Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1

Annotated Bibliography

Arroyo Flooding

Enid Martinez

University of Texas at El Paso

RWS 1302

Dr. Vierra

July 23, 2018

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Research Question

1. What is arroyo flooding?

• Flikweert (2012)

• Heathcote (1983)

• Herricks (1995)

2. How is arroyo flooding connected to UTEP?

• Fugate (1964)

• Kochel & Baker (1960)

• Timmons (2004)

3. How is UTEP vulnerable to arroyo flooding?

• Mualem & Assouline (1996)

• Spirn (1984)

• University of Texas at El Paso (2011)

4. What steps have been made to prevent arroyo flooding at UTEP?

• Delgadillo (2016)

• Francis (2012)

• Nuñez (2013)

• University of Texas at El Paso (2011)

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Interview Questions

1. Which buildings were affected by arroyo flooding?

When did the buildings surrounding the Crazy Cat arroyo begin to experience flooding?

Which buildings were most affected by the flooding?

The Master Plan mentions the arroyo was difficult to access, how was it maintained?

How is UTEP’s portion of the arroyo connected to the city’s stormwater system?

The drain covers visible throughout the campus arroyo, are they all stormwater drains?

After the storm of 2006, what were some of the damages (if any)?

Transforming Memorial Triangle and the inner campus parking lots into the Centennial

Plaza, was one of the purposes behind that to remove asphalt and increase stormwater

absorption?

Has there been (student/faculty/staff) safety incidents on campus caused by the arroyo

flooding before?

How is UTEP’s portion of the arroyo connected to the city’s stormwater system?

According to an article in The Prospector (Nunez 2013) Ten Eyck suggests that new

arroyo additions will mitigate runoff by absorbing rain, was that design implemented and

effective?

Was the Campus Master Plan (2011) drafted with the U.S. Green Building Council’s

LEED rating system in mind?

How does the campus transformation reduce water demand? Reduce energy

consumption? (Delgadillo 2016)

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Annotated Bibliography

Cohen, C. G. (2013, Jun 16). Greg McNicol, UTEP campus transformation. El Paso Inc

Retrieved from http://www.elpasoinc.com/news/q_and_a/greg-mcnicol-utep-campus-

transformation/article_c17b8276-d6a0-11e2-a664-0019bb30f31a.html#comments

Cohen (2013) interviewed Greg McNicol on the planning of UTEP’s campus

transformation. Cohen unveiled McNicol’s architectural experience and elaborated on the

aesthetic improvements intended for the campus. McNicol’s reasoning for choosing Ten

Eyck Landscape Architects to work on the campus master plan was seeing her (Eyck’s)

work at Arizona State Polytechnic.

Delgadillo, R. (2016, October 11). UTEP renovation among the best in the world. The

Prospector, pp. 5. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/prospector/259

Delgadillo (2016) claimed UTEP received a Sustainable Sites Initiative Silver

Certification Award for its centennial campus renovations. Delgadillo noted the features

created in the transformation of campus and the university's water conservation was

improved through mindful recycling. He found that problems encountered during

construction provided the opportunity to replace dated pipelines ultimately benefitting the

school's foundation (p. 5).

El Paso Water Utilities. (2018). Stormwater master plan. Retrieved from

https://www.epwater.org/our_water/stormwater/master_plan/

EPWU’s (2018) reported a detailed plan in progress since 2009 of city-wide flood

prevention analyses in response to the storm of 2006. EPWU described the impact the

2006 storm had on El Paso (p. 1-3), and thoroughly divided the water systems throughout

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the city (Sec 2). UTEP is classified under the West Central Region (p. 2-4) and Crazy Cat

Arroyo is labeled as “Flow Path No. 23” (p. 8-60) which flows into the Rio Grande.

Eyck, C. T., & Briggs, T. (2010). Greening a university campus. American Nurseryman, 210(3),

34. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=48478604&site

=eds-live&scope=site

According to Eyck and Briggs (2010), the University of Arizona landscape design served

to increase sustainability in an environment of higher education (p. 34). They observed

that the nature of the Biodesign Institute under transformation could be expressed through

architectural and ecological design. To support this theory, they reinforced the natural

desert gardens and added new stormwater-catching technology on the roofs of new

buildings to work together and create a sustainable irrigation cycle on campus for

appreciation and research purposes.

Flikweert, J. (2012). Performance of fluvial defences. In P. Sayers (Ed.), Flood risk: Planning,

design and management of flood defence infrastructure (pp. 125-137). London: ICE

Publishing.

Flikweert (2012) suggested that potential flood risks can be managed by expertly

assessing natural and fabricated channels. He emphasized the importance of

differentiating the need for barring or conveying water flow to prevent flooding (p. 125).

He found that prioritizing awareness of risks by having a solid understanding of

situations that demand water flow to be either blocked or flow openly, is vital for proper

execution of flood prevention planning.

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The risk assessments suggested by Flikweert (2012), particularly the open channel

conveyance, are essential in a campus such as UTEP to manage the Crazy Cat Arroyo

and its surroundings. The findings in section 6.4 (p. 134) provide details as to how poor

channel structure and inadequate maintenance can quickly lead to the overflowing of the

channel that leads to flooding, an explanation to the flooding of the Liberal Arts Building

on University Street.

Francis, J. (2012) Design for environmental improvements. In P. Sayers (Ed.), Flood risk:

Planning, design and management of flood defence infrastructure (pp. 245-280). London:

ICE Publishing.

Francis (2012) argued that a team of mindful architects, engineers, and environmental

experts can create sustainably designed landscapes if they make it one of the primary

goals of a project (p. 245). Francis noted the skills of engineers regarding fluvial flood

prevention can be complemented by the knowledge of environmental experts to create

landscapes of superior functionality. His claims are based on the close relationship

between people and landscapes, integrating social and economic findings into his

argument (p. 147).

Francis’ research on flood wall construction illuminates the benefits of recycling building

materials to avoid pollution to water systems, increase efficiency, and reduce the carbon

footprint of alternative transportation (p. 263). Section 10.6.3 provides further detail of

the flood risks that are lowered by incorporating trees into the landscape near channels.

The suggestions made by Francis are clearly present in the large scale UTEP master plan

(2011) that was developed by architect Gregory McNicol and landscape designer

Christine Ten Eyck as stated in an El Paso Inc article (2013).

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Fugate, F. L. (1964). Frontier college: Texas western at El Paso the first fifty years. El Paso:

Texas Western Press. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/utep_books/1

According to Fugate (1964) the historic mining potential of El Paso was the foundation

for a higher education dream. He noted that the community of El Paso was monumental

to the birth of what would become Texas Western College. Fugate emphasized how the

relationship between community and college was symbiotic, despite challenges faced in

the first 50 years of the college (p. xiii).

The growth trend of the University of Texas at El Paso has been ongoing since the

inception of the College of Mines and has become a distinguishing factor of the

university's history. The developmental pattern was a necessity to accommodate

enrollment growth, and its 50-year celebration cannot portray the environmental

problems that would arise from reshaping the hillside on which the campus is located.

Heathcote, R. L. (1983). The arid lands: Their use and abuse London ; New York : Longman,

1983. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b135

5944&site=eds-live&scope=site

Heathcote (1983) suggested that resource management in arid regions is based on

mankind’s history of changing ecosystems to maintain civilizations (p. 2). He recognized

the amount of disproportionate quality water supplies in arid regions (p. 61), defined the

North American alpine soil characteristics (p. 52), and evaluated the pros and cons of

rainfall in desert regions (p. 28). Heathcote’s U.S. arguments are based on extensive

research on arid and semi-arid ecosystems around the world of landform properties (p.

48-60), irrigation-use data (p. 62-75), and analysis of the effects of precipitation (p.27).

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Although Heathcote’s data primarily represents nations of more extreme environments

that El Paso, the foundational characteristics of those regions can still teach us about the

challenges of our region, and more importantly how to manage them. He clarified how

open channels, such as arroyos, are ineffective in transferring water to basins from rains

in dry regions, due to evaporation and water overflowing the channel. This knowledge

combined with Mualem et al. (1996) observations of the runoff created by the hardened

top layer of arid soils explain the arroyo flooding phenomenon on UTEP’s campus.

Herricks, E. E. (1995). A context for understanding stormwater effects in receiving systems. In

E. E. Herricks, & J. R. Jenkins (Eds.), Stormwater runoff and receiving systems: Impact,

monitoring, and assessment (pp. 3-8). Boca Raton: CRC Lewis. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b171

3218&site=eds-live&scope=site;

Herricks (1995) claimed that proper definition of storms, stormwater, and the systems

that receive stormwater runoff is necessary to understand more intricate procedures to

assess and manage stormwater in urban areas (p. 3). He explains that runoff happens

when there is more stormwater than the land can absorb due to terrain characteristics or

to urban instalments such as pavement (p. 4).

Kochel, R. C., & Baker, V. R. (1982). Paleoflood hydrology. Science, 215(4531), 353-361.

Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1687969

Kochel and Baker (1982) claimed that the difficulty in analyzing flood risks is largely

due to existing flood records not being old enough to draw useful data from. They noted

that dated recording methods from desert-like regions provide inaccurate predictions of

potential floods (p. 353). Kochel and Baker found that using new technology (slack-water

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palaeohydrology) to micro-analyze the land affected by floods, such as vegetation and

sediment, it is possible to create statistical data that accurately predict previous floods

never documented, to efficiently plan for potential flooding in unexpected places.

Kochel and Baker (1982) gathered information based on the lower Pecos river, a

southwest Texas region defined by deep canyons, and the proximity to the Chihuahuan

desert signifies a connection to El Paso that potentially makes their findings beneficial to

flood analysis to EPWU. The relation to desert vegetation and similar soil type makes El

Paso a candidate for slack-water palaeohydrology as described in this journal.

Mualem, Y. & Assouline, S. (1996). Soil sealing, infiltration and runoff. In A. Issar, & S. D.

Resnick (Eds.), Runoff, infiltration, and subsurface flow of water in arid and semi-arid

regions (pp. 131-181). Norwell: Kluwer Academic. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b174

4920&site=eds-live&scope=site

Mualem and Assouline (1996) claimed that an accurate understanding of soil

characteristics and how rainfall interacts with those properties is vital to effectively

reclaim water resources in desert regions. They indicated that precipitation in arid and

semi-arid conditions typically form an impenetrable layer in the terrain which creates

runoff currents of stormwater (p. 131). Through extensive experimentation of soil density

affected by rainfall, they found that the sealing of the top layer of soil can be prevented

through a variety of chemical, biological, and physical adaptations (p. 177).

The physical conditions Mualem and Assoline elaborated on included soil structure, bank

limitations, and moisture levels. Knowing the potential effect these variables have on

runoff in dry channels explains why Eyck (2010) put so much emphasis on creating a

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desert biodome on the University of Arizona campus to create a natural solution to an

urbanized stormwater problem. The UTEP campus faced similar challenges as described

by Mualem et al. and reflects why McNicol (2013) collaborated with the experienced

Eyck.

Nuñez, S. (2013, April 16). Renovations to eliminate concrete, save trees. The Prospector

Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/prospector/137

Sabrina Nunez (2013) claimed Ten Eyck Landscape Architects were remodeling UTEP

to make a more environmentally friendly campus. She noted that Ten Eyck's approach to

the arroyo would increase student safety and manage water flow (p. 5). She found that the

structural changes to the arroyo would create opportunity for recycling of materials, as

well as an addition of vegetation to aid the flow of water and improve the quality of

environment (p. 8).

Spirn, A. W. (1984). Floods, droughts, and poisoned water. The granite garden: Urban nature

and human design (pp. 129—141). New York: Basic Books. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b132

4425&site=eds-live&scope=site;

Spirn (1984) argued that the characteristics that define urban development and water

management are connected by the design of the city and the drain systems. Spirn

observed that city developers regard water related problems separately despite the

interconnected effect on flooding, pollution, and water consumption (p. 130). She

observed an increase in floods related to a growth in urbanization and noted that poor

design of city drainage systems was linked to pollution and increased water use (p. 134).

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Spirn’s (1984) findings illuminate the relationship between construction plans and the

increased chance of stormwater damage to city structures and its inhabitants. The

observations presented can explanation how the construction of a higher education

campus on a hillside, land deprived of water through use of pipes and paved roads,

increases the chance of arroyo flooding but also has a negative impact on the vegetation.

Timmons, W. H. (1990). El Paso: A borderlands history. El Paso, Texas: Texas Western

Press/The University of Texas at El Paso. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b203

0411&site=eds-live&scope=site

Timmons (1990) demonstrated that the history of the region of El Paso and the

relationship that developed with Mexico is a unique field for a wide range of academic

studies (p. 3). He noted the prehistoric origin of the Rio Grande that created underground

deposits of water (p. 3), the current state of the river as a source of surface water to the

region (p. 270), and the construction of the Elephant Butte dam that would control the

Rio Grande’s fickle nature (p. 200). Timmons evaluated the region’s struggle to reliably

harvest water for survive in the arid environment and the growing supply problem that

troubles the region in the new millennium (p. 296).

Timmons relates the water supply problem to excessive use of groundwater for irrigation

and homeowner misuse (p. 272). His projections were sound in claiming the growth of

population and urban development to be a threat to the management of water supply in

the future. His observations of the tensions with New Mexico’s water authorities and the

impact on El Paso’s water supply provide foresight into a challenge that would be

addressed by UTEP’s campus transformation in 2014. UTEP’s master plan’s changes to

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the campus arroyo system aids the absorption of stormwater and contributes to the

preservation of the balance of existing groundwater sources.

University of Texas at El Paso. (2011). Campus master plan 2011. El Paso: University of Texas

at El Paso. Retrieved from http://masterplan.utep.edu/

UTEP (2011) suggested that the campus transformation planned for 2014 would promote

the growth of the university and bring the community through strategic physical

improvements (p. 2). The report goes into detail of the structural problems being

addressed and the proposed solutions, including the Crazy Cat Arroyo which was

neglected and prone to flooding (p. 42). The plan concluded that reconnecting the nearby

Arroyo Park trail to the city’s arroyo system with UTEP’s section of the channel would

increase the attractiveness of the landscape and benefit the local environment (p. 46).

UTEP’s master plan (2011) matters because it mentions specific details of the structural

issues the campus faces regarding the arroyo, as well as the enrollment accommodation

challenges faced. Although the current state of the campus is not as grand as the plan

proposes, there have been functional and aesthetic improvements to the environment

which can be confirmed by the SITES Silver Award (Delgadillo 2016) for sustainable

accomplishments.

White, G. F. (1960). Science and the future of arid lands. Paris: Unesco. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b137

0271&site=eds-live&scope=site

White (1960) claimed the concerns of arid and semi-arid regions are diverse and depend

strongly on economics, politics, and social constrains (p. 5). He acknowledged the

characteristics that make up deserts such as sparsity of water (p. 31), terrain and plant life

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(p. 43), animal species (p. 53), temperature effects (p. 59), and minerals contained in the

earth (p. 63). White observed that the minerals of the earth create a solution when mixed

with rainwater than can either aid or damage vegetation growth, but the solution can also

become high in salts that make processing the water for irrigation costly and

economically detrimental (p. 85).

White’s observations complicate the flood prevention methods of Francis’ (2012)

research. Francis’ suggestion to plant trees near or on the banks of open channels could

be fruitless if the soil conditions create harmful solutions after rain fall. The foundational

research of White is educational but is presented in too large of a scale to be specifically

useful to urban developments in arid or semi-arid regions.