Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Literature Review:
Enid Martinez
RWS 1302
Dr. Vierra
LITERATURE REVIEW 2
Abstract
Desert regions are classified by low levels of precipitation. When rain does fall, there can
be significant damage to the land. Arroyos are a unique type of dry channel commonly found in
the southwestern deserts of the U.S. that can turn into raging rivers in a short amount of time.
When arroyos overflow, the excess stormwater runs free and can pose a flood threat to people
and buildings. The University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) campus is built on a desert hillside
near a major dry channel that has had its functionality compromised throughout the growth of the
university. The urbanization of the terrain prevents the land from reclaiming water during
storms, increasing runoff. By using geomorphology and hydrology research, in addition to green
architectural landscaping, it is possible to readapt the environment to fix the damage made to the
LITERATURE REVIEW 3
Literature Review
Open water channels in desert regions are commonly referred to as arroyos. They play a
role in Earth’s water cycle by catching surface runoff from precipitation. Arid and semi-arid
regions, which have historically struggled with water supply and urbanization in the last four
centuries, have faced a growing problem with contaminated waters. The building of streets and
buildings to accommodate urban growth have upset the natural flow of stormwater to arroyos
thus increasing flood risks. Researchers previously suggested that city planners and designers
considered flood prevention, pollution, and water supply, as separate water related problems.
Research from the last fifteen years however, recommends that engineers and landscape
architects use their expertise to collaborate, managing all applicable water issues before major
Discussion of Research
Deserts are zones of minimal precipitation, and the soils found in dry environments react
uniquely to sudden rainfall. Mualem and Assouline (1996) explained how the topmost layer of
desert soil undergoes chemical processes that transforms its physical state to a hard “crust”
surface that quickly ceases to absorb water. According to Herricks (1995), runoff happens when
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there is more stormwater than the land can absorb due to terrain characteristics or urban
installments such as pavement (p. 4). He elaborated on the cycle of stormwater, which often
picks up chemical or physical contaminants in urban areas and transports the pollution to natural
rivers or into man-made watersheds (p. 7). Herricks also provides the explanations for the basic
concepts that cause arroyo flooding according to Heathcote (1983). This introduction to
stormwater terms is important to understand the big picture behind UTEP’s development of the
arroyo systems.
Arroyo flooding is a natural phenomenon that occurs in desert regions during times of
research on landform properties (p. 48-60), irrigation-use data (p. 62-75), and analysis of the
effects of precipitation (p.27) in arid and semi-arid ecosystems around the world. Although
Heathcote’s data primarily represents nations with more extreme environments than El Paso, the
foundational characteristics of those regions can still teach us about the challenges of our region,
and more importantly how to manage them. He clarified how open channels, such as arroyos, are
ineffective in transferring rain water to basins in dry regions due to evaporation and water
overflowing the channel. These observations combined with the knowledge that runoff is created
by the hardened top layer of arid soils (Mualem et al. 1996) explain the arroyo flooding
As an open channel, arroyos must be allowed to flow freely and have minimal trash to
prevent flooding. Flikweert (2012) suggested that potential flood risks can be managed by having
experts assess natural and fabricated channels. He emphasized the importance of differentiating
between the need for barring and for conveying water flow to prevent flooding (p. 125). Spirn
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(1984) observed an increase in floods related to growth in urbanization. He also noted that poor
designs for city drainage systems were linked to pollution and increased unnecessary water use
(p. 134). Advancements in civilization have created unnatural flood problems in the driest
El Paso has struggled with water management since its early history. Timmons (1990)
noted that underground deposits of water were created by the prehistoric origin of the Rio
Grande (p. 3). He additionally explained the river’s current role as a source of surface water to
the region (p. 270) and the construction process of the Elephant Butte dam that would control the
Rio Grande’s fickle nature (p. 200). Timmons related the water supply problem to excessive use
of groundwater for irrigation and homeowner misuse (p. 272). Timmons evaluated the region’s
struggle to reliably harvest water for survival in the arid environment and the supply problem
that troubles the region in the new millennium (p. 296). His projections were sound in claiming
the growth of population and urban development to be a threat to the management of water
The first fifty years of the UTEP campus showed a growth pattern that required physical
expansion. According to Fugate (1964) the historic mining potential of El Paso was the
foundation for a higher education dream. He noted that the community of El Paso was
monumental to the birth of what would become Texas Western College (p. xiii). Several UTEP
buildings are located directly above or neighboring a natural arroyo system (UTEP 2011). The
growth trend of the University of Texas at El Paso has been ongoing since the inception of the
College of Mines and has become a distinguishing factor of the university's history. The 50-year
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celebration does not portray the environmental problems that would arise from reshaping the
Hydrology experts have various methods to predict floods in regions that get regular
rainfall. Kochel and Baker (1982) claimed that the difficulty in analyzing flood risks is largely
due to existing flood records not being old enough to draw useful data from, and common
recording methods are inaccurate in desert-like regions (p. 353). In rural desert regions, storm
recording stations can be far-spread and a hundred-year range cannot accurately predict when an
outlying high-intensity storm will hit the region (p. 353). Kocher et al. specify southwest Texas
is a perfect region for slack-water technology, a storm predicting method that analyzes sediments
found in deposits of temporary, still pools (p. 357). This technology is ideal for the geographic
location of UTEP.
The geological location of UTEP combined with urban growth increase the probability of
flooding on campus. Spirn (1984) argued that the characteristics that define urban development
and water management are connected by the design of the city and the drain systems (p. 130).
These findings illuminate the relationship between construction plans and the increased chance
of stormwater damage to city structures and its inhabitants. The observations presented can
explain how the construction of a higher education campus on a hillside, terrain deprived of
water through use of pipes and paved roads, increases the chance of arroyo flooding while
negatively impacting vegetation. White’s observations complicate the flood prevention methods
of Francis’s (2012) research. Francis’ suggestion to plant trees near or on the banks of open
channels could be fruitless if the soil conditions create harmful solutions after rain fall.
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Modified arroyos in urban settings often incorporate materials foreign to the natural
environment which prevents the land from absorbing water. White (1960) claimed the concerns
of arid and semi-arid regions are diverse and depend strongly on economics, politics, and social
constrains (p. 5). He acknowledged how sparsity of water (p. 31), terrain and plant life (p. 43),
and temperature effects (p. 59), are characteristics of deserts. White observed that the minerals of
the earth create a solution when mixed with rainwater than can either aid or damage vegetation
growth, but the solution can also become high in salts that make processing the water for
irrigation costly and economically detrimental (p. 85). Findings like these encourage engineers
and architects to thoroughly test soil before collaborating as Francis (2012) suggests.
The Crazy Cat Arroyo running through campus has a history of inaccessibility and poor
management. According to EPWU (2018) UTEP is classified under the West Central Region
(“Page 2-4”) and Crazy Cat Arroyo is labeled as “Flow Path No. 23” (“Figure 8-60”) which
flows into the Rio Grande. UTEP (2011) suggested that the campus transformation planned for
2014 would promote the growth of the university through strategic physical improvements.
UTEP’s master plan mentions specific details of the structural issues the campus faces regarding
the arroyo, as well as the enrollment accommodation challenges faced (p. 2).
Primary Research
El Paso Water Utilities has been working with UTEP on flood prevention. EPWU’s
(2018) reported a detailed plan in progress since 2009 of city-wide flood prevention analyses in
response to the storm of 2006. EPWU described the impact the 2006 storm had on El Paso
during which the city received a year’s worth of rain in two consecutive days (“Page 1-3”). Prior
to that time, the city had irregular upkeeping of stormwater systems and which was a major
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cause for the millions of dollars in damages city-wide. Mualem et al. (1996) found that the
sealing of the top layer of soil can be prevented through a variety of chemical, biological, and
physical adaptations (p. 177). The physical conditions they elaborated on included soil structure,
bank limitations, and moisture levels. The risk assessments suggested by Flikweert (2012),
particularly the open channel conveyance, are essential in a campus such as UTEP to manage the
Crazy Cat Arroyo and its surroundings. The findings in section 6.4 (p. 134) provide details as to
how poor channel structure and inadequate maintenance can quickly lead to the overflowing of
UTEP changed the structural features surrounding the arroyo to promote a more
functional stormwater transport system during the centennial celebration renovations. Cohen
(2013) interviewed Greg McNicol on the planning of UTEP’s campus transformation. McNicol’s
reasoning for choosing Ten Eyck Landscape Architects to work on the campus master plan was
seeing her (Eyck’s) work at Arizona State Polytechnic. According to Eyck and Briggs (2010),
redesigning the terrain and drain systems surrounding the arroyo on campus. This development
challenges the work of those critics who have long assumed that open channels in semi-arid
regions are ineffective in transferring stormwater to basins. Francis (2012) argued that a team of
mindful architects, engineers, and environmental experts can create sustainably designed
landscapes if they make it one of the primary goals of a project (p. 245). His claims are based on
the close relationship between people and landscapes, integrating social and economic findings
into his argument (p. 147). The skills of engineers regarding fluvial flood prevention can be
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functionality. Francis’ research on flood wall construction illuminates the benefits of recycling
building materials to avoid pollution to water systems, increase efficiency, and reduce the carbon
footprint of alternative transportation (p. 263). The suggestions made by Francis are clearly
present in the large scale UTEP master plan (2011) that was developed by architect Gregory
McNicol and landscape designer Christine Ten Eyck as stated in an El Paso Inc article (2013).
Ten Eyck Landscape Architects worked with UTEP to make the campus safer from
stormwater runoff and more sustainable. UTEP received a Sustainable Sites Initiative Silver
(2016) noted the features created in the transformation of campus and the university's water
conservation was improved through mindful recycling. He found that problems encountered
during construction provided the opportunity to replace dated pipelines ultimately benefitting the
This research was intended to pinpoint what structures in UTEP were affected by the
arroyo flooding and what has been done to prevent further damage. The interview with Greg
McNicol took place in his Sun Bowl office on Tuesday July 24, 2018. McNicol thoroughly
answered six of twelve potential questions over twenty-seven minutes. McNicol is an El Paso
native and has been with UTEP Facilities Management since 2001, with over 35 years of
experience in architecture. He explained that the Physical Science building on campus is in the
100-year flood plain, with a mechanical room on the lowest level, that was susceptible to water
damage when he first arrived at UTEP. The main door to that room has been modified to operate
in a submarine-style, creating a pressurized seal that keeps water out, so the mechanical room
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does not require powering down if the water level rises to that point. When asked about the other
buildings that were prone to flooding along the arroyo mentioned in the Master Plan (2011), he
was stumped and clarified that all other buildings were above the flood plain level. Although it is
believed that Flow Path No. 23 feeds into the Rio Grande (EPWU 2009), McNicol confidently
stated that it hits the American Canal. Figure 1 shows the arroyo in action during the intense
storm of 2006 effectively transferring runoff and stormwater through the campus protecting
students, faculty, staff, and buildings. On the arroyo’s functionality, since the section that runs
through UTEP is near the end of the flow path, he revealed that there were catch basins at
interval locations that collect stormwater and return it to the land. One of these catch basins is
shown in Figure 2, located between Centennial Plaza and the Geology Science Building. This
system prevents overflowing of the arroyo by slowing the flow of water because water is
McNicol confirmed that the UTEP Master Plan was intentionally drafted with the SITES
(Sustainable Sites Initiative) certification rating system, an American program designed to foster
sustainable building practices. University Avenue street was transformed into a walking/biking
trail bursting with desert vegetation. The removal of the paved areas also prevents storm runoff
to pick up high speeds which could damage the property. Another landscape improvement made
was transforming Memorial Triangle and the adjacent parking lot in the center of campus into
the Centennial Plaza, strategically layering gravel, sand, broken rock, and grass in its place to
facilitate absorption of water in the earth. This water infiltration process is a way to reuse
stormwater and save on irrigation practices for the upkeeping of the desert vegetation. McNicol
commented that recycling water and energy resources is ultimately for the benefit of the students
by ensuring that maintenance does not become a reason to increase tuition rates.
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Conclusion
Arroyo flooding happens during high intensity rainfalls in desert regions naturally but in
urban areas it can pose a serious threat. As UTEP is built on the hillside of the Franklin
Mountains and around an arroyo it is no surprise that the campus has been affected by arroyo
flooding in the past. As the enrollment grew the school needed to expand quickly on the land and
that required paving roads and building over and around the channel. After the first one hundred
years of operation the school celebrated by renovating the campus’ landscape. With
sustainability as a primary goal, UTEP’s faculty and staff found the ideal architectural designer
for the desert region and became the first receiver of a SITES silver certification in the world.
Many of the landscape changes were mutually beneficial to the natural flow of stormwater
through the campus and the desert vegetation. This thoughtful project is proof of the effort
UTEP’s administration puts forth to improve student’s safety and quality of life.
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References
Cohen, C. G. (2013, Jun 16). Greg McNicol, UTEP campus transformation. El Paso Inc
transformation/article_c17b8276-d6a0-11e2-a664-0019bb30f31a.html#comments
Delgadillo, R. (2016, October 11). UTEP renovation among the best in the world. The
https://www.epwater.org/our_water/stormwater/master_plan/
Eyck, C. T., & Briggs, T. (2010). Greening a university campus. American Nurseryman, 210(3),
search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=48478604&site
=eds-live&scope=site
Flikweert, J. (2012). Performance of fluvial defences. In P. Sayers (Ed.), Flood risk: Planning,
design and management of flood defence infrastructure (pp. 125-137). London: ICE
Publishing.
Francis, J. (2012) Design for environmental improvements. In P. Sayers (Ed.), Flood risk:
Planning, design and management of flood defence infrastructure (pp. 245-280). London:
ICE Publishing.
Fugate, F. L. (1964). Frontier college: Texas Western at El Paso: the first fifty years. El Paso:
Heathcote, R. L. (1983). The arid lands: Their use and abuse. London ; New York : Longman,
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search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b135
5944&site=eds-live&scope=site
E. E. Herricks, & J. R. Jenkins (Eds.), Stormwater runoff and receiving systems: Impact,
monitoring, and assessment (pp. 3-8). Boca Raton: CRC Lewis. Retrieved from http://0-
search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b171
3218&site=eds-live&scope=site;
Kochel, R. C., & Baker, V. R. (1982). Paleoflood hydrology. Science, 215(4531), 353-361.
Mualem, Y. & Assouline, S. (1996). Soil sealing, infiltration and runoff. In A. Issar, & S. D.
Resnick (Eds.), Runoff, infiltration, and subsurface flow of water in arid and semi-arid
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4920&site=eds-live&scope=site
Nuñez, S. (2013, April 16). Renovations to eliminate concrete, save trees. The Prospector
Spirn, A. W. (1984). Floods, droughts, and poisoned water. The granite garden: Urban nature
and human design (pp. 129—141). New York: Basic Books. Retrieved from http://0-
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4425&site=eds-live&scope=site;
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search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b203
0411&site=eds-live&scope=site
University of Texas at El Paso. (2011). Campus master plan 2011. El Paso: University of Texas
White, G. F. (1960). Science and the future of arid lands. Paris: Unesco. Retrieved from http://0-
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0271&site=eds-live&scope=site
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Appendix A: Images
Source: utep.edu
Figure 2. Catch basin near Centennial Plaza, which collects UTEP stormwater
Source: Author
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When did the buildings surrounding the Crazy Cat arroyo begin to experience flooding?
The Master Plan mentions the arroyo was difficult to access, how was it maintained?
How is UTEP’s portion of the arroyo connected to the city’s stormwater system?
The drain covers visible throughout the campus arroyo, are they all stormwater drains?
After the storm of 2006, what were some of the damages (if any)?
Transforming Memorial Triangle and the inner campus parking lots into the Centennial
Plaza, was one of the purposes behind that to remove asphalt and increase stormwater
absorption?
Has there been (student/faculty/staff) safety incidents on campus caused by the arroyo
flooding before?
How is UTEP’s portion of the arroyo connected to the city’s stormwater system?
According to an article in The Prospector (Nunez 2013) Ten Eyck suggests that new
arroyo additions will mitigate runoff by absorbing rain, was that design implemented and
effective?
Was the Campus Master Plan (2011) drafted with the U.S. Green Building Council’s
How does the campus transformation reduce water demand? Reduce energy
consumption?