Buku Tindak Lanjut PSB

Fundamentals of
Machining Processes
Mahfudz Al Huda
References:
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Fifth
Edition in Si Units, Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R.
Schmid Prentice Hall
Schmid, Hall, New Jersey
Jersey, 2006
2006.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing –
Materials, Processes, and Systems, Thirth Edition,
Mikell P. Groover, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 1

I t d ti
Introduction
z Machining can be defined as the process of
removing material from a workpiece in the form
of chips. The term metal cutting is used when
the material is metallic.
z Most machining g has veryy low set-up
p cost
compared to forming, molding, and casting
processes. However, machining is much more
expensive for high volumes.
z Machining is necessary where tight tolerances
on dimensions
di i and
d fi
finishes
i h are required.
i d
Smooth and Shiny Surfaces
A forged crankshaft before
and after machining
g the
bearing surfaces. The shiny
bearing surfaces of the part
cannot be made to its final
dimensions and surface finish
by other than machining
processes.

Small-Diameter Deep Holes in a part
Cross-section of fuel-injection nozzle

showing a small hole made by the
electrical-discharge
g machining g ((EDM).
)

Part with Sharp Features, a Threaded
Section, and with the close dimensional
tolerances specified.
A machined and threaded part showing

various dimensions and tolerances;; all
dimensions are in inches.

Automobile parts that require
machining
hi i ?

Classification of Material Turning & related
Removal Processes operations
Drilling & related
Conventional operations
machining
g Milling
Other machining
operations
Grinding
Material removal Abrasive operations
processes processes Other abrasive
processes
Electric-Discharge
Machining
Water-Jet
Nontraditional Machining
machining Electric-Chemical
Machining
Laser Beam
Machining
Advantages of Machining
Processes
z Variety of work materials. Virtually all solid metals can be
machine.
hi
z Variety of part shapes and geometric features. By
combining several machining operations in sequence,
shapes of almost unlimited complexity and variety can be
produced.
z Di
Dimensional
i l accuracy. Some
S machining
hi i processes can
achieve tolerances of ±0.025 mm, much more accurate
than most other processes.
p
z Good surface finishes. Roughness values less than 0.4
microns can be achieved in conventional operations. Some
abrasive processes can achieve even better finishes
finishes.
Disadvantages of Machining
Processes
z Waste material
material. Although the amount may be
relatively small.
z The processes generally takes longer than it
does to shape by other processes.
z Generally require more energy than do forming
and shaping operations.
z Have adverse effects on the surface quality
and properties of the product.

Common Machining Operations

Turning Operation

V i bl in
Variables i Cutting
C tti Process
P
Independent Dependent
Tool material and coatings Type of chip produced
Tool shape, surface finish, and Force and energy dissipated during
sharpness cutting
Workpiece material and condition Temperature rise in the workpiece, the
tool, and the chip
Cutting speed
speed, feed rate
rate, and depth of Tool wear and failure
cut
Cutting fluids Surface finish and surface integrity of
the workpiece
Characteristics of the machine tool
Workholding and fixturing

Factors Influencing Machining Operations
Parameters Influence and iterrelationship
Cutting speed, Forces, power, temperature rise, tool life, type of chip, surface finish
depth of cut, feed, and integrity
cutting
tti flfluids
id
Tool angles As above, influence on chip flow direction; resistance to tool wear
and chipping.
Continuous chip Good surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable
undesirable, especially in
automated machinery
Built-up edge chip Poor surface finish and integrity; if thin and stable, edge can protect
tool surfaces.
Discontinuous Desirable for case of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting forces; can
chip affect surface finish and cause vibration and chatter.
Temperature rise Influences tool life, particularly crater wear and dimensional accuracy
of workpiece; may cause thermal damage to workpiece surface.
surface
Tool wear Influences surface finish and integrity, dimensional accuracy,
temperature rise, forces and power.
Machinability Related to tool life,
life surface finish
finish, forces and power
power, and type of chip
chip.

Two-dimensional
cutting process
Schematic illustration of a two-

dimensional cutting process, also
called orthogonal cutting:
(a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-
defined shear plane, also
known as the Merchant Model.
Note that the tool shape, depth
of cut
cut, to, and the cutting
speed, V, are all independent
variables,
(b) Orthogonal cutting without a
well-defined
ll d fi d shear
h plane.
l

Chip Formation by Shearing
Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation by

shearing. (b) Velocity diagram showing angular relationships among the
three speeds in the cutting zone.
Mechanics of Cutting
r cos α to sin φ
Cutting ratio, tan φ = ,r = =
1-rr sin α tc cos(φ − α )
Shear angle predictions :
µ = tanβ
α β
φ = 45° +
r = cutting ratio
− t0 = depth
p of cut,, mm
2 2 tc = the chip thickness, mm
φ = 45° + α − β φ = shear angle, °
α = rake angle, °
i φ
V sin µ = coefficient of friction
Velocities, Vc = β = friction angle, °
cos(φ − α ) V = cutting speed, m/min
Vc = the velocity of the chip, m/min

Types of Chip Produced in
M t l Cutting
Metal C tti
z Continuous
z Built-up edge
z Serrated or segmented
z Discontinuous

Chip produced in
Orthogonal Metal Cutting
Basic types of chips
produced in orthogonal
metal cutting, g, their
schematic representation,
and photomicrographs of
the cutting zone:
((a)) continuous chip p with
narrow, straight, and
primary shear zone;
(b) continuous chip with
secondaryy shear zone
at the cip-tool interface;
(c) built-up edge;
(d) segmented or
nonhomogeneous
g chip;
p;
(e) discontinuous chip.
Source: After M.C.
Shaw, P.K. Wright, and
p j
S. Kalpakjian.

C ti
Continuous Chi
Chip
z Continuous chips usually are formed with ductile
materials, machined at high cutting speeds
and/or high rake angle.
z Although continuous chips generally produce a
good surface finish,, theyy are not necessarily
g y
desirable, particularly with computer-controlled
machine tools in wide use, as they tend to
become tangled around the tool holder, the
fixturing, the workpiece, as well as the chip-
disposal systems
systems.
Built-up Edge Chips
(a) Hardness distribution with a built-up edge in the cutting zone (material, 3115 steel).
Note that some regions in the built-up edge are as much as three times harder than the
p
bulk metal of the workpiece. ((b)) Surface finish p produced in turning
g 5130 steel with a
built-up edge. (c) Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling. Magnifications: 15x.
Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research
Mahfudz Al Huda
Associates, Inc.
Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 20
To Reduce BUE Formation
T d
Tendency
z Increase the cutting speeds
z Decrease the depth of cut
z Increase the rake angle
z Use a sharp tool
z Use an effective cutting fluid
z Use a cutting g tool that has lower chemical
affinity for the workpiece material

S
Serrated
t d Chips
Chi
z Serrated chips (also called segmented or non
homogeneous chips) are semi continuous
chips with large zones of low shear strain and
small zones of high shear strain, hence the
latter zone is called shear localization
localization.
z Metals with low thermal conductivity and
strength that decreases sharply with
temperature (thermal softening) exhibit this
behavior, most notably titanium.
Di
Discontinuous
ti Chips
Chi
z Brittle workpiece materials.
materials
z Workpiece materials that contain hard inclusions and
impurities or have structures such as the graphite flakes
in gray cast iron.
z Very low and very high cutting speeds.
z L
Large d
depths
th off cut.
t
z Low rake angles
z Lack of an effective cutting fluid
fluid.
z Low stiffness of the toolholder or the machine tool, thus
allowing vibration, and chatter to occur.

Chip Curl
– Affecting
Aff ti F
Factors
t
z The distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary shear
zones.
z Thermal effects
z Work hardening characteristics of the workpiece material.
Work-hardening material
z The geometry of the cutting tool.
z Cutting fluids.
z As the depth of cut decreases, the radius of the curvature
decreases; that is, the chip becomes curlier.
z Cutting fluids can make chips become more curly, thus reducing the
tool-chip contact area and concentrating the heat closer to the tip of
the tool. As a result, tool wear increases.

Chip Breaker
(a) Schematic illustration of the
action of a chip breaker.
Note that the chip breaker
decreases the radius of
curvature of the chip and
eventually breaks it.
(b) Chip breaker clamped on the
rake
k fface off a cutting
tti tool.
t l
(c) Grooves in cutting tools
acting as chip breakers.
ost cutt
Most cutting
g too
tool used nowo
are inserts with built-in chip
breaker features.

Chi Produced
Chip P d d in
i Turning
T i
Chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c)
continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and
breaks off. Source: After G. Boothroyd.

C t ll d Contact
Controlled C t t on Tools
T l
z Cutting tools can be designed so that the tool
tool-chip
chip
contact length is reduced by recessing the rake face of
the tool some distance away from its tip.
z The reduction in contact length affects chip-formation
mechanics.
z Primarily it reduces the cutting forces and
Primarily, and, thus
thus, the
energy and temperature.
z Determination of an optimum
p length
g is important
p as too
small a contact length would concentrate the heat at the
tool tip, thus increasing wear.

C tti
Cutting nonmetallic
t lli materials
t i l
z A variety of chips are encountered in cutting
thermoplastics, depending on the type of
polymer and process parameters, such as depth
of cut, tool geometry, and cutting speed.
z Manyy of the discussions concerning g metals also
are applicable generally polymers.
z Because theyy are brittle, thermosetting
gpplastics
and ceramics generally produce discontinuous
chips.

Obli
Oblique C
Cutting
tti
z The majority of machining operations involve tool shapes
that are three-dimensional, thus the cutting is oblique.
z In orthogonal cutting, the chip slides directly up the face
of the tool, while in oblique cutting, the chip is helical and
at an angle i, called the inclination angle.
z Note the lateral direction of chip movement in oblique
cutting – a situation that is similar to a snow-plow blade
which throws the snow sideways. It can be seen that
such a helical chip moves sideways and away from the
cutting zone and doesn’t obstruct it as it would in
g
orthogonal cutting.
g
Cutting
g with an Oblique
q Tool
(a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. Note the direction
of chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the inclination angle, i,. (c)
Types of chips produced with tools at increasing inclination angles.
Rake angle in oblique cutting
z Note that the chip flows up the rake face of the tool at angle αc (chip flow
angle), which is measured in the plane of the tool face.
z Angle αt is the normal rake angle, and it is a basic geometric property of the
tool This is the angle between line oz normal to the workpiece surface and
tool.
line oa on the tool face.
z The workpiece material approaches the cutting the cutting tool at a velocity,
V, and leaves the surface (as a chip) with a velocity, Vc. The effective rake
angle, αe is calculated in the plane of these two velocities.
z Assuming that the chip flow angle, αc, is equal to the inclination angle, i (and
this assumption has been found, through experiments, to be appropriate,
the effective rake angle, αe, is:
α e = sin −1 (sin 2 i + cos 2 i sin α t )

z Since both i and at can be measured directly, the effective rake angle can
be calculated. Note that, as i increases, the effective rake angle increases
and the chip becomes thinner and longer, and as a consequence, the
cutting force decreases.
decreases

Right-hand Cutting Tool and Insert
(a) Schematic illustration of right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools

traditionally have been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have
been replaced largely with (b) inserts made of carbides and other
materials of various shapes and sizes.
C tti
Cutting F
Forces and
d Power
P
z Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved in
machining operations is important for the following
reasons:
z Data on cutting forces is essential so that:
a. Machine tools can be properly designed to minimize distortion of the
machine components, maintain the desired dimensional accuracy of
th machine
the hi part, t and dh
help
l select
l t appropriate
i t toolholders
t lh ld andd
workholding devices.
b. The workpiece is capable of withstanding these forces without
excessive distortion
distortion.
z Power requirements must be known in order to enable the
selection of a machine tool with adequate electric power.

Cutting Forces
(a) Forces acting on a cutting tool during two-dimensional cutting. Note that
the resultant force, R, must be collinear to balance the forces.
(b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in the cutting zone.
Cutting Forces
Forces along tool - chip interface : Coefficient of friction :
Friction force, F = R sin β F Ft + Fc tan α
µ= =
Friction force, N = R cos β N Fc − Ft tan α
Forces along shear plane :
R = resultant
esu a force,
o ce, N
Shear force, Fs = Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ Fc = cutting force, N
Normal force, Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ Ft = thrust force, N
β = friction angle, N (F/N)
Although the magnitude of forces in actual cutting is generally on the

order of a few hundred newtons, the local stresses in the cutting zone
and the pressures on the tool are very high because the contact areas
are very small. Consequently, the tool is subjected the very high
stresses, which lead to wear and sometimes chipping and fracture of
the tool.

C tti
Cutting F
Forces
cutting
width, b
depth of cut, t1
depth (= feed rate, f)
of cut
cutting width, b

Characteristics of Cutting Forces
Cutting conditions:
Workpiece: S35C
Cutting force ((N) (×102)
V = 100 m/min
N) (×102)
d = 1.5 mm
f = 0.33
Cutting force (N
0 33 mm/rev
Dry cutting.
Rake angle
Feed rate (mm/rev)
Cutting conditions:
Workpiece: S15C
Cutting Tempeerature (°C)
Cutting forcce (N) (×102)
Tool: P 20
d = 0.04 mm
b = 3 mm
Dry cutting.

Thrust force
z A knowledge of the thrust force in cutting is important because the toolholder,
toolholder
the workholding devices, and the machine tool must be sufficiently stiff to
support this force with minimal deflection.
z If the thrust force is too high or if the machining tool is not sufficiently stiff, the
tool will be pushed away from the workpiece surface being machined. This
movement will, in turn, reduce the depth of cut, resulting in a lack of dimensional
accuracy in the machined part.
z Th effect
The ff t off rake
k angle
l andd friction
f i ti angle
l on the
th direction
di ti off thrust
th t force:
f
Ft = R sin (β − α ) Ft = Fc tan (β − α )
z Note
N t that
th t the
th Fc, is
i always
l positive,
iti and
d the
th sign
i off the
th thrust
th t force,
f Ft, can be
b
either positive or negative, depending on the relative magnitudes of β and α.
z When β > α, the sign of Ft is positive (downward), and when β < α, the sign is
negative (upward).
(upward) Therefore,
Therefore it is possible to have an upward thrust force under
the conditions of (a) high rake angle, (b) low friction at the tool – chip interface,
or (c) both. A negative thrust force can have important implications in the design
of machine tools and workholders and in the stability of the cutting process.

Power
z Power is
P i th
the product
d t off force
f and
d velocity.
l it
z This power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone (due to the energy
required to shear the material) and on the rake face of the tool (due to tool-
chip interface friction)
friction).
z Let w be the width of cut,
Specific energy for shearing :
Power = FcV
FsVs
Power for shearing = FsVs us =
wt0V
Power for friction = FVc Specific energy for friction :
FVc Fr
uf = =
wt0V wt0
Total specific energy :
ut = u s + u f

Measuring cutting forces and
power
z Cutting forces can be measured using a force transducer (typically
with quartz piezoelectric sensors), a dynamometer or a load cell
(with resistance-wire strain gage place on octagonal rings) mounted
on the cutting-tool
g holder.
z Transducers have much higher natural frequency and stiffness than
dynamometers, which are prone to excessive deflection and
vibration.
z Also, it is possible to calculate cutting force from the power
consumption during cutting, provided that the mechanical efficiency
of the machine tool is known or can be determined. The p power can
be measured easily by a power monitor, such as a wattmeter.
z The specific energy in cutting also can be used to calculate cutting
forces.

Range of Energy Requirements in
Cutting Operations

T
Temperatures
t in
i Cutting
C tti
z The energy dissipated in cutting is converted into heat which
which, in turn
turn,
raises the temperature in the cutting zone.
z Temperature rise is a very important factor in machining because of
its major adverse effects such as:
z Excessive temperature lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness, and
wear resistance of the cutting tool; tool also may soften and undergo
plastic deformation; thus tool shape is altered.
z Increased heat causes uneven dimensional changes in the part being
machined, making it difficult to control its dimensional accuracy and
tolerances.
z Excessive temperature rise can induce thermal damage and
metallurgical changes in the machined surface, adversely affecting its
properties.

The main sources of heat in
M hi i
Machining Process
P
z The work done in shearing in the primary
shear zone
z E
Energy dissipated
di i t d as ffriction
i ti att th
the ttool-chip
l hi
interface, and
z H t generated
Heat t d as the
th tool
t l rubs
b againsti t th
the
machined surface, especially for dull or worn
tools.
tools

The mean temperature in
orthogonal
th l Cutting
C tti
Tmean = the mean temperature, K
0.0006651Y f ⎡Vt0 ⎤ 1/ 3
Yf = the flow stress
stress, Mpa
Tmean = ⎢K ⎥ ρc = the volumetric specific heat, kJ/m3·K
ρc ⎣ ⎦ K = thermal diffusivity (ratio of thermal
conductivity to volumetric specific heat), m2/s
Because the material parameters in this equation depend on temperature, it
is important to use appropriate values that are compatible with the predicted
temperature range.
The
Th mean cutting
tti temperature
t t increases
i with
ith workpiece
k i strength,
t th cutting
tti
speed, and depth of cut; it decreases with increasing specific heat and
thermal conductivity of the workpiece material.
The mean temperature in turning on a lathe:
Tmean ∞V a f b where, V is the cutting speed, f is feed of the tool.
Approximate value of the exponents a and b are: for carbide
tools a = 0.2,
tools, 0 2 and b = 0.125;
0 125; for high
high-speed tools, a = 0.5,
speed steel tools 05
and b = 0.375.
Temperatures in Cutting Zone
Typical temperature distribution
in the cutting zone. Note the
severe temperature gradients
within the tool and the chip, and
that the workpiece is relatively
cool. Source: After G.
Vieregge.

Temperatures Developed in Turning
52100 Steel
Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank temperature

distribution and (b) tool-ship
tool ship interface temperature distribution
distribution. Source:
After B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger.
Proportion of Heat from Cutting
Transferred as a Function of Cutting Speed
Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred into the tool,

workpiece, and chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note that
the chip remo
removes
es most of the heat
heat.
Techniques for measuring
t
temperature
t
z Temperatures and their distribution in the cutting zone
may be determined from thermocouple embedded in the
tool and/or the workpiece. This technique has been used
successfully, although it involves considerable effort.
z It is easier to determine the mean temperature with the
thermal emf (electromotive force) at the tool-chip
interface,, which acts as a hot jjunction between two
different materials (i.e., tool and chip).
z Infrared radiation from the cutting zone may be
monitored
it d withith a radiation
di ti pyrometer.t H
However, thi
this
technique indicates only surface temperatures; the
accuracy of the results depends on the emissivity of the
surfaces, which difficult to determine accurately.
T l Life:
Tool Lif Wear
W and
d Failure
F il
z The cutting tools are subjected to:
z High localized stresses at the tip of the tool
z High temperatures, especially along the rake face
z Sliding of the chip along the rake face
face, and
z Sliding of the tool along the newly cut workpiece surface.
z Tool wear is a gradual process, the rate of tool wear depends on
tool and workpiece materials,
materials tool geometry
geometry, process parameters
parameters,
cutting fluids, and the characteristics of the machine tool.
z Tool wear and the changes in tool geometry during cutting manifest
themselves in different ways
ways, generally classified as flank wear
wear,
crater wear, nose wear, notching, plastic deformation of the tool tip,
chipping, and gross fractures.

Wear Patterns on Tools
(a) Flank wear and
crater wear in a cutting
tool; the tool moves to
the left as in Fig
Fig. 21
21.3.
3
(b) View of the rake
face of a turning tool,
showing various wear
patterns (c) View of
patterns.
the flank face of a
turning tool, showing
various wear patterns.
(d) Types of wear on a
turning tool: 1. flank
wear; 2. crater wear; 3.
chipped cutting edge; 4.
thermal cracking on rake
face; 5. built-up edge; 6.
catastrophic failure.
(See also Fig. 21.18.)
Source: Courtesy of
Kennametal, Inc.
Crater Wear and Flank Wear in Carbide
Tool. Source: J.C. Keefe Lehigh University

Flank wear
z Flank wear occurs on the relief (flank) face of the tool. It generally is attributed to:
a. Rubbing of the tool along machined surface, causing adhesive and/or abrasive wear,
b. High temperatures, which adversely affect tool-material properties.
z F.W. Taylor in the early 1890s:
VTn = C
where
h V iis th
the cutting
tti speed,d T iis th
the titime (i
(in minutes)
i t ) ththatt it ttakes
k tto d
develop
l a
certain flank wear land, n is an exponent (that depends on tool and workpiece
materials & cutting conditions), and C is a constant & is the cutting speed at T = 1min.
z To appreciate
pp the important
p of the exponent
p n,,
1
⎛ C ⎞n
T =⎜ ⎟
⎝V ⎠
where it can be seen that for constant values of C, the smaller the value of n, the
lower the tool life.
f
z Cutting speed is the most important process variable associated with
tool life, followed by depth of cut, d and feed, f.
VTndxfy = C
Taylor Tool Life Equation
Taylor Equation:
VT n = C
VT nd x f y = C

Tool Life
m/min)
(mm)
(m ng speed V
Crateer wear Kt
Cuttin
Tool life, T (min)
Cutting conditions:
Cutting time, T (min)
Workpiece:
p S55C
Cutting conditions: Tool: P 10
Workpiece: S55C Tool: P 20
Tool: P10 d = 1.0 mm
d = 1.0 .0 mm f = 0.35 mm/rev
f = 0.35 mm/rev Tool life: crater wear 0.05 mm
Dry
Mahfudz cutting.
Al Huda
Dry cutting.
Effect of Workpiece Hardness
and Microstructure on Tool Life
Effect of workpiece hardness and microstructure on tool life in turning ductile cast
iron. Note the rapid decrease in tool life (approaching zero) as the cutting speed
increases. Tool materials have been developed that resist high temperatures, such
as carbides, ceramics, and cubic boron nitride.
Tool-life Curves
Tool-life
T l lif curves for
f a variety
i t off
cutting-tool materials. The
negative inverse of the slope
of these curves is the
exponent n in the Taylor tool-
life equation and C is the
cutting speed at T = 1 min,
ranging from about 200 to
10,000 ft./min in this figure.

Allowable Wear-Land
z Cutting tools need to be replaced (or resharpened) when:
a) The surface finish of the machined workpiece begins to deteriorate
b) Cutting forces increase significantly, or
c) Temperature rises significantly.
z The allowable wear land for various machining conditions
is given in the next table. For improved dimensional
accuracy,
y, tolerances,, and surface finish,, the allowable
wear land may be smaller than the values given.
z The recommended cutting speed for a high-speed steel
(HSS) tool
t l isi generally
ll one th
thatt yields
i ld a ttooll lif
life off 60 tto
120 min, and for a carbide tool, it is 30 to 60 min.

Allowable Average Wear Land
f Cutting
for C tti T
Tools
l

C t W
Crater Wear
z Crater wear occurs on the rake face of the tool, and it changes the tool-chip
interface contact geometry
geometry.
z The most significant factors influencing crater wear are:
a) Temperature at the tool-chip interface and
b)) Chemical affinityy between the tool and workpiece
p materials.
Additionally, the factors influencing flank wear also may influence crater wear.
z Crater wear generally is attributed to a diffusion mechanism, that is, the
movement of atoms across to the tool-chip interface. Since diffusion rate
i
increases with
ith iincreasing
i ttemperature,
t crater
t wear iincreases as
temperature increases.
z Coating tools in an effective means of slowing diffusion process and thus
reducing crater wear
wear. Typial coatings are titanium nitride
nitride, titanium carbide
carbide,
titanium carbonitride, and aluminum oxide.
z The location of the maximum depth of crater wear, KT, coincides with the
p
location of the maximum temperature at the tool-chip
p interface.
Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 s59

Types of Wear seen in Cutting Tools
(a) Schematic illustration of types of wear observed on various cutting tools. (b)
Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures
failures. A wide range of parameters influence
these wear and failure patterns. Source: Courtesy of V. C. Venkatesh.
Relationship between Crater-Wear Rate
and Average Tool-Chip Interface
Temperature
Relationship between crater-wear rate and average tool-chip interface

temperature: 1) High-speed steel, 2) C-1 carbide, and 3) C-5 carbide (see
Table 22.4). Note how rapidly crater-wear rate increases with an incremental
increase in temperature. Source:
Mahfudz Al Huda
After B. T Chao and K. J Trigger.
Cutting Tool Interface and Chip
Interface of a cutting tool (right)

and chip (left) in machining
plain carbon steel
plain-carbon steel. The
discoloration of the tool
indicates the presence of high
temperatures. Compare this
figure with the temperature
profiles shown in Fig. 21.12.
Source: Courtesy of P. K.
Wright.
Wright

Other types of wear
z Nose wear is the rounding of a sharp tool, due to mechanical and thermal
effects. It dulls the tool, affects chip formation, and causes rubbing or the
tool over the workpiece, raising its temperature and possibly inducing
residual stresses on the machined surface
surface. A related phenomenon is edge
rounding.
z Tool also may undergo plastic deformation because of temperature rises
in the cutting zone.
z The notch or groove observed on the cutting tools, has been attributed to
the fact that this region is the boundary where the chip is no longer in
contact with the tool. Known as the depth-of-cut-line (DOC) with a depth
VN this boundary
VN, bo ndar oscillates becabecausese of inherent variations
ariations in the ccutting
tting
operation.
z Tools also may undergo chipping, in which a small fragment from the
cutting edge of the tool breaks away. Two main causes of chipping are:
z Mechanical shock (i.e., impact due to interrupted cutting).
z Thermal fatigue (i.e., cyclic variations in the temperature of the tool in interrupted cutting).
z Thermal cracks usually are perpendicular to the cutting edge of the tool.

T l
Tool-condition
diti M
Monitoring
it i
z In modern machine tools, tool-condition monitoring systems
are integrated into computer numerical control and
programmable logic controllers. Techniques for tool-condition
monitoring typically fall into two general categories direct and
indirect.
z The direct method for observing the condition of a cutting
tool:
z Optical measurements of wear, such as the periodic observation of changes in
the tool profile. This is done using a microscope (tool makers microscope).
However,, this requires
q that the cutting
g operation
p be stopped
pp for tool
observation.
z Programming the tool to contact a sensor after every machining cycle; this
allows the detection of broken tools. Usually the sensor has the appearance of
a pin
i that
th t mustt be
b depressed
d d by
b the
th ttooll chip.
hi
Indirect Tool Monitoring Method
z The indirect method for observing tool conditions involves the
correlations of the tool condition with parameters such as cutting forces,
power, temperature
p p rise, workpiece
p surface finish, vibration, and chatter.
z A powerful technique is acoustic emission technique (AE), which utilize a
piezoelectric transducer mounted on a tool holder. The transducer picks up
acoustic emission (typically above 100 kHz), which result from the stress waves
generated during cutting. By analyzing the signals, tool wear and chipping can be
monitored. This technique is effective particularly in precision machining
operations where cutting forces are low because of the small amounts of material
removed. Another effective use of AE is in detecting the fracture of small carbide
tools at high cutting speeds.
z Another technique for tool monitoring system consist of transducers that are
installed in machine tools. They continually monitor torque and forces during
cutting. The signals are pre-amplified, and a microprocessor analyzes and
interprets their content
content. The system is capable of differentiating the signals that
come from different sources, such as tool, breakage, tool wear, a missing tool,
overloading of the machine tool, or colliding with machine components. The
system also can compensate automatically for tool wear and, thus, improve
dimensional accuracy of the part being machined
machined.

Transducers of Tool Monitoring System
z The design of transducers must be such that they are:

z Nonintrusive to the machining operation,
z Accurate and repeatable in signal detection
detection,
z Resistant to abuse and shop-floor invironment, and
z Cost effective.
z Continued progress is being in the development of sensors
sensors,
including the use of infrared and fiber-optic techniques for
temperature measurement during machining.
z In lower
lower-cost
cost computer numerical control machine tools tools, monitoring
is done by tool-cycle time. In a production environment, once the life
expectancy of a cutting tool or insert has been determined, it can be
entered in the machine control unit
unit, so that the operator is prompted
to make a tool or cutter change when this time is reached. This
process is inexpensive and fairly reliable, although not totally so
because of the inherent statistical variation in tool life.

S f
Surface Finish
Fi i h and
d Integrity
I t it
z Surface finish influences not only the dimensional accuracy of
machined parts but also their properties and their performance in
service.
z The term surface finish describes the geometric features of a
surface, and surface integrity pertains to material properties, such
as fatigue life and corrosion resistance, which are strongly
influenced by y the nature of the surface produced.
p
z With its significant effect on the tool-tip profile, the built-up edge
has the greatest influence on surface finish. Ceramic and diamond
tools g
generallyyp produce better surface finish than other tools,, largely
g y
because of their much lower tendency to form a BUE.

Machined Surfaces Produced on Steel
(a) (b)
Machined surfaces produced on steel (highly magnified), as observed with a

scanning electron microscope: (a) turned surface and (b) surface produced by
shaping. Source: Courtesy of J. T. Black and S. Ramalingam.

Dull Tool in Orthogonal Machining
Schematic illustration of a dull tool with respect to the depth of cut in orthogonal
machining (exaggerated). Note that the tool has a positive rake angle, but as the
depth of cut decreases, the rake angle effectively can become negative. The tool then
p y rides over the workpiece
simply p ((without cutting)
g) and burnishes its surface;; this action
raises the workpiece temperature and causes surface residual stresses.
Feed Marks on a Turned Surface
Surface roughness:
f2
Ra =
8R
where
f = feed
R = tool - nose radius
Schematic illustration of feed marks on a surface being turned (exaggerated).

S f
Surface Integrity
I t it
Factors influencing surface integrity:
z Temperatures generated during processing and possible
metallurgical transformations
z S f
Surface residual
id l stresses
t
z Severe plastic deformation and strain hardening of the machined
surface, tearing, and cracking.
z Each of these factors can have major adverse effects on
the machined part but can be taken care of by careful
selection and maintenance of cutting tools and control of
process variables.

M hi bilit
Machinability
z The machiability of a material is usually defined in terms
of four factors:
1. Surface finish and surface integrity of the machined part.
2. The tool life.
3. Force and power required.
4. The level of difficulty
y in chip
p control.
z Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is
difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively
d fi th
define the machinability
hi bilit off a particular
ti l material.
t i l IIn
machining practice, tool life and surface roughness
generally are considered to be the most important
factors in machinability.
Machinability of Ferrous Metals 1
z Carbon steel have a wide range of machinability, depending on their
ductility and hardness. If too ductile, chip formation can produce built-
up edge, leading to poor surface finish; if the steel is too hard, it can
cause abrasive wear of the tool because of the presence of carbides
in the steel. Cold-worked carbon steels are desirable from a
machinability standpoint.
z Free-machining steels contain sulfur and phosphorous.
z Sulfur forms manganese-sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as
stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up
easily
il and
d are small,
ll th
thus improving
i i machinability.
hi bilit Elements
El t such
h as tellurium
t ll i
and selenium, both of which are similar to sulfur chemically, act as inclusion
modifiers in resulfurized steel.
z Phosphorous in steels has two major effects: (a) it strengthens the ferrite, causing
increased hardness and resulting in better chip formation and surface finish, and (b)
it increases hardness and thus causes the formation of short chips instead of
continuous stringy ones, thereby improving machinability. Note that soft steels
can be difficult to machine because of their tendency for built-up edge formation and
the resulting poor surface finish.
Machinability of Ferrous Metals 2
z In leaded steels, a high percentage of lead solidifies at the tips of
manganese-sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes
the form of dispersed fine particles.
z Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and aluminum and their alloys. Because of its low shear
strength, lead acts as a solid lubricant, and is smeared over the tool-chip interface during cutting.
z When the temperature developed is sufficiently high, such as at high cutting speeds and feeds,
the lead melts directlyy in front of the tool, actingg as a liquid
q lubricant. In addition to this effect,
lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, thus reducing cutting force and power
consumption.
z However, because lead is a well-known toxin and a pollutant, there are serious environmental
concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4,500 tons of lead consumption every year in the
production
d ti off steels).
t l ) C Consequently, tl th
there iis a continuing
ti i ttrend d ttoward
d eliminating
li i ti th the use off
lead in steels (lead-free steels). Bismuth and tin are substitutes for lead in steels, although their
performance is not as high.
z Calcium-deoxidized steels contain oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSO)
f
formedd as flakes
fl k which,
hi h iin tturn, reduce
d th
the strength
t th off the
th secondary
d shear
h
zone and decrease tool-chip interface friction and wear. Temperature rise also
is reduced correspondingly. Consequently, these steels produce less crater
wear,, especially
p y at high
g cutting g speeds.
p

Effects of various elements in steels.
z The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful, because these
elements combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and
abrasive. As a result, tool wear increases and machinability is reduced.
z Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on
their composition.
p
z Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) can produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up
edge.
z Cast steel are more abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels.
z Tool and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing prior to machining.
z Machinability of most steels is improved by cold-working, which hardens the material and reduces
the tendency for built-up edge formation.
z Other alloying elements (such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium), which
improve the properties of steels
steels, generally reduce machinability.
machinability The effect of boron is
negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen can have particularly
detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong
effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese-sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen
content, the lower the aspect ratio, and the higher the machinability.
z Sulfur can reduce the hot workability of steels severely because of the formation of iron
sulfide (unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent such formation). At room
termperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation
of the deformed manganese
manganese-sulfide
sulfide inclusions (anisotropy)
(anisotropy). Rephosphorized steels are
significantly less ductile and are produced solely to improve machinability.
Machinability of Stainless Steels
z Austenitic (300 series) steels generally are difficult to

machine. Chatter can be a problem, necessitating the
need for machine tools with high stiffness.
z Ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good
machinability.
z Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive
abrasive, tend to
form a built-up edge, and require tool materials with high
hot hardness and crater-wear resistance.
z Precipitation hardening stainless steels are strong
and abrasive, thus requiring hard and abrasion-resistant
tool materials.
materials
M hi bilit off Cast
Machinability C t IIrons
z Gray irons generally are machinable,
machinable but they
can be abrasive depending on composition,
especially pearlite.
z Free carbides in castings reduce their
machinability
y and cause tool chipping
pp g or
fracture.
z Nodular and malleable irons are machinable
using hard tool materials.

Machinability of Nonferrous metals 1
z Aluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades
tend to form a built-up edge, resulting in poor surface finish. Thus, high
cutting speeds, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended.
z Wrought aluminum alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum
alloys are generally abrasive, hence they require harder tool materials.
z Dimensional tolerance control mayy be a problem
p in machining g aluminum,
because it has a high thermal expansion coefficient and a relatively low
elastic modulus.
z Beryllium generally is machinable, but because the fine particles produced
ruing
i machining
hi i are ttoxic,
i it requires
i machining
hi i iin a controlled
t ll d environment.
i t
z Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require
sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds.
z Copper in the wrought condition can be difficult to machine because of
built-up edge formation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine.
Brasses are easy to machine, especially with the addition of lead (leaded
free-machining brass). Not, however, the toxicity of lead. Bronzes are more
difficult to machine than brass.
Machinability of Nonferrous metals 2
z Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and
prolonged tool life. However, care should be exercised because of its high
rate of oxidation (pyrophoric) and the danger of fire..
z Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening. It can produce poor surface
finish, thus sharp tools are essential.
z Nickel-based alloys y and superalloys
p y are work-hardening, g abrasive, and
strong at high temperatures. Their machinability depends on their condition
and improves with annealing.
z Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile and soft. It produces a poor
surface
f finish,
fi i h and
d ttooll wear iis hi
high.
h
z Titanium and its alloys have very poor thermal conductivity (the lowest of
all metals), causing significant temperature rise and built-up edge. They are
highly reactive and can be difficult to machine
machine.
z Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive, hence its machinability is low,
although it greatly improves at elevated temperatures.
z Zirconium has g good machinability, y, but it requires
q a coolant-type
yp cutting
g
fluid because of the danger of explosion and fire.
Machinability of miscellaneous
materials
t i l 1
z Thermoplastics generally have a low thermal conductivity, a low elastic
modulus, and are thermally softening. Consequently, machining them
requires
i sharp
h ttools
l with
ith positive
iti rake
k angles
l (t(to reduce
d cutting
tti fforce),
) llarge
relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, relatively high speeds, and
proper support of the workpiece. External cooling of the cutting zone may
be necessary
ecessa y too keep
eep thee cchips
ps from
o beco
becomingg gu
gummy ya and
d ssticking
c g too thee
tools. Cooling usually can be achieved with a jet or air, vapor mist, or water-
soluble oils.
z Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during
cutting; machining conditions generally are similar to those of
thermoplastics.
z Polymer-matrix composites are very abrasive because of the fibers
present hence they are difficult to machine.
present, machine Fiber tearing
tearing, pulling
pulling, and edge
delamination are significant problems and can lead to severe reduction of
the load carrying capacity of the machined component. Machining these
materials requires careful handling and removal of debris to avoid contact
with and inhaling of the fiber.
Machinability of miscellaneous
materials
t i l 2
z Metal matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to
machine, depending on the properties of the matrix material and the
reinforcing fibers.
z Graphite is abrasive; it requires sharp, hard, and abrasion-resistant
tools.
z Ceramics have a steadily improved machinability, particularly with
the development of machinable ceramics and nanoceramics and
with the selection of appropriate processing parameters, such as
ductile regime cutting.
z Wood is an orthotropic material with properties varying with respect
to its grain direction. Consequently, the type of chips and the
surfaces produced vary significantly, depending also on the type of
wood and its conditions. Wood working, which dates back to 3000
B.C. remains largely an art. Two basic requirements are generally
sharp
h ttools
l andd hi
high
h cutting
tti speeds.
d
Thermally Assisted Machining
z In thermally assisted machining (also called hot machining), a
source of heat (such as torch, induction coil, electric current, laser-
beam, electron-beam, and plasma arc) is focused onto an area just
ahead of the cutting tool.
z First investigated in the early 1940s, this operation typical is carried
out above the homologous temperature of T/Tm = 0.5. Thus, for
example, steels are hot machined above a temperature of 650 to
750 C.
z Although difficult and complicated to perform in production plants,
the general advantages of hot machining are:
z Reduced cutting force
z Increased tool life
z Higher material-removal rates
z Reduced tendency for vibration and chatter.

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Fundamentals of

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 1

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 3

Cross-section of fuel-injection nozzle

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 4

A machined and threaded part showing

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Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 12

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 13

Schematic illustration of a two-

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 14

Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation by

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 16

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α e = sin −1 (sin 2 i + cos 2 i sin α t )

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 31

(a) Schematic illustration of right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools

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Although the magnitude of forces in actual cutting is generally on the

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Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 36

Cutting forcce (N) (×102)

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Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank temperature

Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred into the tool,

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Relationship between crater-wear rate and average tool-chip interface

Interface of a cutting tool (right)

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z The design of transducers must be such that they are:

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 66

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 67

Machined surfaces produced on steel (highly magnified), as observed with a

Mahfudz Al Huda Magister Teknik Mesin Univ. Pancasila, 2010 68

Schematic illustration of feed marks on a surface being turned (exaggerated).