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Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1

Literature Review:

Crazy Cat Arroyo Flood Prevention at UTEP

Enid Martinez

University of Texas at El Paso

RWS 1302

Dr. Vierra

July 26, 2018


LITERATURE REVIEW 2

Abstract

Desert regions are classified by low levels of precipitation. When rain does fall, there can

be significant damage to the land. Arroyos are a unique type of dry channel commonly found in

the southwestern deserts of the U.S. that can turn into raging rivers in a short amount of time.

When arroyos overflow, the excess stormwater runs free and can pose a flood threat to people

and buildings. The University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) campus is built on a desert hillside

near a major dry channel that has had its functionality compromised throughout the growth of the

university. The urbanization of the terrain prevents the land from reclaiming water during

storms, increasing runoff. By using geomorphology and hydrology research, in addition to green

architectural landscaping, it is possible to readapt the environment to fix the damage made to the

altered water cycle at this location.


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Literature Review

Crazy Cat Arroyo Flood Prevention at UTEP

Open water channels in desert regions are commonly referred to as arroyos. They play a

role in Earth’s water cycle by catching surface runoff from precipitation. Arid and semi-arid

regions, which have historically struggled with water supply and urbanization in the last four

centuries, have faced a growing problem with contaminated waters. The building of streets and

buildings to accommodate urban growth have upset the natural flow of stormwater to arroyos

thus increasing flood risks. Researchers previously suggested that city planners and designers

considered flood prevention, pollution, and water supply, as separate water related problems.

Research from the last fifteen years however, recommends that engineers and landscape

architects use their expertise to collaborate, managing all applicable water issues before major

constructions. The effectiveness of this principle can be seen at UTEP.

This topic will be explored by the following research questions:

• What is arroyo flooding?

• How is arroyo flooding connected to UTEP?

• How is UTEP vulnerable to arroyo flooding?

• What steps have been taken to prevent arroyo flooding at UTEP?

Discussion of Research

What is Arroyo Flooding?

Deserts are zones of minimal precipitation, and the soils found in dry environments react

uniquely to sudden rainfall. Mualem and Assouline (1996) explained how the topmost layer of

desert soil undergoes chemical processes that transforms its physical state to a hard “crust”

surface that quickly ceases to absorb water. According to Herricks (1995), runoff happens when


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there is more stormwater than the land can absorb due to terrain characteristics or urban

installments such as pavement (p. 4). He elaborated on the cycle of stormwater, which often

picks up chemical or physical contaminants in urban areas and transports the pollution to natural

rivers or into man-made watersheds (p. 7). Herricks also provides the explanations for the basic

concepts that cause arroyo flooding according to Heathcote (1983). This introduction to

stormwater terms is important to understand the big picture behind UTEP’s development of the

arroyo systems.

Arroyo flooding is a natural phenomenon that occurs in desert regions during times of

precipitation. According to Heathcote (1983), resource management in arid regions is based on

mankind’s history of changing ecosystems to maintain civilizations. Heathcote’s done extensive

research on landform properties (p. 48-60), irrigation-use data (p. 62-75), and analysis of the

effects of precipitation (p.27) in arid and semi-arid ecosystems around the world. Although

Heathcote’s data primarily represents nations with more extreme environments than El Paso, the

foundational characteristics of those regions can still teach us about the challenges of our region,

and more importantly how to manage them. He clarified how open channels, such as arroyos, are

ineffective in transferring rain water to basins in dry regions due to evaporation and water

overflowing the channel. These observations combined with the knowledge that runoff is created

by the hardened top layer of arid soils (Mualem et al. 1996) explain the arroyo flooding

phenomenon on UTEP’s campus.

As an open channel, arroyos must be allowed to flow freely and have minimal trash to

prevent flooding. Flikweert (2012) suggested that potential flood risks can be managed by having

experts assess natural and fabricated channels. He emphasized the importance of differentiating

between the need for barring and for conveying water flow to prevent flooding (p. 125). Spirn


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(1984) observed an increase in floods related to growth in urbanization. He also noted that poor

designs for city drainage systems were linked to pollution and increased unnecessary water use

(p. 134). Advancements in civilization have created unnatural flood problems in the driest

regions in the world, and it is uncertain if the damage can be reversed.

UTEP and Arroyo Flooding

El Paso has struggled with water management since its early history. Timmons (1990)

noted that underground deposits of water were created by the prehistoric origin of the Rio

Grande (p. 3). He additionally explained the river’s current role as a source of surface water to

the region (p. 270) and the construction process of the Elephant Butte dam that would control the

Rio Grande’s fickle nature (p. 200). Timmons related the water supply problem to excessive use

of groundwater for irrigation and homeowner misuse (p. 272). Timmons evaluated the region’s

struggle to reliably harvest water for survival in the arid environment and the supply problem

that troubles the region in the new millennium (p. 296). His projections were sound in claiming

the growth of population and urban development to be a threat to the management of water

supply in the future.

The first fifty years of the UTEP campus showed a growth pattern that required physical

expansion. According to Fugate (1964) the historic mining potential of El Paso was the

foundation for a higher education dream. He noted that the community of El Paso was

monumental to the birth of what would become Texas Western College (p. xiii). Several UTEP

buildings are located directly above or neighboring a natural arroyo system (UTEP 2011). The

growth trend of the University of Texas at El Paso has been ongoing since the inception of the

College of Mines and has become a distinguishing factor of the university's history. The 50-year


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celebration does not portray the environmental problems that would arise from reshaping the

hillside on which the campus is located.

Hydrology experts have various methods to predict floods in regions that get regular

rainfall. Kochel and Baker (1982) claimed that the difficulty in analyzing flood risks is largely

due to existing flood records not being old enough to draw useful data from, and common

recording methods are inaccurate in desert-like regions (p. 353). In rural desert regions, storm

recording stations can be far-spread and a hundred-year range cannot accurately predict when an

outlying high-intensity storm will hit the region (p. 353). Kocher et al. specify southwest Texas

is a perfect region for slack-water technology, a storm predicting method that analyzes sediments

found in deposits of temporary, still pools (p. 357). This technology is ideal for the geographic

location of UTEP.

UTEP’s Arroyo Vulnerabilities

The geological location of UTEP combined with urban growth increase the probability of

flooding on campus. Spirn (1984) argued that the characteristics that define urban development

and water management are connected by the design of the city and the drain systems (p. 130).

These findings illuminate the relationship between construction plans and the increased chance

of stormwater damage to city structures and its inhabitants. The observations presented can

explain how the construction of a higher education campus on a hillside, terrain deprived of

water through use of pipes and paved roads, increases the chance of arroyo flooding while

negatively impacting vegetation. White’s observations complicate the flood prevention methods

of Francis’s (2012) research. Francis’ suggestion to plant trees near or on the banks of open

channels could be fruitless if the soil conditions create harmful solutions after rain fall.


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Modified arroyos in urban settings often incorporate materials foreign to the natural

environment which prevents the land from absorbing water. White (1960) claimed the concerns

of arid and semi-arid regions are diverse and depend strongly on economics, politics, and social

constrains (p. 5). He acknowledged how sparsity of water (p. 31), terrain and plant life (p. 43),

and temperature effects (p. 59), are characteristics of deserts. White observed that the minerals of

the earth create a solution when mixed with rainwater than can either aid or damage vegetation

growth, but the solution can also become high in salts that make processing the water for

irrigation costly and economically detrimental (p. 85). Findings like these encourage engineers

and architects to thoroughly test soil before collaborating as Francis (2012) suggests.

The Crazy Cat Arroyo running through campus has a history of inaccessibility and poor

management. According to EPWU (2018) UTEP is classified under the West Central Region

(“Page 2-4”) and Crazy Cat Arroyo is labeled as “Flow Path No. 23” (“Figure 8-60”) which

flows into the Rio Grande. UTEP (2011) suggested that the campus transformation planned for

2014 would promote the growth of the university through strategic physical improvements.

UTEP’s master plan mentions specific details of the structural issues the campus faces regarding

the arroyo, as well as the enrollment accommodation challenges faced (p. 2).

Primary Research

Flood Prevention at UTEP

El Paso Water Utilities has been working with UTEP on flood prevention. EPWU’s

(2018) reported a detailed plan in progress since 2009 of city-wide flood prevention analyses in

response to the storm of 2006. EPWU described the impact the 2006 storm had on El Paso

during which the city received a year’s worth of rain in two consecutive days (“Page 1-3”). Prior

to that time, the city had irregular upkeeping of stormwater systems and which was a major


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cause for the millions of dollars in damages city-wide. Mualem et al. (1996) found that the

sealing of the top layer of soil can be prevented through a variety of chemical, biological, and

physical adaptations (p. 177). The physical conditions they elaborated on included soil structure,

bank limitations, and moisture levels. The risk assessments suggested by Flikweert (2012),

particularly the open channel conveyance, are essential in a campus such as UTEP to manage the

Crazy Cat Arroyo and its surroundings. The findings in section 6.4 (p. 134) provide details as to

how poor channel structure and inadequate maintenance can quickly lead to the overflowing of

the channel that leads to flooding.

UTEP changed the structural features surrounding the arroyo to promote a more

functional stormwater transport system during the centennial celebration renovations. Cohen

(2013) interviewed Greg McNicol on the planning of UTEP’s campus transformation. McNicol’s

reasoning for choosing Ten Eyck Landscape Architects to work on the campus master plan was

seeing her (Eyck’s) work at Arizona State Polytechnic. According to Eyck and Briggs (2010),

the University of Arizona landscape design served to increase sustainability in an environment of

higher education (p. 34).

Recent sustainable renovations at UTEP reinforced the aesthetic desert atmosphere by

redesigning the terrain and drain systems surrounding the arroyo on campus. This development

challenges the work of those critics who have long assumed that open channels in semi-arid

regions are ineffective in transferring stormwater to basins. Francis (2012) argued that a team of

mindful architects, engineers, and environmental experts can create sustainably designed

landscapes if they make it one of the primary goals of a project (p. 245). His claims are based on

the close relationship between people and landscapes, integrating social and economic findings

into his argument (p. 147). The skills of engineers regarding fluvial flood prevention can be


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complemented by the knowledge of environmental experts to create landscapes of superior

functionality. Francis’ research on flood wall construction illuminates the benefits of recycling

building materials to avoid pollution to water systems, increase efficiency, and reduce the carbon

footprint of alternative transportation (p. 263). The suggestions made by Francis are clearly

present in the large scale UTEP master plan (2011) that was developed by architect Gregory

McNicol and landscape designer Christine Ten Eyck as stated in an El Paso Inc article (2013).

Ten Eyck Landscape Architects worked with UTEP to make the campus safer from

stormwater runoff and more sustainable. UTEP received a Sustainable Sites Initiative Silver

Certification Award for its centennial campus renovations (https://teneyckla.com/). Delgadillo

(2016) noted the features created in the transformation of campus and the university's water

conservation was improved through mindful recycling. He found that problems encountered

during construction provided the opportunity to replace dated pipelines ultimately benefitting the

school's foundation (p. 5).

Analysis of UTEP’s Arroyo Flood Management

This research was intended to pinpoint what structures in UTEP were affected by the

arroyo flooding and what has been done to prevent further damage. The interview with Greg

McNicol took place in his Sun Bowl office on Tuesday July 24, 2018. McNicol thoroughly

answered six of twelve potential questions over twenty-seven minutes. McNicol is an El Paso

native and has been with UTEP Facilities Management since 2001, with over 35 years of

experience in architecture. He explained that the Physical Science building on campus is in the

100-year flood plain, with a mechanical room on the lowest level, that was susceptible to water

damage when he first arrived at UTEP. The main door to that room has been modified to operate

in a submarine-style, creating a pressurized seal that keeps water out, so the mechanical room


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does not require powering down if the water level rises to that point. When asked about the other

buildings that were prone to flooding along the arroyo mentioned in the Master Plan (2011), he

was stumped and clarified that all other buildings were above the flood plain level. Although it is

believed that Flow Path No. 23 feeds into the Rio Grande (EPWU 2009), McNicol confidently

stated that it hits the American Canal. Figure 1 shows the arroyo in action during the intense

storm of 2006 effectively transferring runoff and stormwater through the campus protecting

students, faculty, staff, and buildings. On the arroyo’s functionality, since the section that runs

through UTEP is near the end of the flow path, he revealed that there were catch basins at

interval locations that collect stormwater and return it to the land. One of these catch basins is

shown in Figure 2, located between Centennial Plaza and the Geology Science Building. This

system prevents overflowing of the arroyo by slowing the flow of water because water is

prevented flowing downhill until the basin fills up.

McNicol confirmed that the UTEP Master Plan was intentionally drafted with the SITES

(Sustainable Sites Initiative) certification rating system, an American program designed to foster

sustainable building practices. University Avenue street was transformed into a walking/biking

trail bursting with desert vegetation. The removal of the paved areas also prevents storm runoff

to pick up high speeds which could damage the property. Another landscape improvement made

was transforming Memorial Triangle and the adjacent parking lot in the center of campus into

the Centennial Plaza, strategically layering gravel, sand, broken rock, and grass in its place to

facilitate absorption of water in the earth. This water infiltration process is a way to reuse

stormwater and save on irrigation practices for the upkeeping of the desert vegetation. McNicol

commented that recycling water and energy resources is ultimately for the benefit of the students

by ensuring that maintenance does not become a reason to increase tuition rates.


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Conclusion

Arroyo flooding happens during high intensity rainfalls in desert regions naturally but in

urban areas it can pose a serious threat. As UTEP is built on the hillside of the Franklin

Mountains and around an arroyo it is no surprise that the campus has been affected by arroyo

flooding in the past. As the enrollment grew the school needed to expand quickly on the land and

that required paving roads and building over and around the channel. After the first one hundred

years of operation the school celebrated by renovating the campus’ landscape. With

sustainability as a primary goal, UTEP’s faculty and staff found the ideal architectural designer

for the desert region and became the first receiver of a SITES silver certification in the world.

Many of the landscape changes were mutually beneficial to the natural flow of stormwater

through the campus and the desert vegetation. This thoughtful project is proof of the effort

UTEP’s administration puts forth to improve student’s safety and quality of life.


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References

Cohen, C. G. (2013, Jun 16). Greg McNicol, UTEP campus transformation. El Paso Inc

Retrieved from http://www.elpasoinc.com/news/q_and_a/greg-mcnicol-utep-campus-

transformation/article_c17b8276-d6a0-11e2-a664-0019bb30f31a.html#comments

Delgadillo, R. (2016, October 11). UTEP renovation among the best in the world. The

Prospector, pp. 5. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/prospector/259

El Paso Water Utilities. (2018). Stormwater master plan. Retrieved from

https://www.epwater.org/our_water/stormwater/master_plan/

Eyck, C. T., & Briggs, T. (2010). Greening a university campus. American Nurseryman, 210(3),

34. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=48478604&site

=eds-live&scope=site

Flikweert, J. (2012). Performance of fluvial defences. In P. Sayers (Ed.), Flood risk: Planning,

design and management of flood defence infrastructure (pp. 125-137). London: ICE

Publishing.

Francis, J. (2012) Design for environmental improvements. In P. Sayers (Ed.), Flood risk:

Planning, design and management of flood defence infrastructure (pp. 245-280). London:

ICE Publishing.

Fugate, F. L. (1964). Frontier college: Texas Western at El Paso: the first fifty years. El Paso:

Texas Western Press. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/utep_books/1

Heathcote, R. L. (1983). The arid lands: Their use and abuse. London ; New York : Longman,

1983. Retrieved from http://0-


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search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b135

5944&site=eds-live&scope=site

Herricks, E. E. (1995). A context for understanding stormwater effects in receiving systems. In

E. E. Herricks, & J. R. Jenkins (Eds.), Stormwater runoff and receiving systems: Impact,

monitoring, and assessment (pp. 3-8). Boca Raton: CRC Lewis. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b171

3218&site=eds-live&scope=site;

Kochel, R. C., & Baker, V. R. (1982). Paleoflood hydrology. Science, 215(4531), 353-361.

Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1687969

Mualem, Y. & Assouline, S. (1996). Soil sealing, infiltration and runoff. In A. Issar, & S. D.

Resnick (Eds.), Runoff, infiltration, and subsurface flow of water in arid and semi-arid

regions (pp. 131-181). Norwell: Kluwer Academic. Retrieved from http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b174

4920&site=eds-live&scope=site

Nuñez, S. (2013, April 16). Renovations to eliminate concrete, save trees. The Prospector

Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.utep.edu/prospector/137

Spirn, A. W. (1984). Floods, droughts, and poisoned water. The granite garden: Urban nature

and human design (pp. 129—141). New York: Basic Books. Retrieved from http://0-

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4425&site=eds-live&scope=site;

Timmons, W. H. (1990). El Paso: A borderlands history. El Paso, Texas: Texas Western

Press/The University of Texas at El Paso. Retrieved from http://0-


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search.ebscohost.com.lib.utep.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat04704a&AN=nug.b203

0411&site=eds-live&scope=site

University of Texas at El Paso. (2011). Campus master plan 2011. El Paso: University of Texas

at El Paso. Retrieved from http://masterplan.utep.edu/

White, G. F. (1960). Science and the future of arid lands. Paris: Unesco. Retrieved from http://0-

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0271&site=eds-live&scope=site


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Appendix A: Images

Figure 1. Flow Path 23 through UTEP campus during 2006 storm.


Source: utep.edu

Figure 2. Catch basin near Centennial Plaza, which collects UTEP stormwater

Source: Author


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Appendix B: Interview Questions

Which buildings were affected by arroyo flooding?

When did the buildings surrounding the Crazy Cat arroyo begin to experience flooding?

The Master Plan mentions the arroyo was difficult to access, how was it maintained?

How is UTEP’s portion of the arroyo connected to the city’s stormwater system?

The drain covers visible throughout the campus arroyo, are they all stormwater drains?

After the storm of 2006, what were some of the damages (if any)?

Transforming Memorial Triangle and the inner campus parking lots into the Centennial

Plaza, was one of the purposes behind that to remove asphalt and increase stormwater

absorption?

Has there been (student/faculty/staff) safety incidents on campus caused by the arroyo

flooding before?

How is UTEP’s portion of the arroyo connected to the city’s stormwater system?

According to an article in The Prospector (Nunez 2013) Ten Eyck suggests that new

arroyo additions will mitigate runoff by absorbing rain, was that design implemented and

effective?

Was the Campus Master Plan (2011) drafted with the U.S. Green Building Council’s

LEED rating system in mind?

How does the campus transformation reduce water demand? Reduce energy

consumption?

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