OVERVIEW

1.1 Geographic Setting

Mayon Volcano is an active simple stratovolcano located in the Bicol Peninsula southeast of Luzon Island,
Philippines. It is a classic composite cone of andesite and basaltic-andesite lavas with associated deposits of
pyroclastic flows and lahars (Newhall 1977; Paguican, Lagmay and Rodolfo, 2009).
Rising to a height of 2,462 meters above mean sea level, Mayon Volcano is the highest mountain in
Southern Luzon. On its summit is a small crater that gives outlet to its single vent. The volcano’s circular base has a
circumference of 62.8 kilometers based on a 10-kilometer radius (PHIVOLCS). Set on a landscape predominated by
plains and low-lying hills west of Albay Gulf, its imposing profile visible from the base to the summit is of remarkable
symmetry and often described as a near-perfect cone (Fernandez, 2001).
With more than 60 eruptions throughout its recorded history (Smithsonian Institution), Mayon Volcano is the
most active volcano in the Philippine archipelago (Mirabueno, 2001). Its activity is related to its location in the Bicol
arc…[Bicol arc].
Geopolitically, …
Albay Biosphere Reserve… MVNP

1.2 Climatic and Meteorologic Setting

The climate in the area of Mount Mayon is under Type II of the Modified Coronas Classification used by the
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). It is characterized by
absence of dry season and a pronounced maximum rain period from December to February. Minimum monthly
rainfall occurs during the period from March to May. Table () shows the thirty-year monthly average rainfall from 1981
to 2010. The annual average rainfall is 3432.1 (PAGASA Legazpi Station). Half of it (1645.2 mm) comes during a
distinct wet season from October to January (Rodolfo and Arguden 1991).
…Analysis

Month Rainfall Mean Temperature Relative Wind Direction Wind Speed Cloud
(mm) (oC) Humidity (%) (16 pt) (mps) Amount (okta)
January 311.7 26.0 84 NE 3 6
February 236.4 26.3 82 NE 3 5
March 193.8 27.0 83 NE 3 5
April 171.2 28.2 82 NE 3 4
May 186.6 28.9 82 NE 2 5
June 230.5 28.6 82 SW 2 6
July 259.8 28.1 84 SW 2 6
August 222.5 28.2 84 SW 3 6
September 285.9 28.0 84 SW 2 6
October 333.0 27.6 86 NE 2 6
November 480.3 27.2 86 NE 3 6
December 520.2 26.4 85 NE 3 6
Annual 3432.1 27.5 84 NE 3 6

Temperature and mean humidity

GEOLOGIC PROFILE

The Philippine islands are situated between two oppositely dipping zones of active subduction, which create
the West Philippine Arc System and East Philippine Arc System (Mukasa 1987). The East Philippine Arc System is
associated with the Philippine Trench where the Philippine Sea Plate is being subducted towards the west. This
system presents as a linear belt of volcanic rocks whose centers are regionally grouped into Bicol Arc at the northern
end of the Philippine Trench, the volcanoes of Leyte Island at the center, and the East Mindanao Arc at the southern
end (Castillo and Newhall, 2004). It has an associated Late Miocene to Recent volcanic activity (Mukasa, 1987).

Mayon belongs to the Bicol Arc, a northwest-trending chain of ten large volcanic and several smaller cones
that stretch over a distance of about 220 km along the Bicol Peninsula, in the southeastern portion of Luzon Island
(Newhall, 1979; Knittel-Weber and Knittel, 1990). Bicol Arc lies over the “C”-shaped subduction zone of Roeder
(1977), which consists of the subducted basaltic crust of the Philippine Sea Plate modestly covered with pelagic
sediments and overlain by a sub-arc mantle wedge (Newhall, 1979; Castillo and Newhall, 2004). From north to south,
the ten major cones of this group are Mts. Bacacay, Labo, Colasi, Isarog, Iriga, Malinao, Masaraga, Mayon, Juban,
and Bulusan. Also in the Bicol Arc are volcanic complexes, the Pocdol Mountains and Gate Mountains composed of
two or more overlapping cones, and small plug domes that include Mt. Cone near Colasi, and Mt. Jormahan near
Bulusan (Newhall 1979). The eruptive activity of Bicol Arc has been observed to shift from north to south (BMG, 1981
in Van Westen, unpub.): Mayon, along with Bulusan and Iriga are the three active volcanoes in this chain while
Malinao situated northwest of Mayon is in fumarolic stage (Knittel-Weber and Knittel, 1990).

Bicol Arc is underlain by Upper Tertiary to Quaternary (Pleistocene) sedimentary and volcanic rocks and
pre-Tertiary schists, gneisses and ultramafics, which together form the Bicol Peninsula (Newhall, 1977; Newhall,
1979; Castillo and Newhall, 2004). The volcanic rocks include two-pyroxene (augite and hypersthene) basalt and
andesite, hornblende andesite and biotite-hornblende dacite, and rhyolite, with medium to high-K calc-alkaline
signatures. Olivine basalt cinder cones are also numerous, including four near Mayon (Newhall, 1979).

The lavas of Mayon range from basalt to andesite, with andesites and basaltic andesites predominating over
basalts. They belong to the medium K calc-alkaline series and has a narrow compositional range of 54-58 wt % SiO2.
This narrow range is reflected in a rather constant mineral assemblage: all lavas are porphyritic with 25-50%
phenocrysts (mostly 35-45%) that typically consists of plagioclase, augite, hypersthene, olivine, and titaniferous
magnetite set in a matrix of the same minerals plus glass and accessory apatite (Castillo and Newhall, 2004). Rare
hornblende phenocrysts with resorption rims of magnetite occur in some of the oldest andesites. Though xenoliths
____ Lava texture is predominantly hyalopilitic, but some lavas are hyaloophitic and pilotaxitic (Newhall, 1979).

Temporal variations

Some studies of previous workers disclosed cyclical variations in the eruptive activity of the volcano.
Punongbayan (1985) inferred five cycles based on the trend of repose periods of Mayon. Each cycle or batch
consists of 41 to 47 years. Within each batch a generally decreasing repose period is shown, and, in between these
batches are relatively longer duration intervals. He concluded that major eruptions occur at the end of each long
duration interval. Newhall (1979) observed a cyclical variation based on the modal and whole rock chemical analysis
of fiftyone sequential Mayon lavas. Each of the two recent cycles observed: 1800 to 1876 and 1881 to 1979, consists
of 1 to 3 basaltic flows followed by 6 to 10 andesitic flows. He explained that this "....chemical variation apparently
results from the periodic influxes of basaltic magma from depth into a shallow magma system. Fractional
crystallization of olivine, augite, hypersthene, calcic plagioclase, magnetite and pargasitic hornblende produces
successively more andesitic lavas until the next influx of basaltic magma." Likewise, a statistical analysis of the
eruptive events from 1766 to 1984 by Lizardo (1986) disclosed the existence of two separate phases characterized
by patterns of generally decreasing reposes expressed by and exponential model."

The cycles theorized by Newhall and Lizardo more or less fall in the same time frame, hence it is possible
that Lizardo's phases in eruptive events could be explained by Newhall's cyclical variations. (VW)

Cycle/Phase Punongbayan (1985) Newhall (1979) Lizardo (1986)

1 1800 – 1814 1800 – 1876 1800 – 1987
2 1834 – 1858 1881 – 1979 1900 – 1984
3 1871 – 1900
4 1928 – 1947
5 1968 – 1984

Chemical and petrographic analyses of 51 sequential lava flows from the central vent of Mayon volcano
show cyclical variation. In the two most recent cycles, from 1800 to 1876 and from 1881 to the present, one to three
basaltic flows are followed by six to ten andesitic flows. Modal and whole-rock chemical parameters show the most
regular cyclical variation;calculated groundmass chemical parameters vary less regularly. There is also a long-term
trend, over approximately 1700 years of exposed section, toward more basic compositions.

The cyclical variation in modes and the chemical composition of the lavas apparently results from periodic
influxes of basaltic magma from depth into a shallow magma sys- tem. Fractional crystallization of olivine, augite,
hypersthene, calcic plagioclase, magne- tite and pargasitic hornblende produces successively more andesitic lavas
until the next influx of basaltic magma. Differentiation in a deep zone of magma generation is not excluded by the
data, but is more likely responsible for the overall change toward more basic compositions than for the cyclical
variation.

Three points in a cycle -- the beginning of basaltic lavas, the beginning of andesitic lavas and a leveling-off
of SiO2, K2O and K2O/Na2O values -- correspond roughly to the beginning of frequent effusive eruptions (with or
without an early Plinian eruption), frequent weak to moderately explosive (Strombolian) eruptions, and less frequent
explosive (Vulcanian) eruptions, respectively. Recognition of the current stage in a cycle can give a qualitative
indication of the nature of forthcoming eruptions. Changes in several specific parameters may precede basaltic lavas
and allow early detection of basaltic influxes. These include minima in the glass inclusion/plagioclase phenocryst and
phenocryst/groundmass ratios, vesicularity and groundmass TiO2, a decrease in hypersthene phenocrysts, and
constant values for the whole-rock K2O/Na2O ratio. The Mayon area is densely populated, making prediction of
eruption type important for safety and land-use planning. (NH)

The relatively small total range of isotope ratios in Mayon lavas (viz., 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70370–0.70383;
143Nd/144Nd = 0.51292–0.51300; 206Pb/204Pb = 18.54–18.57) is akin to the Philippine Sea basaltic crust subducting

beneath Mayon Volcano, which in turn has an isotopic signature similar to the mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB)
beneath the Indian Ocean (Hickey-Vargas, 1991, 1998; Spadea, et al., 1996 in Castillo and Newhall, 2004). It implies
that the main source of Mayon lavas in the sub-arc mantle wedge beneath Mayon has a history of long-term
depletion (approx. billion years) relative to bulk Earth values of incompatible trace elements (i.e., low Rb/Sr, Nd/Sm,
U/Pb, and Th/Pb rations). The generally low and constant Zr/Nb ratios of Mayon lavas (average = 16) is also close to
the average value (13) of the subducting basalt crust beneath Mayon, suggesting unmodified composition of its sub-
arc mantle, and further similarity to the Indian Ocean MORB (Castillo and Newhall, 2004).

Mayon lavas are further enriched in large ion lithophile elements such as Rb, Ba, and K (20–130 times
primitive mantle), indicating that a subduction component derived from subducted pelagic sediment and basaltic crust
is being added to their sub-arc mantle wedge source. The wide range of Th/Nb ratios of Mayon lavas, comparable to
Mariana arc lavas, suggests that both melt and aqueous fluid phases may be involved in transferring the subduction
component into the sub-arc mantle. Specifically, the high Th/Nb end of the trace element array in Mayon lavas
coupled with a low Ba/La—high La/SmN end that overlaps with the bulk sediment indicates that melt is more effective
than aqueous fluid in transferring the bulk sediment signature from the subducted pelagic sediment to the mantle
source of the lavas. On the other hand, the low Th/Nb end of the array, which trends toward the basaltic crust and
has a high Ba/La ratio indicates that aqueous fluid dehydrated from the subducted basaltic crust nevertheless
contributes to the enrichment of Mayon lavas, albeit less predominantly than melted sediment (Castillo and Newhall,
2004). ______

As ejecta, lavas dominate the Mayon edifice from the summit to around 500-meter elevation (PR).
Strombolian eruptions mainly contribute to lava flow units (VW). The volume extruded during each eruption episode
is relatively small (15 to 30 million cubic meters), with 60 million cubic meters being the largest recorded volume
emplaced, during the 1928 eruptions (PR). In quiet effusions, main lava flows follow pre-existing gullies directly
opening to the crater. More explosive eruptions can collapse crater rim and “link” the crater to other pre-existing
ravines. Shorter flows could be directed anywhere around the volcano through lava fountaining and spattering,
boiling over of incandescent ejecta during formation of pyroclastic flows, and short-term overflowing of lava from the
crater. These events often create lava agglutinates, the dominant lava forms in the summit and near-summit sections
of Mayon (VW).

Mayon lavas are predominantly of the clinkery aa type, with blocky gradational components and powdery
components also present. The 1984 lava flow yielded a temperature record of 850 °C, and an estimated temperature
range of 1215 °C to 1500 °C for plagioclase crystallization, well above the ranges for Etna (1050 °C - 1130 °C) and
Sakura-jima (880 °C - 1050 °C) (Blong, 1984; Magalit and Ruelo, 1985; VW). Based on such temperature and their
petrochemical composition, Mayon lavas are deduced to have moderately high viscosity, high degree of crystallinity
and high yield strength, attributes that tend to retard the spreading out of the flow far from the vent (PR, VW).
Mapped lava units give an average maximum distance of 4.524 kilometers from the crater and an average maximum
altitude of 448 meters. From a limited number of velocity observations on Mayon lavas, an estimated average
velocity of 149 m/hr on the upper volcanic slopes and 2 m/hr on the middle volcanic slopes downwards are obtained.
These give an overall average for both slopes as 5.7 m/hr. A general average of 7.9 m/hr was also calculated (VW).

Most lava flows of Mayon are highly elongated, steep-sided linear flows as shown by the 1993, 1984, 1947
and many other flows (PR, VW). They are tapered towards the summit and remain at the flow fronts either as linear-
lobate, bifurcated (e.g., the 1928 lava flow), fan-type (e.g., older flows in Buang, Buhian, and Masarawag), or
irregularly shaped. Bifurcated and fan-type flows usually start to spread out at elevations 600 meters to 400 meters
(VW). Widths of lava flows along the middle reaches vary from 75 meters to 450 meters while widths at the flow
fronts range from 125 meters to anomalously wide flow of 2 km located in Masarawag, Guinobatan (VW).

Lava flows with abrupt ends

 Pyroclastic flow deposits can be encountered beginning at around 2000-meter elevation but these are
mostly confined to gullies and negligibly small. Almost abruptly beginning at around 500 meters down to 200 meters,
pyroclastic flow fans become the dominant deposit. Major Vulcanian eruptions produce pyroclastic flows either by
building over and subsequent coalescence of a dense slag of incandescent pyroclastic ejecta, such as in the 1993
eruption, or more commonly for Mayon, by the collapse of pyroclastic materials from a tall eruption column (PR), a
type called St. Vincent nuée ardente (Newhall, 1977) or Soufriere nuée ardente (Francis, 1993). This leaves block
and ash deposits consisting of poorly vesiculated to unvesiculated large blocks and breadcrust bombs in a matrix of
ash and lapilli (VW). As observed during the 1984 eruption, pyroclastic flows of Mayon tend to follow pre-existing
gullies as they move downwards at the upper slopes, and start to spread out from around 600-meter elevation
forming aprons around the base of the middle volcanic slope (VW). The farthest distance reached by a mapped
pyroclastic flow reached as far as 8.562 km. in Fidel Surtida, Sto. Domingo.

Estimated velocities of the 1968 pyroclastic flows range from 9 to 63 m/sec, and an average velocity of 31
m/sec is obtained, which is considered moderate (Moore and Melson in Blong, 1984). The small pyroclastic flows of
1993 had velocities ranging from 10-20 m/sec. These velocities are maintained until they reach approximately 600 m.
elevation where they start to diverge and deposit as fans (VW). Temperature for 1968 pyroclastic flows yielded 98
°C, taken five days after emplacement since it is impossible to obtain temperatures for pyroclastic flows in progress.
Higher temperatures (approximately 240 °C) have been obtained from a large block on the surface of this pyroclastic
flow (Moore and Melson in Blong, 1984)

Airfall

Airfall ash is distributed over all sectors of the volcano, in lobate-shaped deposits elongate in the direction of
winds at the time of each eruption. In accord with prevailing winds, more tephra has blown to the west and southwest
than in other directions. but a substantial tephra blanket also lies northeast of the volcano. Rains accompanying or
following eruptions wash away some ash layers, especially from steep slopes, and other thin ash layers are mixed
mixed into soil by small animals. Thus the geologic record of tephra fall is incomplete, the younger part of this
incomplete record is best preserved on gentle slopes near the volcano where deposits are relatively thick and coarse,
A more complete but deeply weathered set of tephra layers may be found near Nasisi, WNW of the volcano. (RV)

Tephra fall is largely controlled by the prevailing wind direction, which changes seasonally in this region.
From June to November, winds from the southwest monsoon blow ash and lapilli toward the northeast sector of
Mayon. From November to March, winds are from the northeast monsoon. During April and May, and in other months
when the monsoon winds are weak, ever-present northeast trade winds prevail. Not infrequently, lower and higher
elevation winds blow in opposite directions, spreading ash in both directions. The concentration of tephra fall in the
northeast, southwest and west by prevailing winds has been accentuated by contrasting, recent pyroclastic flows and
debris flows on Ihe eastern and southern slopes of Mayon.

Lahar

Physical Attributes

Conical and Symmetrical Profile of Mayon

Testimonials
 Mayon Volcano, when viewed from all directions, presents convex-upward opposing slopes which approach
a parabolic curvilinear pattern from base to summit (PR).

To more accurately describe the symmetry of Mayon Volcano, Punongbayan and Ruelo (1985) constructed
four cross-sectional profile diagrams across Mayon Volcano along the E-W, N-S, NE-SW and NW-SE directions.
Seven slope segments are established based on changes in the values of slope angle. For each opposing slope in
the seven slope segments, angle variations are determined as a function of distance from the volcano’s summit. The
obtained angles per slope segment are as follows:

Slope Elevation Measured Slope Angle (in degrees)

Segment (meters N S E W SW NE SE NW
a.s.l.)
2,462
A 39 38 35 35 38 35 40 35
2,300
B 35 35 36 36 37 34 37 34
2,000
C 32 33 33 32 32 33 33 32
1,500
D 16 15 19.5 21 19 18 30 15
500
E 6 7.5 8.5 5 6.5 5.5 5 6.5
300
F 4.5 4 4 3 6 6
200
G 3 3 2 3 3 2
0

Findings:

Becker Formula

Internal structure

The volcano's pre-1984 crater was funnel-shaped, 150 m across and 15-30 m deep, and floored with rubble,
altered rocks and volcanic sublimates. Numerous fumaroles within and just outside the crater continuously emit a gas
plume. Slopes from the summit down to 730 m above sea level average 28 degrees, and are covered with explosion
debris, talus, lava agglutinate, lava flows, and pyroclastic flow and tephra fall deposits. From 730 m down to 200 m
above sea level, slopes averaging 9 degrees arc covered with tephra fall deposits, coarse pyroclastic flow and debris
flow deposits, and lava flows. Below 200 m, laharic and tephra fall deposits are more abundant than pyroclastic now
deposits, and lava flows are rare.

Mayon Volcano consists of a succession of basaltic to andesitic lava flows, and pyroclastic flow, lahar, airfall
tephra, and talus deposits. Various types of deposits occur on different parts of the cone. Talus predominates on the
steep upper slopes, and lava flows dominate the middle slopes. Pyroclastic flow deposits occur from about 1000 m
elevation downward, are a major component of a pyroclastic apron from 200-750 m elevation, and in at least one
instance near Sto. Domingo, extend to the sea. Lahar deposits occur at the lowest elevations, reaching down to and
possibly below sea level.
 A model of the internal structure of Mayon Volcano views the edifice as a succession of limitedly
overlapping deposits of pyroclastic flows, airfall, lava flows, and debris flows, with a vertical pile of lava agglutinate
cappings strung together by a central vent (Punongbayan and Ruelo, 1985).

The polygenetic character of Mayon Volcano gave rise to different volcanic landform units formed by its
episodic eruptions (V)

Thus, it can be safely assumed that the volcanic edifice is primarily made up of pyroclastic flow and lava
flow de[posits with associated airfall layers and lava agglutinates. These materials are generally found at the lower to
upper slopes of the volcano. The basal sections are dominated by debris flow and lahar deposits derived mainly from
the pyroclastic flow fans and precariously perched materials at the middle and upper slopes. (PR)

As mentioned earlier, the deposit of pyroclastic and lava flows are slope sector specific. With the exception
of the airfall materials, none of the other ejecta types has the capacity to completely enshroud the edifice from the
summit dowwn to its base (PR)

The lower slopes, from sea level up to 500 meters, average five degrees and are predominantly covered
with airfall deposits of coarse pyroclastic and debris flow deposits, with occasional lava flows. The middle slopes,
between 500-2000 meters, average 22 degrees and is covered with some talus but mostly lava flows and airfall
deposits. The upper slopes, above 2000 meters, average 35-40 degrees and are covered with explosion debris,
isolated exposures of lava, and talus (NH).

Figure 14 is a generalized cross section of Mayon parallel to the barrancos. Note that the upper slopes there
have simply been lava flows of varying lengths, with some overriding others. The net effect is one of an exponential
outward decrease in thickness, even though it is with lava rather than with airfall. The resulting dips here are
generally less than the slope angles except where a lava flow has “cascaded” over the toe of a shorter flow. On the
middle slopes, stream channels have simply followed the resistant lava flows downslope, except at the flow termini,
where the streams often cut deep the loose underlying pyroclastics. (Occasionally streams also cut through lava
flows upslope from their termini, but in such cases the downslope portion of the flow is ultimately lost to erosion). On
the lower slopes, there is a general aggradation, with successibe wedges of coarse flow debris and interbedded but
volumetrically minor airfall deposits.

Factors affecting the profile

The volcano's near-perfect symmetry implies that most of its eruptions have been from a central vent, that
pyroclastic ejecta (especially pyroclastic flows) are distributed more more or less uniformly around all sectors of the
volcano, and that no recent eruptions have been large enough to disfigure the cone (RV).

The near-perfect conical shape of Mayon Volcano and its extraordinary symmetry can be attributed to
various factors. Among these is the maintenance of relatively moderate eruptions thru time from a single vent and the
type and distribution of volcanic ejecta characterizing predetermined slope segments (Punongbayan and Ruelo,
1985). Lava agglutinates piling at its summit, causing the upward propagation of the vent and wobbling of the crater
lip results in a random distribution of flow that does not favor one side, thereby maintaining symmetry in its slopes,
with minimal angular variations..

The commonly given ones are eruption through single vent, lack of wide variations in the physico-chemical
characteristics of the erupted lava to preclude internal and external lava doming, relatively mild eruptions, absence of
sectoral collapse anywhere on the volcano slopes, and randomized syn-eruptiion and post-eruption distributions of
volcanic ejecta. (PR)

Lava agglutinate cappings (Fig. 6) are emplaced at the summit and near-summit slopes particularly during
the major eruptions of Mayon Volcano. Because these cappings, as described earlier, are composed predominantly
of coherent units of volcanic ejecta, they tend to preserve the post-eruption dimensions of the near surface extension
as well as the incremental elongation of the vent. This ultimately results in the formation of the vertical pile of lava
agglutinate cappings and the upward propagation of a vertical vent (Fig. 5). Thus, the lava agglutinate cappings
somehow serve to guarantee that the eruptions of the Mayon Volcano shall take place thru a single vent and that the
vent shall retain its vertical orientation thru time. (PR)

The observed random outpouring of lava flows and ejection of pyroclastic flows from the central crater over
the slopes of Mayon Volcano could be attributed to the combined effects of the cone having small crater diameter
(150m) and very steep slopes from the summit down to elevation 2300m. (PR)

Mayon Volcano possesses a characteristic concave profile which reflects the interplay between erosion and
eruption. Becker (in Faustino, 1929) described its profile as a hyperbolic sine curve, a profile which he ascribed to
ash tending to accumulate to its angle of repose but, balanced by the need to distribute the load of the cone over a
broader area. So anything in excess of the angle of repose rolls down the slopes to rest at lower elevations or at
lower slopes. (V)

Not only must the internal structure model be consistent with the relative dips and slope angles, but it must
also explain the strikingly concave profile of Mayon. There are five commonly cited possible explanations for the
concave profile of volcanic cones, namely: (1) increasing airfall activity through time, leading to the formation of a
steep-sided “scoria cone” for the summit of the volcano; (2) lower flank eruptions of fluid lava, in addition to the steep-
sided cone of the central vent; (3) progressive decreases ibn rhe length of lava flows (possibly due to decreasing
volumes of magma, and/or to increasing viscosity of the magma; (4) exponential decrease in airfall (and other
deposits) with distance from the crater; and (5) redistribution of upper cone material into broad, gently-sloping alluvial
aprons by pyroclastic and debris flows.
Of these five, 1 and 2 are neither consistent with the relative dips and slope angles nor supported by field
evidence, and must therefore be discarded. Alternative 3 could be consistent with the relative angles but is not
supported by field evidence; indeed, recent lava flows have been as long or longer than average Mayon lava flows. It
too must be discarded. Alternatives 4 and 5, on the other hand, are both consistent with the relative angles and
supported by field observations. The steeper parts of the cone are essentially away from the crater. The gentler
slopes around the base are also constructional, with thick deposits of pyroclastic and debris flows grading laterally
outward to normal floodplain deposits.
The third major clue to be considered is the unusually good symmetry of Mayon. A close examination of the
topographic profiles in Figure 12 will show minor deviations from perfect symmetry (e.g., in the N-S direction, slightly
steeper slopes on the S than on the N), but overall one can use the symmetry to add three more constraints to the
internal model of Mayon, namely: (1) that most eruptions have been from only one central vent; (2) that there is no
major pre-existing edifice or relief beneath Mayon; and (3) that erosion has to date merely cut shallow barrancos in
the cone, and is thus unlikely to have left any major erosional unconformities within the cone. There are minor
exceptions to these generalizations, such as flank fissure eruptions or buried hills, but these need only be considered
as minor details in our model.

Age
 Most of the oldest deposits occur in the northern and western quadrants of Mayon, whereas recent
eruptions have increasingly affected the southwestern, southern. and eastern sectors
The precise age of Mayon is unknown, as none of its earliest deposits have been identified and dated. Most
of these deposits are presumably buried beneath the present edifice. West of Mayon near Nasisi, Ligao, and in
barrios of Oas, sections of Mayon tephra lie on pre-Mayon bedrock, but it is not known whether erosion removed any
tephras before the present ones were deposited. Even if the lowest of these tephras could be assumed to be from
one of the first eruptions of Mayon, these deposits are deeply weathered and have not yielded any datable material.
The oldest exposed deposits of Mayon are about 5000 years old (5050 ~ 250 years. sample W-5610:
Meyer, 1985). An age of the cone as a whole can be estimated by a crude backward extrapolation of the recent rate
of growth of the cone. Since 1902, the cone has grown at an average rate of 4 x 106 m3/yr (based on Table 1). At this
rate the volume of the present cone (1 x 1011 m3 ) could have accumulated in 25,000 years. Because some material
has undoubtedly been washed off the cone, Mayon is probably older than 25,000 years, but nonetheless young
compared to most other volcanoes. Uncertainty in this estimate of Mayon's age is high (perhaps ± 10,000 years), but
less than in a previous estimate by one of us (Newhall, 1977) that the cone is about 70.000 years old.
On the other hand, Punongbayan (l985) proposes another approach to estimate the minimum maximum and
maximum ages of a given volcanic edifice. This is based primarily on the assumplion that only the major eruptions of
a volcano contribute significantly to the building of its cone. The required critical data are the total volume of ejecta as
represented by the volcano edifice, volume of ejecta per major eruplion, and repose period between major eruption.
Applying this for Mayon Volcano an estimated age of 52.000 years for its maximum age and 14.000 years for its
minimum maximum age were obtained. Based on his proposed technique for estimating the age of active volcanoes.
he came out with 24.000 years as the probable age of Mayon Volcano. (RV)

Age estimation for Mayon was attempted by Newhall in 1977, using three different methods which gave him
three different results. By averaging the rate (92.5 x 106 m3 average from 1928 and 1968 eruptions) at which new
volcanic products are added to the cone, and then dividing this into the total volume of the cone (1.01 x 1011 m3), he
arrived at 5,500 years.
The other method he used was extrapolation downward from a C14 date to an assumed base level of the
cone. This C14 date of 1480±85 years B.P. was given for a charred wood taken 7.9 m. below the surface at elevation
370 m.. By assuming the base of Mayon to be at sea level and the 7.9 m to represent 1480 years of cone
construction, he was able to arrive at 69,000 years. Villarta et.al. (1985) calculated its age to be 25,000 years by
backward extrapolation using the recent growth of the cone (4 x 106 m3/year since 1902) over the total volume of the
cone (1 x 1011 m3). Punongbayan (1985) calculated the range of age of Mayon between 14,000 years and 52,000
years. The first value was based on the minimum number of major eruptions (1730 eruptions) multiplied by the short
repose period (7.9 years). The second value was obtained by multiplying the maximum number of eruptions (3780
eruptions) by the long repose period (13.7 years). But, when he considered Newhall's cyclical behavior of relatively
large eruptions, he finally arrived at an age of 24,000 years for the volcano. Note that the first method used by
Newhall and the method used by Villarta et.al. are the same and yet very different age estimates were obtained. This
is because they used different average growth rates for cone construction and different volumes of the cone. On the
other hand, Villarta et.al. and Punongbayan used different methods but came up with closely similar results. In this
paper, calculation of the volume of the cone was done using a GIS. The pre-Mayon hills were first masked out from
the DTM map. Assuming a 0 base level before the growth of the cone, the total volume was calculated to be 1.054 x
1011 m3. Backward extrapolation using an average growth rate of 4.9 x 106 m3 (from 1928 to 1993), the age of the
cone is estimated to be 22,000 years old. (VW)
Surrounding Mayon
Volcanics in the immediate vicinity of Mayon
Structure

SLOPE SLOPE AVE. PREDOM. MINIMUM MAXIMUM MAJORITY PREDOMINANT DEPOSITS

SEGMENT STEEPNESS SLOPE GRADIENT ELEVATION ELEVATION ELEVATION
GRADIENT (%) (m) (m) RANGE (m)
(%)
Upper Volcanic Very Steep 75 67 946 2440 1179-2145 lava flows, loose deposits from
Slope (V1) ballistic projectiles, tephra fall from
eruption clouds and agglutinates
Middle Steep 43 33 416 1515 514-1200 intercalated deposits of lava flows
Volcanic Slope and pyroclastic flows.
(V2) 514-1290 Airfall deposits are found as thinner
intercalations, whenever they are
preserved from erosional processes
Upper Volc. Mod. Steep 13 7 28 668 105- 484 dominant volcanic products found
Footslope (FV1) in this unit are pyroclastic flows,
lahars and ashfall deposits.
Some lava flows were also able to
reach till the middle reaches of the
upper volcanic footslope
Lower Volc. Gentle 3 1 0 238 20- 160 consists predominantly of lahar
Footslope (FV2) deposits and accumulations from
slope wash deposits

Flow Units Characteristics Elevation Linear Eruption

Distance Type
from the
Vent
Lava flow -moderately high viscosity, high degree of middle and upper Ave. 4 km; Strombolian
cryustallinity and high yield strength slopes Max 5.9 km
(500m to 2000m) (1928)
Newhall: middle
slopes – 500m to
2000m, ave 22o,
covered w/ some
talus but mostly lava
flows and airfall
deposits
MVNP MSP:
>300m: >3o
500–600m: 5o
900–1000m: 15–20o
1600–1700m: 25–27o
<1700m: 30–42o
Pyroclastic -produced either by the backfall of lower slopes Max 6 km Vulcanian
flow pyroclastic materials from a tall eruption (200m to 500m) (Bonga) Min
 column or by building over and Newhall: lower slopes 3.2 km (Miisi)
subsequent coalescence of a dense slag – sea level to 500m,
of incandescent pyroclastic ejecta ave 5o, covered with
-tended to follow pre-existing ravines and airfall, coarse PF and
gullies while moving downwards at the DF deposits, w/
upper slopes occasional lava flows
Airfall -mostly in the form of ballistically ejected -middle and lower Vulcanian
blocks, bombs and lapilli fragments slopes: fine lapilli and (from lava)
-tend to be deposited at the upper slopes ash fragments
of the volcano (airborne)
-deposits are loosely consolidated and -upper slopes: blocks
have high permeability-high porosity and bombs
characteristics
Agglutinated -derived from minor and major activities summit and near Strombolian
and during the eruption episodes of the summit
annealed volcano and such activities can be in the
lava form of lava fountaining and spattering,
boiling over of incandescent ejecta during
formation of pyroclastic flows and short-
term overflowing of lava from the crater
-makes it possible for Mayon Volcano to
attain a slope angle of 35 to 40 degrees
at its summit area
Lahar and -lahar: remobilized and redeposited basal slopes Vulcanian
Debris earlier deposited pyroclastic flow during (from PF)
Flows periods of high precipitation rate
-debris flow deposits: due to mass
movement of loosely held materials at the
middle and upper slopes

2.1.3 Non-Volcanic Landforms

SLOPE SEGMENT SLOPE AVE. SLOPE PREDOM. MINIMUM MAXIMUM MAJORITY

STEEPNESS GRADIENT (%) GRADIENT ELEVATION (m) ELEVATION (m) ELEVATION
(%) RANGE (m)
Upper Volcanic Slope Very Steep 75 67 946 2440 1179-2145
Middle Volcanic Slope Steep 43 33 416 1515 514-1200
Upper Volc. Footslope Mod. Steep 13 7 28 668 105- 484
Lower Volc. Footslope Gentle 3 1 0 238 20- 160

It is the presence of these relatively solid deposits which makes it possible for Mayon Volcano to attain a slope angle
of 35 to 40 degrees at its summit area. (PR)
The lava agglutinates, due to their restricted affinity to the summit area of the volcanic cone, can be assumed to be
entirely independent of the successive heights reached by the edifice. Thus, from Proto-Mayon Volcano to the
present, a vertical succession of lava agglutinates shaped like mushroom caps and strung together by the upwardly
propagating volcanic vent can be imagined to occupy the central axis of the cone. (PR)

Young Lava Flow-Agglutinates-Tephra Fall Complex (V4)

Confined around the immediate vicinity of the crater, this consists of most recent thin lava flows and loose and
agglutinated airfall deposits and ballistic projectiles. As this unit falls within the upper volcanic slopes, it also
possesses very steep slopes. As expected, this unit is bare of vegetation.

Old Lava Flow-Agglutinates-Tephra Fall Complex (V5)

Also within the limits of the upper volcanic slope, this unit likewise consists of similar, but older, thin, short lava flows
and loose and agglutinated airfall deposits and ballistic projectiles. The surface is likewise clear of any vegetation

Lava flows usually follow notches made by ravines and gullies either existing prior to eruption or “linked” to
the crater upon collapse of the crater rim during explosive eruptions (V).

The lava flow units are highly elongated, tapered towards the summit and somewhat widened and even bifurcated at
their distal portion (PR)

most lava flows are steep-sided linear flows which either remain linear-lobate at the toe or bifurcated or "fan-type"or
irregularly shaped. Linear lava flow fronts are shown by the 1993, 1984, 1947 and many other flows. The typical
bifurcated toe is characteristic of the 1928 lava flow. Fan type flow fronts have been mapped in older flows in Buang,
Buhian and Masarawag. Bifurcated and fan-type flows usually start to spread out at elevations 600 m. to 400 m (V)

Widths of lava flows along the middle reaches vary from 75 m. to 450 m. while, widths at the flow fronts range from
125 m. to 2 km. The anomalously wide flow (2 km. wide) is located in Masarawag, Guinobatan. Lateral ridges or
"levees" are common in most lava flows. (V)
What Causes Mayon to Erupt?

The process of volcanism in Mayon begins with the generation of molten rock material known as magma
very deep below the volcano.

Magma is molten volcanic rock material. It is a mixture of 3 phases – solid, liquid, and gas. The solid
phase consists of inorganic mineral crystals whose major mineral constituents are rich in principal
elements such as silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, manganese,
phosphorus, and sulfur. Most of these elements occur as oxides and are bound chemically in silicate
polymers. The liquid phase comprises the melt that remains after progressive crystallization of the
magma. The gas phase is dissolved in the crystal-melt mixture. These gases are the volatile components
which commonly occur as water and minor percentages of sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrochloric
acid, hydrofluoric acid, carbon monoxide, helium and methane.

Magma possesses physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties. These properties change (mostly in
hundreds to thousands of years) as it rises from its presumed source, storage, and final eruption at the
surface. The timing and style of Mayon’s eruptions shall therefore depend on the changes the magma
has undergone. Beneath the volcano, magma generated at very great depths is known as basalt. As the
magma rises, temperature and pressure decreases, and it evolves into an andesite. In Mayon, the
eruption of andesitic magma at its summit crater produces two primary types of volcanic materials: lava
and pyroclastics. Since its birth about 25,000 years ago, repeated eruptions had produced alternate
layers of pyroclastics and lava and thus build a volcanic mountain that is commonly known as
stratovolcano.

A key to a clearer understanding the above-mentioned processes is to view the plumbing system
beneath Mayon. This consists of three main components: the volcanic edifice, the conduit, and the
magma chamber.

The volcanic edifice (120 billion cubic meters in volume), wondered for its near-perfect symmetry, has a
small (150 meters in diameter, and 2,462 meters high) centrally-located crater or vent that is
occasionally plugged with hardened lava (when the volcano is not erupting) along a vertical projection
connecting the conduit to the magma chamber.

The huge magma chamber (a few cubic kilometers in volume) which is presently believed to be situated
about 5 kilometers beneath the crater, serves as the temporary reservoir of molten basaltic rock
material coming from a much deeper source. Since the past eruptions of Mayon have been episodic, it
can be inferred that magma supply to its chamber is also episodic.

If the magma is primed to be erupted towards the crater, it rises through the conduit and pushes the
hardened lava plug forcefully upward. When the volcano is already erupting, the vent is open and
continuously eject either lava or pyroclastics.
The type of volcanic ejecta and hence the style of Mayon’s eruptions shall depend on the physic-
chemical changes the magma has undergone. Noteworthy to mention is the amount of volatiles (gas
phase) contained in the erupting magma. As it approaches the crater, the gases begin to exsolve and
vesiculate (form bubbles). This process hastens the magma’s potential to erupt. Gas-rich magma will
tend to erupt pyroclastics while degassed magma will favor “quiet” extrusion of molten lava.

How Does Mayon Erupt?

Mayon erupts in three different styles. These can be classified as Plinian, Vulcanian, and Strombolian
types. Each style has its own characteristic and degree of violence. This distinction is primarily due to
physic-chemical changes the magma has undergone (for example, differing volatile content and viscosity
of the magma) during its ascent from a deeper source to its final eruption in the surface.

A single eruption period (usually lasts for days, weeks, or months) may exhibit one eruption style or may
have two or three types throughout the duration of the eruption. More often, Mayon’s eruptions are
Vulcanian or a combination of Vulcanian/Strombolian types. Strombolian eruptions are less frequent,
while Plinian types are much less frequent.

Plinian eruption

This eruption is the most violent of all three types. It is characterized by extremely violent and
continuous sustained ejection of pyroclasts, mostly volcanic ash and lapilli particles, with attendant
formation of a tall, umbrella-like eruption column.

The eruption of Mayon in 1814 was classified as major Plinian type. The main paroxysm at 8:00 am on
February 1 lasted for 2 hours with voluminous ejection of incandescent coarse tephra – ash, large lapilli,
and bombs. Total darkness prevailed during this period. The eruption waned until 1:30 pm with the
ejection of ash and small lapilli. Pyroclastic flows and surges accompanied the tephra fall. A large part of
Cagsawa, Budiao, Camalig, and Legazpi were severely devastated. Large lahars occurred during and after
the eruption. A total of 1200 people died due directly to the eruption. Ashes fell as far as Manila and
China!

Vulcanian eruption

This is the most common type of Mayon’s eruptions. It often produces moderately violent but
intermittent unsustained explosions involving ash, lapilli, blocks, and bombs, producing pyroclastic flows
and fine tephra materials. More often, an eruption column with a distinctive ‘cauliflower’ shape may be
visible from a distance.

Vulcanian eruptions may characterize a single eruption alone, or it may either precede or follow a
Strombolian event. During the 1968 eruption, the first phase was Vulcanian in nature. Pyroclastic flows
swiftly cascaded down towards the lower slopes near the municipalities of Camalig and Guinobatan. In
1984, the second phase was also a strong Vulcanian type, with generation of voluminous pyroclastic
flows towards Legazpi and Sto. Domingo, with attendant fine tephra fall (volcanic ash) for at least
several hours.
Strombolian eruption

This type produces discrete but minor explosions of incandescent coarse pyroclasts, particularly volcanic
bombs. Each explosion produces a spectacular display of fire fountaining. However, the most distinctive
feature of this eruption style is the ‘quiet’ extrusion of lava from Mayon’s summit crater or from a point
near the crater.

During the 1978 eruption, the lava continuously but slowly poured out from the crater and cascaded
downward to flow along the gully towards Camalig. This lava flow then formed an elongated (4.2
kilometers) and incandescent stream of molten volcanic rock material 20 meters thick and 250 meters
wide at its front. (Ruelo)

Field observations of the 1984 eruption as well as detailed analysis of the historical accounts suggest
two contrasting sequences in Mayon eruptions. The first sequence is from airfall ash and lapilli to
pyroclastic flows (and debris flows), and finally to lava flows. This “normal” sequence of a Mayon
eruption is attributed to progressive decrease In the volatile content of magma at the downward-
moving vesiculation front, and the increasing difficulty with which deep vesiculation will drive overlying
material out of the conduit .

The second sequence is from a quiet emission of lava flows to relatively explosive ejection of ash and
lapilli, resulting in tephra fall, pyroclastic, and debris nows, as observed in the 1984 eruption. Eruptions
followed similar sequences in 1886-1887, 1890, and 1978. In these eruptions, relatively degassed
magma remaining in the conduit after a previous eruption may be pushed out as lava flows, then,
fresher, volatile-rich magma is erupted explosively

After the violent eruption of 1897 left a low gap in the east rim of the crater, subsequent eruptions until
1947 were directed toward Sto. Domingo. Similarly, erosion of the south and east parts of the crater rim
during the 1984 eruption, and of a deep ravine below that breach, will likely funnel pyroclastic flows,
debris flows, and lava flows toward the south and east sectors of the volcano for the foreseeable future
of Mayon.

Since the first recorded eruption in 1616, Mayon Volcano has erupted a total of __ times. Because
Mayon's lower slopes are densely populated, numerous Iives and properties have been lost during and
following eruptions. Except for one unusually explosive Plinian eruption in 1814, early and recent
historical eruptions have been dominantly Vulcanian, producing airfall lapilli and ash, pyroclastic flows,
aa lava nows, and frequent, rain-triggered lahars (both during and following eruptions). Major post-
eruption lahars have occurred at least 7 times over the period of record.

Mayan's eruptions are usually preceded by one or more of the following precursory signs: a) Volcanic
earthquakes and ground tilt. b) Fissuring at or near the crater; c) A notable increase in the incidence of
rockfalls in the summit area; d) Change in color of steam emission from white to brown or light gray as a
small amount of ash is incorporated into the emission; e) Increase in the volume of steam emission: f)
Rumbling sounds, from gas explosions or venting, earthquakes or other processes. g) Crater glow: and h)
Abnormal animal behavior such as descent of wild pigs and other wild animals into populated areas.
 The historical record of Mayan eruptions is as follows:

Date Length Type VEI Features Affected Area Remarks

3100 BCE ± 300 years
470 ± 75 years
1616 Feb 19 – 23 [Feb 19 -
24][Feb 19 - 23]
1766 July 20 – 25 [Jul 20 -
24][July 20 – 25]
1800 Oct 30 – 31
1811 Oct 5 – 6
1814 Feb 1 – 15 [Feb 1]
1827 Jun 27 – 1828 Feb
28
1834 – 1835 May
1839
1845 Jan 20 ± 1 day – Jan
30 ± 1 day [1845 Jan 21]
[Jan 21]
1846 May 11
1851 May 26 – Jun
1853 Jul 13 – Aug 26 [Jul
7][Jul 13 – Aug 26]
3 pyroclastic flow, lava flow,
lahar, ashfall, tephra fall,
earthquakes
5 Vulcanian 3 lava flow, pyroclastic flows, AF, PF, LF – E crater glow for 4
bombs, ashfall, lahar; 10-15 Malinao – mos
m eruption column destroyed lahar due to heavy
Cagsaua, typhoon (Oct 23 –
Guinobatan, 24)
Polangui, Budiao, Malinao – 30 deaths
Ligao – major Albay – 19 deaths
damages
2 Vulcanian 3 lava flow, pyroclastic flows, Cagsaua, Budiao
bombs, ashfall, tephra fall
2 Vulcanian 2 lava flow, pyroclastic flows, forceful ejection of a
bombs, ashfall, tephra fall column of ash and
rocks; “big river of
fire”
15 Plinian 4 pyroclastic flows, lahar, PF – S: Camalig, powerful ejection of
bomb; volcanic lightning, Cagsaua, Budiao, ash and lapilli
ashfall, tephra fall, lahar, Guinobatan, half crater reduced =
rumbling sounds of Albay 40m
L – Cagsaua, 1,200 deaths
Budiao
247 Vulcanian 2 pyroclastic flows, bombs, L – Camalig
ashfall, tephra fall; 300 m
eruption column
Vulcanian 3 pyroclastic flows, bombs, more or less
ashfall, tephra fall, lava flow, continuous
lahars, rumbling sounds
Minor ash 2 ashfall
eruption
11 ± 1 Vulcanian 3 ashfall, tephra fall, AF – SW: one ashcloud with
pyroclastic flow, lava flow Camalig, pumice
(15-30 min interval of Guinobatan,
eruption), lahar, rumbling Ligao
sounds
1 Vulcanian 3 pyroclastic flows, ashfall, AF - Camalig (12 crater glow
lahar m of ash) continuous for many
nights
Minor ash 1 ashfall, earthquake two minor ash
eruption eruptions
45 Vulcanian 3 ashfall, pyroclastic flow, PF – Camalig, major eruption
lahar Guinobatan heavy course AF on
L – Ligao, Oas, Aug 26
 Polangui 34 deaths
AF – Malilipot,
Bacacay, Libog,
Guinobatan,
Albay, Camalig,
Cagsaua
1855 Mar 22 1 Minor 2 lava flow; incandescent ash
eruption and Pele’s hair
1857 Probably ash 2 ashfall minor ash eruption
eruption
1858 Jan – Dec [Jan - Dec] Strombolian 2 lava flow, lahar, ashfall, with casualties
earthquake; initial 150 m
lava fountaining that lasted
until Dec
1859
1860 [1859 – 1860] [none]
1861 Minor ash 1
eruption
1862 Minor ash 2 ashfall, lahar
eruption
1863 May 30
1868 Dec 17 1 Vulcanian 2 pyroclastic flows, lahar, large ash cloud with
bombs, ashfall, tephra fall; lapilli and bombs
volcanic lightning, rumbling
sounds
1871 Dec 8 – 1872 Jan Vulcanian 3 ashfall, bombs, pyroclastic PF – SSE: Albay “streams of lava” –
flows, tephra fall, rumbling (Legazpi) south and southeast
sounds, volcanic lightning, AF – SW: 3 deaths
earthquake Camalig,
Guinobatan
1872 Sep 5 – 9 5 1 ashfall, lava flow, rumbling “emission of ashes
sounds and lava”
1873 Jun 20 – Jul 22 [Jun Minor ash 2 ashfall, lava flow minor eruption with
20 - Jul 22] eruption sudden 30 cm
subsidence in
Malinao
rain-triggered lahar
in Nov 1875
1,500 deaths
1876 Apr [Apr - Nov 26] 1
[Nov 26]
1876 Nov 26 1 Minor ash 1 ashfall
eruption
1881 Jul 6 – 1882 Aug Strombolian 3 ashfall, lava flow, pyroclastic AF – Camalig, gentle extrusion of
flow, lahar Guinobatan lava
LF – S, SE, SW crateral outburst
slopes started Nov 21,
1881
1885 Nov 21 – Dec 2 [Nov 12 2 ashfall, lava flow LF – SSW, W, minor overflow of
21 – Dec 2] SSE slopes “lava”
1886 Jul 8 – 1887 Mar 10 246 Strombolian 3 ashfall, lava flow, lahar, AF – Camalig, gentle continuous
pyroclastic flow Guinobatan, eruption followed by
Libog ash and scoria
eruption; violent
activities on Jul 8,
1886 and Feb 22
and 27, Mar 1 and
99, 1887
Lahar – Mar 1887
continued for more
than 1 year
15 deaths
1888 Dec 15 1 Minor ash 1 ashfall, rumbling sounds two minor ash
eruption eruptions
1890 Sep 10 – 30 [Sep 10 21 Vulcanian– 2 ashcloud, lava flow LF – threatened Sept 30 –
– 30] Strombolian Libog moderately strong
ash eruption
1891 Oct 3 – 1892 Feb 29 120 Vulcanian 2 ashfall, pyroclastic flow, LF – S and SW minor explosions
[1892 Feb 3] [1891 Oct 3 – [1892] bombs; volcanic lightning [1891] [1891]
Dec 3] [1892 Feb 3 – Feb [ashfall, lava flow - PF – E and ESE activity in full blast
29] 1891][ashfall, tephra fall, slopes [1892] Feb 21 [1892]
lava flow, pyroclastic flow, emissions every 15-
rumbling sounds - 1892] 20 min
cone lowered by
100 m
activity waned Feb
29
1893 Oct 3 (?) – 31 [Oct 4 29 Minor ash, 1 lava flow, lahar, ashfall, LF – E slopes strong tremors on
– 31] [Oct 4 – 31] lapilli and tephra fall, rumbling sounds, 11 and 19 of long
bomb earthquake duration
eruption minor eruption on
Oct 31
1895 Jul 20 – Nov 26 [Jul 7 100 2 ashfall, lava flow, lahar; minor eruption and
– Nov 26][Jul 20 – Nov 26] volcanic lightning, rumbling lahar
sounds, earthquake crater glow whole of
Aug
emission of lava
Nov 25-26
1896 Aug 31 – Sep 27 28 Minor ash 2 ashfall, lava flow, lahar minor lahar
and lava
eruption
1897 May 23 – July 23 62 Vulcanian 4 tephra fall, pyroclastic flow, PF – seashore of next to 1814 in
[Jun 4 – Jul 23] [Jun 4 – (strong) lava flow, lahar, ashfall; Libog (Sto Nino, destructiveness
Jul 23] volcanic lightning, rumbling San Isidro, San violent phase lasted
sounds Roque, San 17 hrs
Antonio, L and PF reached
Misericordia), Albay Gulf
Ligao, parts of 350 deaths, most
Bigaa likely due to PF
L – Basud River,
 ENE, Camalig
1900 Mar 1 – 6 6 Vulcanian 2 ashfall, pyroclastic flows, LF – Legazpi, preceded by
lava flow, lahar, tephra fall, Libog abnormal animal
rumbling sounds, volcanic AF – Ligao, behavior
lightning, earthquake Guinobatan, emission of
Tabaco, Libog numberless
and Camalig incandescent lapilli
1902 Minor ash 1 lahar (probably due to 1900 lahars prob part of
eruption deposits), ashfall, lava flow 1900 eruption

1928 Jan(?) – Aug 26 ± 5 Vulcanian 3 pyroclastic flow, lava flow, LF - San Antonio climax reached Jul
days ashfall (Malilipot) 20
[Jan(?) – Aug] AF – San Antonio gas phase Jul 22
(Tabaco) Amtic rain-triggered lahar
TF – Bonga in 1930
(Bacacay) 1 death
LF - Libog
1938 Jun 5 1 Vulcanian 2 ashfall, pyroclastic flow, lava AF – Guinobatan, several strong
flow Ligao, Camalig, explosions caused
Daraga, Tabaco small-scale PF
LF - Libog same type but
milder activity as
1928
1939 Aug 21 1 Minor 1 ashfall
explosion
1941 Sep 13 1 Minor 1 ashfall
ash/steam
eruption
1943 Minor 1 ashfall
ash/steam
eruption
1947 Jan 8 – Feb Vulcanian 2 ashfall, lava flow, pyroclastic LF – Libog, not as strong as
flow Calbayog 1938
PF -San Vicente
(Malilipot)
AF – Masarawag
[ankle-knee deep
ash]
1968 Apr 21 – May 20 [Apr 30 Vulcanian 3 ashfall, lava flow, pyroclastic AF – Camalig, frequency of
20 – May 20] [Apr 20 – flow, lahar; eruption column Guinobatan eruption: 3-4 hrs to
May 20] as high as 10 km LF – Camalig 0.5-1 hr
PF – Tinobran,
Quirangay, Miisi,
Bonga
1978 Mar 7 – Sep 16 ± 15 194 ± Strombolian 2 ashfall, lava flow (lava LF - Camalig crater glow and
days [May 3 – July][May 3 15 emission until July 4), tephra occasional ash puffs
– July 4] fall; rumbling sounds, after eruption
earthquake lahar – June 30,
1981 (height of
typhoon)
1984 Sep 9 – Oct 6 28 Strombolian 3 ashfall, pyroclastic flow, lava LF – Camalig Sept 23-25 peak of
–Vulcanian flow, tephra fall, lahar, AF – Sto eruption
[Vulcanian] rumbling sounds, volcanic Domingo, parts of
lightning, earthquake; 1.7-16 Legazpi
km eruption column PF – SE and E:
Bonga, Sto
Domingo
1993 Feb 2 – Apr 4 62 Vulcanian– 2 pyroclastic flow, lava flow, PF – Mabinit, lava flow and lahar
Strombolian lahar; 1-15 km eruption Bonga were confined to
column AF – Camalig, gullies
Sto Domingo, 77 dead
Legazpi
1999 Jun 22 – 2000 Mar 271 Strombolian 3 pyroclastic flow, lava flow, AF – Guinobatan,
19 –Vulcanian ashfall; 0.5-17 km eruption Ligao, parts of
[2000 Feb 24 – Mar 1] column Camalig
[2000 Feb 24 –
Mar 1]
2000 Jul 16 – Aug 31 47 2
2001 Jan 8 – Aug 8 32 Strombolian 3 initial mild eruption with quiet
[Jun 1 – 22; Jun 23 – Jul 4; –Vulcanian lava effusion; lava
Jul 26 – Aug 4] fountaining, pyroclastic flow
and 10 km eruption column
in Strombolian–Vulcanian
eruption
2002 Oct 11 1 1
2003 Mar 17 – May 14 59 2
2003 Oct 8 – Oct 11 0
2004 Jun 3 – Sep 12(?) 102 1
2005 Aug 17 – unknown 0
2006 Feb 21 – 23 3 1
2006 Jul 13 – Oct 1 [Jul 14 81 1 lava flow, ash explosions lava flow confined to
– Aug 31] (800 m high max) Mabinit channel
2008 Aug 10 1 1
2009 Sep 15 – 2010 Jan 1 109 2 lava flow (extent of 500 m lava flow confined to
[2009 Nov 11 – 2010 Jan from the summit), ash Bonga-Buyuan, Miisi
2] explosions (2 km high max) and Lidong gullies
2013 May 7 1 2 ash puff AF (traces) – ash puff 500 m
WNW: drifting WSW
Muladbucad registered as E-type
(Guinobatan), earthquake lasting
Nabonton, Nasisi, for 2 min and 26
Basag, Tambo secs
(Ligao)
2014 Aug 12 – Oct 19 69 0 new lava dome growth (30-
50 m height)
uncertain, unconfirmed
Ramos-Villarta et al date, data
PhilVolcs date, data
Smithsonian date
in agreement
Visual Art
Maps
Lithographs
Watercolor and sketches
Painting

Contemporary art

Photography
Material
Churches and other architectural forms
Stone sculpture
Mayon ash
Intangible Heritage
Name of Mayon
Folk tales
Superstitions
Religious beliefs
Music
Poetry

Prose Literature
Language
Drama
Festivals
Transcultural Significance
Lighthouse in galleon trade
Abaca trade
Spanish study of volcanoes