Detector counts/second
Detector counts/second
Mars was more violent between 3.5 and 4.5 105 105 (oxygen (oxygen sulfide sulfide Sample Analysis at Mars
isotope) isotope)
billion years ago. This time period, known instrument heated it and is old. “Look at a typical rock in your back- “safe mode” after a software malfunction Curiosity is making inquiries into Earth’s
as the Noachian Era, saw the formation of analyzed the resulting yard,” Edwards continues. “It probably March 16; and the rover popped a wheelie prehistory. In September, scientists
emissions. Perchlorates
large impact craters, such as Gale, which are 104 104
— compounds containing formed 100 million years ago. On Mars, for a while in June. But the system generally announced that they had found a rock,
ready-to-use tools for scientists. Barlow chlorine and oxygen — in rocks have been sitting on the surface for works. In fact, it works so well that Curios- which they called Jake Matijevic, that was
phrases it more aggressively: “I like to refer the sample could indicate billions of years. You have an unadulterated ity sometimes operates without a baby sitter, nearly indistinguishable from a certain kind
to impact craters as ‘nature’s drills.’ ” the presence of accompa- record of rocks that often formed 3 billion reacting to obstacles without checking in of volcanic rock on Earth. The similarities
103 103
nying organic molecules.
Because of their low-lying bottoms, cra- ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY, AFTER NASA/ years ago, a period that has been largely with ground control. suggest Mars’ interior may be more similar
ter floors collect material that flowed from JPL-CALTECH/GSFC erased on Earth.” The rover’s first year of results will help to Earth’s than anyone thought.
higher elevations. If they were once wet, for 102 102 Sending a rover to Mars is like going space agencies put astronauts’ boots on the “You can think of planets as giant labo-
instance, they retain sediments and depos- back in time. When Curiosity samples a ground — eventually. Astronomers need to ratory experiments set up 4.5 billion years
its. Some rocks in Gale formed when flow- 200 200 400 400 600 600 800 800 streambed, it peers into a period in the solar thoroughly understand this desert planet if ago,” says Bandfield. “Each has slightly dif-
Sample temperature
Sample temperature
(Celsius) (Celsius)
ing water cemented material together, while system’s history that we — earthlings who the United States is going to send humans ferent proportions of rock, water, etc.” How
some rocks formed from volcanic activity. build structures on top of our wetter, more there in 2020, as President Obama plans. did those slightly different proportions lead
Curiosity can investigate both types. Mount Sharp, where the rover is headed, 61° F (16° C), while Mars is only a frigid volcanic, more pressurized, and more tec- Curiosity is pushing that agenda forward by to such radically different results? Specifi-
Gale Crater showcases parts of Mars that also has rocky strata compacted together –31° F (–35° C). tonic planet — cannot easily access. learning where meltwater-ice supplies are cally, how did they produce Mars — a
are below the surface but used to be the sur- like a book of pressed flowers, if a book of Curiosity, so mindful of its own condi- and measuring how much radiation reaches planet that may have been habitable, but not
face. “The layers exposed in craters provide pressed flowers contained flora from geo- tion that it is almost self-aware, also uses Where to next? the surface each day. With current technol- inhabited, in the distant past — and Earth,
insights into past environments quite differ- logical eras separated by millions of years. REMS to determine how strongly the atmo- Curiosity is continuing its long trek toward ogy, the level of radiation — about a CT a geologically similar planet now teeming
ent from what we see on the planet today,” sphere is pressing down. The pressure Mount Sharp, and it will stop along the way scan’s worth every five days — is too high. with everything from upright mammals
says Barlow. If Curiosity looks at the differ- It’s no Earth between mid-August 2012 and late Febru- whenever scientists see something interest- But as long as scientists know that, they can to archaebacteria?
ent strata — just like a scientist in the Grand While it’s unlikely that Mars ever had ary 2013 — about a quarter of a martian ing. So far, their plans have encountered work to innovate new protections. “We study these other planets to reflect
Canyon might sample different elevations mammals, it was habitable, at least in spots. year — slid upward by 0.029 pound per only minor blips: Curiosity’s computer had Aside from the logistical investigations on ourselves,” says Edwards. “It’s a system,
along the rock walls — it can help scientists But like on Earth, conditions there vary square inch. This seasonal change occurs a memory glitch February 28; it flipped into into whether humans can hack it on Mars, right? Our solar system.”
learn more about the planet’s past. from region to region, just as Earth is home because the spring sunlight causes carbon
to both the Badlands and the bayou. For dioxide (CO2) to sublimate from the south-
instance, Curiosity has found that the plan- ern polar cap. The CO2 becomes part of the
et’s relative humidity changes based on its planet’s atmosphere, increasing its mass by
location. The Rover Environmental Moni- 30 percent each time the season rolls
toring Station (REMS) saw the humidity around. But even the highest pressure is
drop from 60 percent to about 5 percent in 0.0095 atmosphere, not even a hundredth
the 0.25 mile (400m) between the landing the pressure we experience on Earth.
NASA/JPL-CALTECH/MSSS
site and the sandy area where the rover So although the planet resembles Utah,
spent its 55th to 101st days on Mars. remember Earth and Mars are still quite
The surface temperature, though, did different. For one, everything Curiosity sees
not depend on the rover’s location, at least is gigantic. “The scale of features on Mars is
Curiosity’s Mast Camera snapped this portrait not on small scales. The average daily high massive,” says Edwards. “When I look at a
of the rover’s Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer has been a still-freezing 32° F (0° C), while crater, I always have to tell myself, ‘That
(APXS). Scientists directed the camera to take In this 360° image, taken during Curiosity’s 59th Earth day on Mars, the Navigation Camera recorded Rocknest in the foreground and Aeolis Mons (Mount Sharp)
the image to determine whether APXS had been the low averages –94° F (–70° C). On Earth, crater is bigger than the entire Los Angeles in the background. The mountain rises some 18,000 feet (5.5 kilometers) from the floor of Gale Crater. The rover currently is on its way to Mount Sharp, leaving
covered in dust during the rover’s landing. the average temperature is a comfortable Basin.’ ” Secondly, everything Curiosity sees more tracks like those in the right portion of the image. NASA/JPL-CALTECH
© 2016 Kalmbach Publishing Co. This material may not be reproduced in any form
14 A ST R O N O M Y • MA without
R S: EXPLORING T H Ethe
permission from R ED PL ANEwww.Astronomy.com
publisher. T W W W.A S TR O N O MY.CO M 15
Lord of the rings RINGS OF THE GIANT PLANETS
While we know of thousands of exoplanets, only one exoring system has been found. J1407b is a massive planet Jupiter’s four faint and dusty rings proba- impacts. What’s more, the current rate of
bly formed by a different mechanism than meteoroid impacts among moons and JUPITER
with rings so large they block out their parent star’s light. It has a total of 30 systems in its rings, and the system
has a diameter of 74 million miles (119 million kilometers). To put that in perspective, if the ring system were around Saturn’s — and more recently — but its other icy bodies at Uranus’ distance is
our Sun, it would stretch all the way past Venus and fall a bit short of Earth’s orbit. J1407b is massive enough that moons still play a vital role. Amalthea and enough to create all the observed rings Main Thebe Thebe
it may not technically qualify as a planet, and may instead be a brown dwarf, a class of objects encompassing Thebe are the likely sources of the material and dust bands circling that planet. Halo gossamer extension
“failed stars.” The object is estimated to be 20 times more massive than Jupiter. RON MILLER in Jupiter’s outer two “gossamer” rings. Because the rings appear to be young,
Thebe orbits within the outer gossamer probably not more than 600 million years
ring, while Amalthea lies near the outer old, the material in the rings must be con- Amalthea 50,000 km
gossamer
edge of the inner gossamer ring. Metis and tinually renewed. Particles blasted off the
30,000 miles
Adrastea, two other small moons, orbit tiny moons and still-unseen moonlets by
near the outer edge of Jupiter’s main ring, collisions and meteoroid strikes continually
and are the sources of the dust grains mak- add material to the rings, while the dust SATURN
ing up the main and innermost halo rings. continues to dissipate. Janus/Epimetheus
D B
Some forces work against the rings, Neptune’s five rings and various dust A
keeping them relatively thin. bands are probably even younger than
G Pallene E
Electromagnetic forces, a phenomenon those of Uranus, and the same processes
called plasma drag, and even pressure are likely responsible for them and the F
from sunlight (called the Poynting- moons that orbit in or near them. Naiad 50,000 km
Robertson effect) continually remove the and Thalassa orbit in the gap between the
C Cassini Division 30,000 miles
micron-sized particles from the rings. But innermost Galle and Le Verrier rings, and
particles sputtered off the moons by Despina orbits just inside the Le Verrier
meteoroid impacts create dust and con- ring. Galatea lies slightly inside the outer- URANUS 6 54 α β ηγ δ λ ε
tinually replenish the rings. most Adams ring. These tiny moons are
The 13 known rings of Uranus are likely rubble-pile objects, agglomerations
unlike those of Jupiter or Saturn. All but of fragments from earlier neptunian
the innermost and two outermost of the moons, weakly held together by gravity. ν μ
rings are quite narrow, ranging from just The ring particles are material continually
0.6 to 59.6 miles (1 to 96 kilometers) wide. blasted off the moons by meteoroid
Their particles are larger than those in impacts. Unlike the uranian rings, the rings
1986U2R/ζ 50,000 km
Jupiter’s rings, but there’s little dust. of Neptune are quite dusty, thanks to the
30,000 miles
Instead, they’re largely made up of ice destruction of a satellite; at least 20 per-
Phobos, it seems, is not long It appears the process of coming apart at the seams has
already begun. Images of Phobos taken by the Viking orbiters
with organic chemicals mixed in to give
the dark appearances, unique among the
cent of the material is the size of smoke
particles, and in some of the rings, that NEPTUNE
and graduate student Tushar Mittal from the University of But it wasn’t until 1655 that Christiaan Huygens identified them large moons spiraled inward as Saturn finished its accretion, Mars at an average distance of 14,580 miles (23,460km), far enough
California, Berkeley, have carried out a detailed examination of as an entire system of icy rings. In 1856, famed physicist James Canup says, the outer icy layers of at least one were stripped away. away to avoid Phobos’ fate. Phobos is 13.8 miles (22.2km) in
the eventual fate of Phobos. Clerk Maxwell showed that the rings must be composed of a huge The core plunged into Saturn, and the icy remains eventually diameter. It circles the planet at an average distance of 5,827 miles
The lines cutting across Phobos are caused by tidal stresses from the
gravity of Mars slowly ripping its largest moon apart. NASA
(9,377km). With an orbital period of just 7 hours, 39.2 minutes, Then there’s Stickney Crater, the giant impact basin on
Phobos is one of only 18 of the 181 known moons in the solar sys- Phobos. Sometime in its past, Phobos was hit by an object that
tem whose orbital period is less than its planet’s rotation period. left a crater 5.6 miles (9km) wide — nearly half the moon’s diam-
That’s one of a few reasons why Phobos is doomed. “There are eter. The impact surely fractured much of Phobos’ interior, leav-
four factors in action,” explains Mittal. “The tidal force of Mars; ing it even weaker. From there, billions of years of meteoroid
the centrifugal forces on Phobos, which is rotating; the gravity of impacts have churned the surface of Phobos into a layer of fine
Phobos; and the strength of Phobos. There’s a balance among dust about a hundred meters deep. Given the extremely weak sur-
these. Tidal and rotational stresses act to pull Phobos apart; self- face gravity (escape velocity for Phobos is a mere 4.56 feet per
gravity and [tensile] strength act to hold Phobos together.” second), the rock making up the rubble pile just barely stays put.
Just as our own Moon’s gravity raises tides in both Earth’s Black and Mittal used a numerical geotechnical model
oceans and landmasses, Phobos creates a tiny tidal bulge in Mars. designed for large underground construction projects to estimate Eventually, the rocky rubble left behind will meet a quicker but Curiously, our Moon also could end as it began, according to
The bulge moves as the moon circles Mars, just as the Moon- what they call the moon’s “rock mass strength.” The results place equally dramatic end. It will plummet down along slanting paths astronomer Lee Anne Willson, university professor emerita at
caused tidal bulge moves around Earth. Because Phobos has an the finale for Phobos between 20 million and 40 million years to impact the surface of Mars and leave a string of elongated cra- Iowa State University. As part of her research on the fate of Earth
orbital period faster than the martian day, the tidal bulge lags from now, and give more details on its violent end. ters along the planet’s equator. as the Sun expands into a red giant, she found that the Moon
behind Phobos and acts to gradually slow it in its orbit, sending As Phobos reaches its Roche limit, about 3,400 miles stood a chance of becoming a ring around Earth.
Phobos slowly spiraling in toward the martian surface. The rate is (5,470km) from the martian surface, tidal forces will start pulling Other once and future rings The Moon is receding from Earth at a rate of about 1.6 inches
about 0.79 inch (2 centimeters) per year. It’s not much, but there is Phobos apart. Just as Saturn’s tidal forces may have peeled away Is it possible that Mars possessed a ring system in its distant past? (4cm) per year. Left unchecked, the Moon will eventually migrate
nothing to stop it. the icy mantle of a Titan-sized moon billions of years ago, the “We’re not certain,” says Black, “but it would be worth investigat- out to a distance where it will take 47 days to orbit Earth. By then,
“As Phobos gets closer to Mars,” says Mittal, “the tidal stresses hundred meters or so of regolith will be stripped off Phobos. It ing whether past inwardly migrating moons may have existed. Earth’s rotation also will have slowed to 47 days. The two will
increase.” The moon’s self-gravity and tensile strength oppose the will happen quickly: In as little as a week, the dust will spread Some fraction of moons might be expected to have an orbital con- then keep the same face to each other, as Pluto and its moon
tidal forces, but eventually Phobos will drop to a distance — into a ring circling Mars, the moon no more. figuration similar to that of Phobos and Mars.” Charon do today.
called the Roche limit — where the martian gravity will win the Depending on how much material is stripped off Phobos, the Some planetary scientists think Mars Before this happens, though, some 5 bil-
tug-of-war. Several studies confirm that Phobos’ inward spiral ring could initially have a mass density similar to that of today’s once did have more than two moons. Several studies confirm lion years from now, the Sun will enter its
will lead to its destruction in 25 million to 75 million years. rings of Saturn. The martian ring will be very dark, unlike Researchers have identified 258 elliptical red giant phase. It will start expanding in
Phobos could stave off obliteration if it were a dense body, more Saturn’s bright icy rings, more like the dusty rings of Jupiter that craters on Mars formed by objects hitting that Phobos’ inward spiral size, and swallow up Mercury and Venus.
able to resist the pull of gravity past the Roche limit. Unfortunately,
data from the European Space Agency’s Mars Express orbiter show
are darker, thinner, and more diffuse. It will practically hug Mars,
closer in relative terms to the planet than the other planetary rings
the surface at grazing angles. At least some
of them could well have been made by
will lead to its destruction As the Earth-Moon system orbits through
the Sun’s expanded outer atmosphere, drag
that the moon has a density of just 1.9 grams per cubic centimeter. in the solar system. And the ring, say Black and Mittal, will not oblique impacts of ancient martian moons. in 25 to 75 million years. forces will cause the Moon’s orbit to begin
By comparison, our Moon has a density of 3.3g per cubic centime- last long; they estimate its lifetime at between 1 million and 100 If so, others may have broken up before hit- decaying. The Sun probably will continue
ter. Even tiny Themisto, Jupiter’s smallest regular moon at just 4.9 million years. ting the atmosphere, leaving short-lived rings of rocks and dust to expand, and destroy both Earth and the Moon. On the other
miles (8km) in diameter, has an estimated density of about 2.6g per around Mars. hand, if the Sun should blow off about 20 percent of its mass first,
cubic centimeter. Mars Express also revealed that Phobos is Roche limit There’s no evidence that Mercury or Venus ever possessed ring the Moon will continue to spiral down to its Roche limit. Tidal
porous, likely containing large voids, so it is probably a rubble pile, Phobos systems. Earth did, though, for an extremely brief period during forces will tear it apart, just as they will destroy Phobos.
Roche limit As Phobos spirals
like many of Uranus’ and Neptune’s tiny moons. the formation of the Moon 4.5 billion years ago when our planet And then, 9 billion years after the Moon’s birth from a ring of
inward, it will
In addition, Phobos’ makeup is similar to carbonaceous chon- reach a distance, was struck by a Mars-sized body dubbed Theia. Much of Theia molten impact ejecta, and nearly 5 billion years after the birth and
drite meteorites like the ones that fell on Canada’s Tagish Lake in Mars called the Roche merged with Earth, but the “Big Splash” would have blown the death of the ring around Mars, Earth will once again have a ring.
2000. These primitive meteorites are made of a bevy of loose, eas- limit, where the remaining material into space. Computer simulations indicate
moon will be
ily broken materials, including magnetite, olivine crystals, phyl- pulled apart
about 20 percent of Theia’s mass would have gone into orbit Joel Davis is a freelance science writer and editor living in Bellevue,
losilicates, and complex organic molecules such as amino acids, by Mars’ gravity. around Earth as a ring. About 10 percent of the ring’s material Washington. In addition to Astronomy, his articles have appeared
and are about 10 percent water, formed in oxygen-rich regions of The end result will then quickly coalesced into the Moon, with the rest eventually in Analog, Final Frontier, New Scientist, and Science Digest. His books
the early solar system. Phobos is not only a rubble pile with a weak be a temporary falling back to Earth. The ring would not have lasted long, perhaps include Flyby: The Interplanetary Odyssey of Voyager 2 and Journey
ring around Mars.
gravitational field, but the rubble itself is somewhat frangible. ASTRONOMY: ROEN KELLY
as little as a month but probably no more than 100 years. to the Center of Our Galaxy.