UEE507: Engineering Electromagnetics

Vector Analysis

Dr. V. Karteek

vkarteek@thapar.edu

Dr. V. Karteek
Vector Algebra
I Electromagnetics is a study of electric and magnetic phenomena using scalar and vector
fields.
I Vector algebra is essential in understanding the concepts of Electromagnetics.
I A field may be defined mathematically as some function that connects an arbitrary origin
to a general point in space.
I Vectors are objects with direction and magnitude.
I Displacements have direction as well as magnitude, and it is essential to take both into
account.
I Velocity, acceleration, force and momentum are other examples of vectors.
I Scalars are the quantities that have magnitude but no direction, ex. distance.
→
− →−
I Boldface letters (A, B) or ( A , B ) are used to represent vectors and normal letters
(A, B) are used to represent scalars.
I The magnitude of a vector A is written |A| or, more simply, A.
I Vectors are denoted by arrows in the diagrams.
I The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and the arrowhead
indicates its direction.
I Dr. V. Karteek
−A is a vector with the same magnitude as A but of opposite direction.
I Vectors have magnitude and direction but not location.
I We are concerned with two- and three-dimensional spaces only.
I Vectors may be defined in n-dimensional space in more advanced applications.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1: Vectors.

Unit Vector
I A unit vector aA along A is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity and its
direction is along A.
A A
aA = = (1)
Dr. V. Karteek |A| A
I A vector in Cartesian coordinates may be represented as
(Ax , Ay , Az ) or Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az (2)
I (Ax , Ay , Az ) are components of A in (x, y, z)-directions.
I The unit vectors in (x, y, z)-directions can be represented as (ax , ay , az ) or (î, ĵ, k̂) or
(x̂, ŷ, ẑ).

Fig. 2: Components in Cartesian Coordinates.

I The magnitude of vector A is given by,

q
A = A2x + A2y + A2z (3)
Dr. V. Karteek
I The following four vector operations are defined:
1. Addition of two vectors
2. Multiplication by a scalar
3. Dot product of two vectors
4. Cross product of two vectors
Addition of two vectors
I Addition of two vectors in graphical way can be performed by the following steps:
1. Place the tail of B at the head of A.
2. The sum, A + B, is the vector from the tail of A to the head of B as shown in Fig. 3a.
3. To subtract a vector, add its opposite as shown in Fig. 3b

(a) (b)

Dr. V. Karteek
Fig. 3: Addition and subtraction of two vectors.
I The vector addition is carried out component by component.
A + B = (Ax + Bx )ax + (Ay + By )ay + (Az + Bz )az (4)
I Addition is commutative, as shown in Fig. 3a.
A+B=B+A (5)
I Addition is associative:
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (6)
I Addition is also distributive:
k(A + B) = kA + kB (7)
Multiplication by a Scalar
I Multiplication of a vector by a positive scalar a multiplies the magnitude but leaves the
direction unchanged.
I Scalar multiplication is commutative, associative and distributive.
kA = Ak
k(lA) = (kl)A
k(A + B) = kA + kB
Dr. V. Karteek
 Dot Product of Two Vectors
I The dot product two vectors is defined geometrically as the product of the magnitudes of
the two vectors and the cosine of the smaller angle between them (drawn tail to tail).
I The dot product of two vectors is given by
A · B = AB cos(θ) (8)
I θ is the angle they form when placed tail-to-tail as shown in Fig. 4

Fig. 4: Angle between Vectors.

I The result of A · B is a scalar and called as scalar product.

I The dot product can be obtained by sum of component by component multiplication.
A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (9)
I Dr. V. Karteek
Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal if A · B = 0
I Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel if A · B = AB.
I For any vector A, A · A = A2 .
I Geometrically, A · B is the product of A times the projection of B along A (or the
product of B times the projection of A along B).
I The dot product obeys commutative and distributive laws:

A·B=B·A (10)
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C (11)

I Also note that,

ax · ay = ay · az = az · ax = 0 (12)
ax · ax = ay · ay = az · az = 1 (13)

I Prove the law of cosines C 2 = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos(θ) using vectors.

Dr. V. Karteek
I Two vectors A and B are said to be parallel if A · B = AB.
I For any vector A, A · A = A2 .
I Geometrically, A · B is the product of A times the projection of B along A (or the
product of B times the projection of A along B).
I The dot product obeys commutative and distributive laws:

A·B=B·A (10)
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C (11)

I Also note that,

ax · ay = ay · az = az · ax = 0 (12)
ax · ax = ay · ay = az · az = 1 (13)

I Prove the law of cosines C 2 = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos(θ) using vectors.

Solution: Let C = A − B, then,

C 2 = C · C = (A − B) · (A − B) = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos(θ)
Dr. V. Karteek
 Cross Product of Two Vectors
I The cross product of two vectors is defined by
A × B = AB sin(θ)an (14)
I Where an is a unit vector pointing perpendicular to the plane of A and B.
I There are two directions perpendicular to any plane: “in” and “out”.
I The ambiguity is resolved by the right-hand thumb rule.
I Let your fingers point in the direction of the first vector and curl around (via the smaller
angle) toward the second, then your thumb indicates the direction of an .
I Geometrically, |A × B| is the area of the parallelogram generated by A and B.

Fig. 5: Cross product.

Dr. V. Karteek
I In Fig. 5, A × B points into the page and B × A points out of the page.
I The cross product is distributive
A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C (15)
I It is not commutative, but it is anticommutative,
A × B = −B × A (16)
I It is not associative,
A × (B × C) 6= (A × B) × C (17)
I Let A = B and C is perpendicular to A as shown in Fig. 6

Fig. 6: Cross product.

I B × C points out of the page and A × (B × C) points down with a magnitude ABC.
I
Dr. V. Karteek
But A × B = 0 and so, (A × B) × C = 0 6= A × (B × C).
I If two vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero. In particular,
A×A=0 (18)
0 is the zero vector with magnitude 0.
I Cross product in component form, derived using Eqn. (14) are given by,
ax × ax = ay × ay = az × az = 0
ax × ay = −ay × ax = az
ay × az = −az × ay = ax
az × ay = −ay × az = ax
I The cross product is given by,
A × B = (Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az ) × (Bx ax + By ay + Bz az )
= (Ay Bz − Az By )ax + (Az Bx − Ax Bz )ay + (Ax By − Ay Bx )az (19)
I The above expression can be written in determinant form,
 
 ax ay az 

A × B = Ax Ay Az  (20)
Bx By Bz 
Dr. V. Karteek
I Find the angle between the face diagonals and the angle between the body diagonals of a
unit cube.

(a) (b)

Fig. 7: Cube angles.

Solution: From Fig. 7a, A = 1ax + 0ay + 1az and B = 0ax + 1ay + 1az
A·B=1·0+0·1+1·1=1
√ √
A · B = AB cos(θ) = 2 2 cos(θ) = 2 cos(θ)
◦
Dr. V. Karteek⇒ 1 = 2 cos(θ) ⇒ θ = 60
I By following a similar procedure for Fig. 7b with A = 1ax + 1ay − 1az and
B = 1ax + 1ay + 1az , we can obtain θ = 70.5288◦ .
Scalar Triple Product
I The scalar triple product is defined by A · (B × C).
I Geometrically, |A · (B × C)| is the volume of the parallelepiped generated by A, B and C.
I Since, |B × C| is the area of base in Fig. 8, and |A cos(θ)| is the altitude,
A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) (21)
I It can also be written as,
A · (C × B) = B · (A × C) = C · (B × A) (22)

Fig. 8: Parallelepiped.
Dr. V. Karteek
I In component form,  
Ax Ay Az 
 
A · (B × C) = Bx By Bz  (23)
 Cx Cy Cz 
I The dot and cross can be interchanged,

A · (B × C) = (A × B) · C (24)

I The placement of the parentheses is critical: (A · B) × C is a meaningless expression.

Vector Triple Product
I It is given by BAC-CAB rule,

A × (B × C) = B(A · C) − C(A · B) (25)

I Notice that cross-products are not associative,

(A × B) × C = −C × (A × B) = −A(B · C) + B(A · C) (26)

I
Dr. V.Prove
Exercise: Karteek
the BAC-CAB rule by writing out both sides in component form.
I All higher vector products can be similarly reduced, often by repeated application of
Eqn. (25), for example,

(A × B) · (C × D) = (A · C)(B · D) − (A · D)(B · C)
A × [B × (C × D)] = B[A · (C × D)] − (A · B)(C × D)

Components of a Vector
I The projection of a vector in a given direction is obtained by using scalar product.

Fig. 9: Projections of A on x-, y-, and z- axes.

Dr. V. Karteek
I The projection can be a scalar or vector.
I Given a vector A, the scalar component AB of A along vector B is,
AB = A cos(θAB ) = |A||aB | cos(θAB ) = A · aB (27)
I The vector component AB of A along B is simply the scalar quantity in Eqn. (27)
multiplied by a unit vector along B,
AB = AB aB = (A · aB )aB (28)
I The vector can be resolved into two orthogonal components: AB parallel to B and
(A − AB ) perpendicular to B.
I Division of two vectors is undefined except when the two vectors are parallel (A = kB).

Fig. 10: Projections.

Dr. V. Karteek
 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors
I The location of a point in three dimensions can be described by listing its Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z).
I The vector to that point from the origin (O) is called the position vector,
r = xax + yay + zaz (29)
I Its magnitude or distance from the origin is,
p
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 (30)

Dr. V. Karteek Fig. 11: Position vector.

I The unit vector along r is,
r xax + yay + zaz
r̂ = = p (31)
r x2 + y 2 + z 2
I The infinitesimal displacement vector, from (x, y, z) to (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz), is

dl = dxax + dyay + dzaz (32)

I In electrodynamics, we frequently encounters problems involving two points:
1. A source point, r0 , where an electric charge is located.
2. A field point, r, at which you are calculating the electric or magnetic field.
I The separation vector from the source point to the field point is given by,

r = r − r0 (33)

I The unit vector in the direction from r0 to r is,

r − r0
r̂ =
|r − r0 |
(34)

Dr. V. Karteek
I In Cartesian coordinates,
r = (x − x0 )ax + (y − y 0 )ay + (z − z 0 )az (35)
r p
| | = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y 0 )2 + (z − z 0 )2 (36)
(x − x0 )a 0
x + (y − y )ay + (z − z )az
0
r̂ = p
(x − x0 )2 + (y − y 0 )2 + (z − z 0 )2
(37)

Coordinate Systems
I The study of EM theory requires us to be able to define all points uniquely in space.
I A point or vector can be represented in any curvilinear coordinate system, which may be
orthogonal or nonorthogonal.
I An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates arc mutually perpendicular.
I Nonorthogonal systems are hard to work with and they are of little or no practical use.
I There are many orthogonal coordinate systems, but we restrict to three systems:
1. Cartesian
2. Cylindrical
3. Spherical
I A hard problem in one coordinate system may turn out to be easy with considerably
Dr. V. Karteek
lower solving time in another system.
I Topics covered on vectors (dot product, cross product, etc..) are equally applicable to
other coordinate systems.
I Sometimes, it is necessary to transform points and vectors from one coordinate system to
another.
Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z)
I A point P can be represented as (x, y, z) as illustrated in the next slide.
I The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are

−∞ < x < ∞
−∞ < y < ∞ (38)
−∞ < z < ∞

I A vector A in Cartesian or rectangular coordinates can be written as,

(Ax , Ay , Az ) or Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az (39)

I where a , a , and a are unit vectors along the x-, y-, and z-directions
x y z
Dr. V. Karteek
 z
z = z2 plane

P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 )

z1 az
az
P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )
x = x2 plane ax ay
y1 ay
x1 ax

y = y2 plane
y
x
Dr. V. Karteek
 Cylindrical Coordinates (ρ, φ, z)
I Cylindrical coordinate system is very convenient while dealing with problems having
cylindrical symmetry.
I A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as (ρ, φ, z) shown in next slide.
I ρ is the radius of the cylinder passing through P or the radial distance from the z-axis.
I φ is called the azimuthal angle, is measured from the x-axis in the xy-plane.
I The ranges of the variables are
0≤ρ<∞
0 ≤ φ < 2π (40)
−∞ < z < ∞
I A vector A in cylindrical coordinates can be written as,
(Aρ , Aφ , Az ) or Aρ aρ + Aφ aφ + Az az (41)
I where aρ , aφ , and az are unit vectors along the ρ-, φ-, and z-directions.
I A vector will have the dimensions of the quantity it is representing.
For example 15 N force in aφ direction is represented as 15aφ N, but not as 15a◦φ .
I
Dr. V. Karteek
 z

z = z1 plane
z1

az
P1 (ρ1 , φ1 , z1 )
aφ

aρ
ρ = ρ1 surface

ρ1
y
φ1
x
φ = φ1 plane
Dr. V. Karteek
I The magnitude of A is, q
|A| = A2ρ + A2φ + A2z (42)
I Since aρ , aφ , and az are mutually orthogonal,

aρ · aρ = aφ · aφ = az · az = 1
aρ · aφ = aφ · az = az · aρ = 0
aρ × aρ = aφ × aφ = az × az = 0
aρ × aφ = −aφ × aρ = az
aφ × az = −az × aφ = aρ
az × aρ = −aρ × az = aφ

I The relationships between the variables (x, y, z) of the Cartesian coordinate system and
those of the cylindrical system (ρ, φ, z) are given by,
p y
ρ = x2 + y 2 , φ = arctan , z=z (43)
x
x = ρ cos(φ), y = ρ sin(φ), z = z (44)
Dr. V. Karteek
I The relationships between (ax , ay , az ) and (aρ , aφ , az ) are given by,

ax = cos(φ)aρ − sin(φ)aφ (45)

ay = sin(φ)aρ + cos(φ)aφ (46)
az = az (47)
aρ = cos(φ)ax + sin(φ)ay (48)
aφ = − sin(φ)ax + cos(φ)ay (49)
az = az (50)
I By substituting Eqns. (45) to (47) into Eqn. (39),

A = [Ax cos(φ) + Ay sin(φ)]aρ + [−Ax sin(φ) + Ay cos(φ)]aφ + Az az (51)

or

Aρ = Ax cos(φ) + Ay sin(φ)
Aφ = −Ax sin(φ) + Ay cos(φ) (52)
Az = Az
Dr. V. Karteek
I In matrix from,     
Aρ cos(φ) sin(φ) 0 Ax
Aφ  = − sin(φ) cos(φ) 0 Ay  (53)
Az 0 0 1 Az
I By using inverse transformation,
   −1  
Ax cos(φ) sin(φ) 0 Aρ
Ay  = − sin(φ) cos(φ) 0 Aφ  (54)
Az 0 0 1 Az
I It can also be obtained from Eqns. (45) to (47) as,
    
Ax cos(φ) − sin(φ) 0 Aρ
Ay  =  sin(φ) cos(φ) 0 Aφ  (55)
Az 0 0 1 Az
I Dot product can also be used to obtain Eqns. (53) to (55),
    
Ax ax · aρ ax · aφ ax · az Aρ
Ay  = ay · aρ ay · aφ ay · az  Aφ  (56)
Az az · aρ az · aφ az · az Az
Dr. V. Karteek
I The spherical system is more appropriate with problems having spherical symmetry.
I A point P can be represented as (r, θ, φ) as shown in next slide.
I r is defined as the distance from the origin to point P .
I θ (colatitude or polar angle) is the angle between the z-axis and position vector of P .
I φ (azimuthal angle) is measured from x-axis.
I The ranges of the variables are,

0≤r<∞
0≤θ≤π (57)
0 ≤ φ < 2π

I A vector A in spherical coordinates can be written as,

(Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) or Ar ar + Aθ aθ + Aφ aφ (58)

I where ar , aθ , and aφ are unit vectors along the r-, θ-, and φ-directions.
I The magnitude of A is, q
|A| = A2r + A2θ + A2φ (59)
Dr. V. Karteek
 z
ar

aφ

θ P1 (r1 , θ1 , φ1 )

aθ

φ
y

Dr. V. Karteek
Dr. V. Karteek
I Since ar , aθ , and aφ are mutually orthogonal,

ar · ar = aθ · aθ = aφ · aφ = 1
ar · aθ = aθ · aφ = aφ · ar = 0
ar × ar = aθ × aθ = aφ × aφ = 0
ar × aθ = −aθ × ar = aφ
aθ × aφ = −aφ × aθ = ar
aφ × ar = −ar × aφ = aθ

I The relationships between the variables (x, y, z) of the Cartesian coordinate system and
those of the spherical system (r, θ, φ) are given by,
p !
p x 2 + y2 y
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , θ = arctan , φ = arctan (60)
z x
x = r sin(θ) cos(φ), y = r sin(θ) sin(φ), z = r cos(θ) (61)

Dr. V. Karteek
I The relationships between (ax , ay , az ) and (ar , aθ , aφ ) are given by,
ax = sin(θ) cos(φ)ar + cos(θ) cos(φ)aθ − sin(φ)aφ (62)
ay = sin(θ) sin(φ)ar + cos(θ) sin(φ)aθ + cos(φ)aφ (63)
az = cos(θ)ar − sin(θ)aθ (64)
ar = sin(θ) cos(φ)ax + sin(θ) sin(φ)ay + cos(θ)az (65)
aθ = cos(θ) cos(φ)ax + cos(θ) sin(φ)ay − sin(θ)az (66)
aφ = − sin(φ)ax + cos(φ)az (67)
I By substituting Eqns. (62) to (64) into Eqn. (39),
A =[Ax sin(θ) cos(φ) + Ay sin(θ) sin(φ) + Az cos(θ)]ar +
[Ax cos(θ) cos(φ) + Ay cos(θ) sin(φ) − Az sin(θ)]aθ + [−Ax sin(φ) + Ay cos(φ)]aφ (68)
or
Ar = Ax sin(θ) cos(φ) + Ay sin(θ) sin(φ) + Az cos(θ)
Aθ = Ax cos(θ) cos(φ) + Ay cos(θ) sin(φ) − Az sin(θ) (69)
Aφ = −Ax sin(φ) + Ay cos(φ)
Dr. V. Karteek
I In matrix from,
    
Ar sin(θ) cos(φ) sin(θ) sin(φ) cos(θ) Ax
 Aθ  = cos(θ) cos(φ) cos(θ) sin(φ) − sin(θ) Ay  (70)
Aφ − sin(φ) cos(φ) 0 Az
I By using inverse transformation,
   −1  
Ax sin(θ) cos(φ) sin(θ) sin(φ) cos(θ) Ar
Ay  = cos(θ) cos(φ) cos(θ) sin(φ) − sin(θ)  Aθ  (71)
Az − sin(φ) cos(φ) 0 Aφ
I It can also be obtained from Eqns. (62) to (64) as,
    
Ax sin(θ) cos(φ) cos(θ) cos(φ) − sin(φ) Ar
Ay  =  sin(θ) sin(φ) cos(θ) sin(φ) cos(φ)   Aθ  (72)
Az cos(θ) − sin(θ) 0 Aφ
I Dot product can also be used to obtain Eqns. (70) to (72),
    
Ar ar · ax ar · ay ar · az Ax
 Aθ  =  aθ · ax aθ · ay aθ · az   Ay  (73)
Aφ aφ · ax aφ · ay aφ · az Az
Dr. V. Karteek
I In different coordinate systems, the point or vector is not changed, it is only expressed
differently.
I The distance between two points r1 and r2 is given by,

d = |r2 − r1 | (74)
p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 (Cartesian)
(75)
q
d = ρ21 + ρ22 − 2ρ1 ρ2 cos(φ2 − φ1 ) + (z2 − z1 )2 (cylindrical)
(76)
q
d = r12 + r22 − 2r1 r2 cos(θ1 ) cos(θ2 ) − 2r1 r2 sin(θ1 ) sin(θ2 ) cos(φ2 − φ1 ) (spherical)
(77)

I The magnitude of displacement vector is same in all the three coordinate systems.

Dr. V. Karteek