Chapter VI: Intersection Design and Analysis

1.1Basic Principles

An intersection is an at-grade junction where two or more roads meet or cross. Intersections may be
classified by number of road segments, traffic controls, and/or lane design.

Types
a.Road segments
One way to classify intersections is by the number of road segments (arms) that are involved.

 A three-way intersection is a junction between three road segments (arms): a T junction when two arms form
one road, or a Y junction – the latter also known as a fork if approached from the stem of the Y.
 A four-way intersection, or crossroads, usually involves a crossing over of two streets or roads. In areas where
there are blocks and in some other cases, the crossing streets or roads are perpendicular to each other.
However, two roads may cross at a different angle. In a few cases, the junction of two road segments may be
offset from each when reaching an intersection, even though both ends may be considered the same street.
 Five-way intersections are less common but still exist, especially in urban areas with non-rectangular blocks. An
example of this is the intersection for which the Five Points district in Atlanta is named.
 Six-way intersections usually involve a crossing of three streets at one junction; for example, a crossing of two
perpendicular streets and a diagonal street is a rather common type of 6-way intersection.
 Seven or more approaches to a single intersection, such as at Seven Dials, London, are rare.

Intersection along the Veterans Memorial Parkway, an at-grade limited-access road in London, Ontario.
b.Traffic controls
Another way of classifying intersections is by traffic control technology:

 Uncontrolled intersections, without signs or signals (or sometimes with a warning sign). Priority (right-of-
way) rules may vary by country: on a 4-way intersection traffic from the right often has priority; on a 3-way
intersection either traffic from the right has priority again, or traffic on the continuing road. For traffic coming from
the same or opposite direction, that which goes straight has priority over that which turns off.
 Yield-controlled intersections may or may not have specific "YIELD" signs (known as "GIVE WAY" signs in some
countries).
 Stop-controlled intersections have one or more "STOP" signs. Two-way stops are common, while some
countries also employ four-way stops.
 Signal-controlled intersections depend on traffic signals, usually electric, which indicate which traffic is allowed to
proceed at any particular time.
c.Lane design
 A traffic circle is a type of intersection at which traffic streams are directed around a circle. Types of traffic circles
include roundabouts, 'mini-roundabouts', 'rotaries', "STOP"-controlled circles, and signal-controlled circles.
Some people consider roundabouts to be a distinct type of intersection from traffic circles (with the distinction
based on certain differences in size and engineering).
 A box junction can be added to an intersection, generally prohibiting entry to the intersection unless the exit is
clear.
 Some (unconventional or alternative) intersections employ indirect left turns to increase capacity and reduce
delays. The Michigan left combines a right turn and a U-turn. Jughandle lefts diverge to the right, then curve to
the left, converting a left turn to a crossing maneuver, similar to throughabouts. These techniques are generally
used in conjunction with signal-controlled intersections, although they may also be used at stop-controlled
intersections.[1]
 Other designs include advanced stop lines, parallel-flow and continuous-flow intersections, hook
turns, quadrants, seagull intersections, slip lanes, staggered junctions, superstreets, Texas Ts, Texas U-
turns and turnarounds.
 A roundabout and its variants like turbo roundabouts, bowties and distributing circles like traffic circles and right-
in/right-out (RIRO) intersections.

Turns
At intersections, turns are usually allowed, but are often regulated to avoid interference with other traffic. Certain
turns may be not allowed or may be limited by regulatory signs or signals, particularly those that cross oncoming
traffic. Alternative designs often attempt to reduce or eliminate such potential conflicts.
Turn lanes
At intersections with large proportions of turning traffic, turn lanes (also known as turn bays)[2] may be provided. For
example, in the intersection shown in the diagram, left turn lanes are present in the right-left street.
Turn lanes allow vehicles to cross oncoming traffic (i.e., a left turn in right-side driving countries, or a right turn in left-
side driving countries), or to exit a road without crossing traffic (i.e., a right turn in right-side driving countries, or a left
turn in left-side driving countries). Absence of a turn lane does not normally indicate a prohibition of turns in that
direction. Instead, traffic control signs are used to prohibit specific turns.
Turn lanes can increase the capacity of an intersection and/or improve safety. Turn lanes can have a dramatic effect
on the safety of a junction. In rural areas, crash frequency can be reduced by up to 48% if left turn lanes are provided
on both main-road approaches at stop-controlled intersections. At signalized intersections, crashes can be reduced
by 33%. Results are slightly lower in urban areas.[3]
Turn lanes are marked with an arrow bending into the direction of the turn which is to be made from that lane. Multi-
headed arrows indicate that vehicle drivers may travel in any one of the directions pointed to by an arrow.
Turn signals
Traffic signals facing vehicles in turn lanes often have arrow-shaped indications. Green arrows indicate protected turn
phases, when vehicles may turn unhindered by oncoming traffic. Red arrows may be displayed to prohibit turns in
that direction. Red arrows may be displayed along with a circular green indication to show that turns in the direction
of the arrow are prohibited, but other movements are allowed. In some jurisdictions, a red arrow prohibits a turn on
red.[4]
Disadvantages to turn lanes include increased pavement area, with associated increases in construction and
maintenance costs, as well as increased amounts of stormwaterrunoff. They also increase the distance over which
pedestrians crossing the street are exposed to vehicle traffic. If a turn lane has a separate signal phase, it often
increases the delay experienced by oncoming through traffic. Without a separate phase, left crossing traffic does not
get the full safety benefit of the turn lane.
Lane management
Alternative intersection configurations can manage turning traffic to increase safety and intersection
throughput.[5] These include the Michigan left, "superstreet" and continuous flow intersection.

Pedestrians

Times Square is the hub of the Broadway theater district and a major cultural venue in Midtown Manhattan, New
York City. The pedestrianintersection also has one of the highest annual attendance rates of any touristattraction in
the world, estimated at 60 million.[6]
Intersections generally must manage pedestrian as well as vehicle traffic. Pedestrian aids include crosswalks,
pedestrian-directed traffic signals ("walk light") and over/underpasses. Walk lights may be accompanied by audio
signals to aid the visually impaired. Medians can offer pedestrian islands, allowing pedestrians to divide their
crossings into a separate segment for each traffic direction, possibly with a separate signal for each.
Some intersections display red lights in a all directions for a period of time. Known as a pedestrian scramble, this
type of vehicle all-way stop allows pedestrians to cross safely in any direction, including diagonally. All green for non
motorists is known from the crossing at Shibuya Station, Tokyo.[7]

Intersection design is an important task. They need to be designed carefully after considering a number of factors.
Some of the main design principles are the following
1.Uniformity and Simplicity- Intersections must be designed and operated for simplicity and uniformity. The design
must keep the capabilities and limitation of drivers, pedestrians and vehicles using intersection. It should be based on
a knowledge of what a driver will do rather than what he should do. All the intersection movements should be obvious
to the drivers, even if he is a stranger to the area thus maintaining uniformity.
2.Minimise Conflict Points- any location having merging, diverging or crossing manoeuvres of two vehicles is a
potential conflict point. The main objective of the intersection design is to minimise the number and severity of potential
conflicts between cars, buses, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians and whenever possible, these should be separated.
This can be done by:
Space separation- by access control islands through channelizing
Time separation- by traffic signals on waiting lanes
3.Safety- The safety of a particular design can best be assessed by studying the frequency with which types of
accidents occur at a particular type of intersection and its correlation with volume and type of traffic.
Provision for vulnerable road users: Pedestrians(including specially abled) often need to cross a road in two separate
manoeuvres. Properly sighted traffic islands have the added advantage that they can be used as refuges by these
vulnerable road users especially at intersections on wide roads.
Provision of good safe locations for the installation of traffic control devices: The possible use of traffic control devices
should always be considered; for instance, the design of an intersection to be eventually controlled by signals may
differ from one requiring channelization and signs.
4. Alignment and Profile- The intersecting roads shall meet at or nearly at right angle. However, angles above 60°
do not warrant realignment. Intersection on sharp curves should be avoided because the super elevation and widening
of pavement complicates the design. Grades in excess of 3 percent should, therefore, be avoided on intersections
while those in excess of 6 percent should not be allowed.
5. Encourage low vehicle speeds on the approaches to right-angle intersections- Minor road vehicles intending
to cut across major road traffic should approach the intersection slowly so that they can easily stop and give way to
through traffic. This can achieved by funnelling by traffic islands, chicanes etc.
6 Favour high priority traffic movements- The operating characteristics and layout of an intersection should
deliberately favour the intended high-priority movements. This principle, principle generally improves intersection
capacity as well as safety.
7. Discourage undesirable traffic movements-Traffic islands and corner radii can be used to discourage motorists
from taking undesirable travel paths, and encourage them to take defined ones.
8. Provide reference markers for road users- Drivers should be provided with appropriate references at intersections,
e.g. Stop/Give Way lines which indicate where, say, the lead vehicle in a minor road traffic stream should stop until a
suitable entry gap appears in the main road stream.
9. Provide advance warning for change- Drivers should never be suddenly faced with unexpected. Advance signing
that warns of intersection ahead should be provided on minor roads leading to controlled intersections, on all roads
where visibility is restricted prior to an intersection, and on high speed roads where it is desirable to cause vehicles to
slow.
10. Illuminate intersections wherever possible- Priority for lighting a night should be given to intersections with
heavy pedestrian flows and/or with heavy vehicular flows, at roundabouts and where raised channelization islands
intrude on what might be considered the ‘natural’ vehicle pathways , and where an interesting road already has lighting.