Mass Transfer

15
Mass Transfer
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15.1 INTRODUCTION
In general, the transfer of mass is treated as a subject of mechanics. The mass transfer that is
associated with convection occurs on a macroscopic level that is due to a change in momentum
and is called mass (fluid) transport. Mass transport is usually treated as a subject of fluid
mechanics. When a system contains two or more species (components) whose concentrations
vary from point to point, there is a natural tendency for mass to be transferred to minimize the
concentration difference within the system. This transport of mass on a microscopic level as a
result of diffusion from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration is called
mass transfer.
15.2 MODES OF MASS TRANSFER

The mechanism of the mass transfer process can be classified as
(i) Mass transfer by diffusion
(ii) Mass transfer by convection
(iii) Mass transfer by change of phase
15.2.1 Mass Transfer by Diffusion (Molecular or Eddy Diffusion)

Molecular diffusion is the transfer of mass on a microscopic level as a result of the concentration
gradient of one or more constituents (species) in the system. The diffusion of mass from a
constituent occurs through a layer of stagnant fluid, and its occurrence may be due to concentra-
tion gradients, temperature gradients, or pressure gradients.
Various examples of molecular diffusion can be taken from our day-to-day experiences.
Some of these are:
1. The dissolution of sugar or salt in hot water and its uniform diffusion throughout
2. The evaporation of water from a pond that increases the humidity of a passing air
stream
3. The evaporation of petrol in the carburetor of a car’s engine
1097
1098 CHAPTER 15 MASS TRANSFER
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4. The evaporation of moisture during the drying of clothes or wood

5. The humidification of air in air coolers and cooling towers
6. The spread of the fragrance of perfume or flowers to the surroundings
7. The diffusion of smoke through a tall chimney to the atmosphere
When a diffusing fluid is in turbulent motion, eddy diffusion takes place. Due to turbulence,
the rate of diffusion increases, which results in an increase in mass transfer. An example of the
eddy diffusion process is the dissipation of smoke from a smoke stack.
15.2.2 Mass Transfer by Convection

The mass transfer between a surface and a moving fluid or between two immiscible moving
fluids is called convective mass transfer. The convective mass transfer depends on
1. The transport properties of fluid
2. The dynamic characteristics (laminar or turbulent flow) of flowing fluid
The evaporation of water by moving air in a desert cooler is an example of convective mass
transfer.
15.2.3 Mass Transfer by Change of Phase

A change of phase of a fluid can also cause mass transfer. Such mass transfer is a combination of
the processes of diffusion and convection. Examples of mass transfer by phase change are:
1. Hot flue gases rising from a chimney by convection and then diffusing to the atmos-
pheric air
2. The mass transfer from boiling water to the air
15.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Mass can be transferred by random molecular motion in fluids at rest or it can be transferred from
a surface to a moving fluid aided by the dynamic characteristics of flow. These two distinct
modes of mass transport—molecular mass diffusion and convective mass transfer—are analogous
to conduction heat transfer and convection heat transfer. There are similarities between heat and
mass transfer:
1. Heat transfer occurs when a temperature gradient exists in a medium, which continues
until the entire medium attains a uniform temperature. Similarly, mass transfer takes
place when a concentration gradient of one or more chemical species (constituent) ex-
ists and it continues until the concentration of all species becomes uniform over the
entire volume.
2. Conduction heat transfer is a molecular phenomenon, and the respective thermal
conductivity is a material property. Similarly, diffusion mass transfer is a molecular
phenomenon, and the respective diffusion coefficient is a property of a particular com-
bination of species and medium.
15.4 CONCENTRATIONS, VELOCITIES, AND FLUXES 1099
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3. The convective heat transfer coefficient is a flow property that depends on fluid flow
properties and geometry. Similarly, the convective mass transfer coefficient also de-
pends on flow and geometrical parameters and they can be described by similar
governing equations.
There are also some significant differences between heat and mass transfer:
1. Heat transfer is a one-way phenomenon. The flow is always from a high temperature
region to a region of lower temperature. Mass transfer, on the other hand, is a multi-
way phenomenon. When two locations P and Q are at different concentrations within a
system of species 1, 2, 3, etc., the different species diffuse simultaneously between P
and Q, depending on the concentration gradient. Some species may diffuse from P to Q
while others may diffuse from Q to P, and their diffusion rates will also be different.
2. Except at very low concentrations, the concentration change affects the momentum and
continuity equations, and they can not be solved independently.
3. In heat transfer, the boundary conditions may involve a specified temperature, specified
heat flux, convection or radiation boundary, and their treatment is rather simple. On the
other hand, in mass transfer, the boundary may involve different phases and inter-
phases, such as condensation, evaporation, adsorption, chemical reaction, etc. This
makes the boundary conditions much more complex.
4. The mass diffusion rate depends on the molecular size of the diffusing species
compared to a medium size in heat transfer.
5. Heat conduction in its pure state does not treat medium velocities. Pure mass diffusion
deals with the bulk velocity of the medium.
15.4 CONCENTRATIONS, VELOCITIES, AND FLUXES

15.4.1 Mass Concentration or Mass Density
The mass concentration of a component A of a multicomponent mixture is defined as the mass of
species A per unit volume of the mixture under consideration. It is denoted by ρA and is expressed
in kg/m3.
Mass of component A m A
Mass concentration ρA = = (15.1)
Volume of mixture V
Molar Concentration
The molar concentration of a component A is defined as the number of moles of species A that
exist per unit volume of the mixture. It is also called molar density, is denoted by CA, and is
expressed in kg·mol/m3.
Number of moles of component A n A
Molar concentration CA = = (15.2)
Volume of mixture V
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Mass of component A m A
Number of moles of component A = = (15.3)
Molecular weight of A M A
Mass of component A ρ
Therefore, molar concentration CA = = A (15.4)
Volume of mixture × M A M A
where MA = molecular weight of component A.
Mass Fraction
The mass fraction mf, A is defined as the ratio of the mass concentration of species A to the mass
density ρ of the mixture or
ρA
mf, A = (15.5)
ρ
Mole Fraction
The mole fraction is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of component A to the total
number of moles of the mixture. It is denoted by γA and is expressed as
C
γA = A (15.6)
C
Partial Pressure
Partial pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a single component in a mixture when it
exists alone in the system at the temperature and volume of the mixture. The total pressure of a
mixture is the summation of partial pressures of all components in the mixture, i.e.,
p = p1 + p2 + p3 + " + pn (15.7)
The Concentration for a Gaseous Mixture
For a binary mixture of components A and B (Figure 15.1), the following summary of rules may
be applied:
ρA + ρB = ρ (15.8)
CA + CB = C (15.9)
mf, A + mf, B = 1 (15.10)
γA + γB = 1 (15.11)
mf , A mf, B 1
+ = (15.12)
MA MB M Figure 15.1 Two components in a mixture
where ρ, C, and M are the quantities pertaining to
the mixture.
For a mixture of two perfect gases A and B we have
pAV = nA RuT
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where Ru is the universal gas constant = MR = 8.314 kJ/kg mole·K and

n p
CA = A = A
A R uT
pA
C R T p
γA = A = u = A (15.13)
C p p
R uT
pA p p
C = CA + CB = + B = (15.14)
R uT R uT R uT
15.4.2 Velocities
In a multicomponent system, the various species normally move at different velocities.
Mass Average Velocity
The mass average velocity u for a binary mixture of components A and B is defined in terms of
mass densities and component velocities as
n
∑ρ u
i =1
i i
ρ A u A + ρ Bu B
u= = (15.15)
n
ρ
∑ρ
i =1
i
ρA ρ
or u= uA + B uB = mf , A uA + mf , B uB (15.16)
ρ ρ
Molar Average Velocity
The molar average velocity for a binary mixture is defined in terms of the molar concentrations of
components A and B as
n
∑C u
i =1
i i
C A u A + C Bu B
v= n
= (15.17)
C
∑C
i =1
i
CA C
or = u A + B u B = γ A u A + γ Bu B (15.18)
C C
The velocity of a particular component relative to the mass average or molar average veloci-
ty is called a diffusion velocity. We can therefore define mass diffusion velocity and molar
diffusion velocity as
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uA – u = mass diffusion velocity of component A

uB – u = mass diffusion velocity of component B
uA – v = molar diffusion velocity of component A
uB – v = molar diffusion velocity of component B
15.4.3 Fluxes
Mass Flux
The mass flux of a species is defined as the mass of a species that passes through a unit area per
unit time relative to a stationary coordinate. For species A of a multicomponent mixture,
absolute flux = ρAuA
bulk motion flux = ρAu
m
diffusion flux JA = A
A
m
where the quantity JA = A is the mass flow rate per unit area per unit time. The absolute flux of
A
any constituent seen by a stationary observer
= Diffusion flux + Bulk motion flux
m
ρ A u A = A + ρA u
A
m
or diffusion flux JA = A = ρ A (u A − u ) (15.19)
A
Molar Flux
The molar flux can be defined in a way that is similar to mass flux as the number of moles of a
species passing through a unit area per unit time with respect to a stationary coordinate, or
n
Absolute flux NA = A = CA u A
A
Bulk motion flux = CA v
Diffusion flux NA = CA (u A − v) (15.20)
Example 15.1 A mixture of O2 and CO2 is kept in a container at 21°C and at 151.9 kPa. The
mean velocity of O2 is 0.08 m/s and that of the CO2 is –0.02 m/s. If the molar fraction of the O2 is
0.4, calculate the
(i) Molar fraction of the CO2
(ii) Molecular weight of the mixture
(iii) Molar concentration of CO2 and O2
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(iv) Mass concentration of CO2 and O2

(v) Mass fraction of CO2 and O2
(vi) Mass diffusion velocities of both components
(vii) Molar diffusion velocities of both components
(viii) Molar fluxes of CO2 and O2
(ix) Mass fluxes of CO2 and O2
Solution
Given: A mixture of CO2 and O2
T = 21°C = 294 K p = 151.9 kPa
u O 2 = 0.08 m/s u CO 2 = – 0.02 m/s γ O = 0.4
2
To find:
(iii) Molar concentration of CO2 and O2
(iv) Mass concentration of CO2 and O2
(v) Mass fraction of CO2 and O2
(vi) Mass diffusion velocities of both components
(vii) Molar diffusion velocities of both components
(viii) Molar fluxes of CO2 and O2
(ix) Mass fluxes of CO2 and O2
Analysis:
We have γA + γB = 1
or γB = 1 – γA = 1 – γ O 2 = 1 – 0.4 = 0.6 Answer
M = γ O 2 M O 2 + γ CO 2 M CO 2 = 0.4 × 32 + 0.6 × 44 = 39.2 Answer
(iii) Molar concentrations
pi
We have γi =
p
Thus p O 2 = 0.4 × p = 0.4 × 151.9 = 60.76 kPa
and p CO 2 = 0.6 × 151.9 = 91.14 kPa
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Concentration of O2:
pO2 60.76
C O2 = = = 0.0248 kg mol/m3 Answer
R uT 8.314 × 294
Concentration of CO2:
p CO 2 91.14
C CO 2 = = = 0.0372 kg mol/m3 Answer
R uT 8.314 × 294
Thus C = C O 2 + C CO 2 = 0.0248 + 0.0372 = 0.062 kg mol/m3
(iv) Mass concentrations
ρ O 2 = C O 2 M O 2 = 0.0248 × 32 = 0.793 kg/m3 Answer
ρ CO = C CO M CO = 0.0372 × 44 = 1.636 kg/m3 Answer
2 2 2
Thus ρ = ρ O 2 + ρ CO 2 = 0.793 + 1.636 = 2.429 kg/m3

(v) Mass fractions
ρO 0.793
m f , O2 = =
2
= 0.326 Answer
ρ 2.429
ρ CO 1.636
m f , CO 2 = = 2
= 0.673 Answer
ρ 2.429
(vi) Mass diffusion velocities
u = Σ m f , i u i = 0.326 × 0.08 – 0.673 × 0.02 = 0.0126 m/s
The mass diffusion velocity of O2 is
u O 2 − u = 0.08 – 0.0126 = 0.0674 m/s Answer
The mass diffusion velocity of CO2 is
u CO 2 − u = –0.02 – 0.0126 = – 0.328 m/s Answer
(vii) Molar diffusion velocities
v = Σ γ i u i = 0.4 × 0.08 – 0.6 × 0.02 = 0.02 m/s
Molar diffusion velocity of O2 = u O 2 − v = 0.08 – 0.02 = 0.06 m/s Answer
Molar diffusion velocity of CO2 = –0.02 – 0.02 = – 0.04 m/s Answer
(viii) Molar fluxes
N O 2 = C O 2 u O 2 = 0.0248 × 0.08 = 1.98 × 10–3 kg mol/m2·s Answer
N CO 2 = C CO 2 u CO 2 = 0.0372 × (– 0.02)
= –7.44 × 10–4 kg mol/m2·s Answer
15.5 FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION 1105
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(ix) Mass fluxes

J O 2 = ρ O 2 u O 2 = 0.793 × 0.08 = 0.0634 kg/m3·s Answer
J CO 2 = ρ CO 2 u CO 2 = 1.636 × (–0.02) = –0.0327 kg/m3·s Answer
15.5 FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

Fick’s law relates the mass flux to the concentration gradient of a species in a mixture. Consider a
system with two components A and B as shown in Figure 15.2. A thin partition that separates the
components is removed at an instant and the two components diffuse through one another until
they reach a state of equilibrium and the concentration of the components becomes uniform
throughout.
Figure 15.2 Diffusion in a binary mixture
The diffusion rate is governed by Fick’s law, which states that the mass flux of a constituent
per unit area is proportional to the concentration gradient. Thus
m A dρA
= −D AB (15.21)
A dx
where m A = mass flow rate of component A, kg/s
A = area through which mass m A is flowing, m2
m A
= mass flux of component A, kg/s·m2
A
ρA = mass concentration of component A per unit volume, kg/m3
DAB = constant of proportionality, called the diffusion coefficient
or mass diffusivity of component A in component B, m2/s
d ρA
= concentration gradient of component A, a driving potential for diffusion
dx
The negative sign indicates that the mass diffusion takes place in the direction of decreasing
concentration.
The diffusion rate of component B in component A is given by
m B dρB
= −D BA (15.22)
A dx
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The diffusion coefficients DAB and DBA are relative diffusivities, and they are equal in mag-
nitude.
Fick’s law in terms of molar flux NA, molar concentration CA, and mass diffusivity DAB can
also be expressed as
d CA
NA = −D AB (15.23)
dx
Fick’s law of diffusion is analogous to
(i) Fourier law of heat conduction
Q dT
= q = −k and
A dx
(ii) Newton’s law of viscosity
du
τ = −μ
dy
The Fourier equation describes the transport of heat energy due to the temperature gradient,
Newton’s law of viscosity describes the transport of momentum due to the velocity gradient, and
Fick’s law describes the mass transport due to the concentration gradient.
Further, the units of the mass diffusion coefficient are
m A
kg/s ⋅ m 2
DAB = A = = m 2 /s
dρA kg/m 4
dx
which is identical to the units of thermal diffusivity α and momentum diffusivity ν.
The physical mechanism of mass diffusion can
be understood by considering Figure 15.3. The con-
centration of component A is greater on the left side
of the imaginary plane than it is on the right side. The
higher concentration means there are more molecules
per unit volume, and thus more molecules moving in
random fashion will cross the imaginary plane per
unit time. It means that due to concentration dif-
ference, more molecules are moving from left to right
across the plane than in the opposite direction, which
results in a net mass transfer from a region of high Figure 15.3 Diffusion dependence
concentration to a region of lower concentration. on the concentration profile
Some important aspects of Fick’s law of diffu-
sion are:
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1. Fick’s law is based on experimental evidence and hence cannot be derived from first
principle.
2. Fick’s law is valid in any state of all matters.
3. The mass diffusion rate depends on the concentration gradient caused by a temperature
gradient, a pressure gradient, or an external force.
4. A component in a mixture diffuses in the direction of decreasing concentration.
5. The diffusion coefficient DAB in general depends on temperature, pressure, and the
nature of the system components.
⎛ m ⎞
When working with Fick’s law, one may use the mass flux per unit area ⎜ A ⎟ and mass
⎝ A ⎠
concentration ( ρA) as in Eq. (15.21), or Fick’s law may be expressed in terms of molar concentra-
tion (CA) and fluxes. There is no specific rule regarding the use of expression. For gases, Fick’s
law may also be used in terms of partial pressures by using perfect gas equation of state
p = ρRuT
In terms of the universal gas constant Ru, for gas component A we have
pA M p
ρA = = A
R uT R uT
The density ρA represents the mass concentration of species A. Then Fick’s law is
m A M dpA
= −D AB A (15.24a)
A R u T dx
For gas component B in an isothermal diffusion we have
m B M dp B
= −D BA B (15.24b)
A R u T dx
Mass Diffusion Coefficient
The constant of proportionality DAB in Fick’s law is known as the mass diffusion coefficient or
mass diffusivity. The value of mass diffusivity varies widely from phase to phase.
In a binary mixture of two gases A and B, the diffusion coefficient can be obtained by using
the semi-empirical equation given by Gilliland
T 3/ 2
DAB ∝
p
T 3/2 1 1
or DAB = 435.7 = + (15.25)
p (VA + VB )
1/3 1/3
MA MB
where DAB = diffusion coefficient, cm2/s
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T = absolute temperature, K
p = total pressure of system, N/m2 or Pa
VA = molecular volume of component A
VB = molecular volume of component B
MA = molecular weight of component A
MB = molecular weight of component B
From the relation, it is evident that the diffusion coefficient depends on the pressure,
temperature, and other molecular properties of gases. These values can be extended to other
temperatures and pressures as
3/ 2
D1 ⎛T ⎞ ⎛ p2 ⎞
= ⎜ 1⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (15.26)
D2 ⎝ T2 ⎠ ⎝ p1 ⎠
The molecular volume and molecular weight of the mixture constituents can be obtained
from Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Molecular weight and molecular volume of gases
Molecular volume
Gas Molecular weight at normal boiling point
Air 28.9 29.9 cm3/gm mole
Ammonia NH3 17 25.81
Carbon dioxide CO2 44 34.00
Carbon monoxide CO 28 30.71
Hydrogen H2 2 28.6
Nitrogen N2 28 31.20
Oxygen O2 32 14.8
Sulphur dioxide SO2 64 44.78
For a gas mixture of nonpolar, nonreacting molecules, the diffusion coefficient is given by
1/ 2
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
0.001858 T 3/ 2 ⎢ + ⎥
⎣ MA MB ⎦
DAB = (15.27)
p (σ AB ) 2 Ω
where DAB = mass diffusivity of species A through B in cm2/s
T = absolute temperature in K
MA, MB = molecular weights of species A and B, respectively
p = absolute pressure in atmosphere
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σAB = collision diameter in Å (Angstroms)

Ω = collision integral, a dimensionless function of temperature and of
the intermolecular potential field for one molecule of A and one
molecule of B
The value Ω (the collision integral) is compiled as a function of κBT/εAB, where κB is
Boltzmann constant as 1.38 × 10–16 ergs/K and εAB is the energy of molecular interaction for a
binary system AB.
In the case of a binary system composed of a pair of nonpolar molecules, the collision di-
ameter σAB and the molecular interaction energy εAB can be expressed as
σ A +σ B
σAB = (15.28)
2
and εAB = ε Aε B (15.29)
The values for pure components may be obtained as
σ = 1.18 Vb1/3 (15.30)
1/3
= 0.841 V cr (15.31)
1/3
⎛T ⎞
= 2.44 ⎜ cr ⎟ (15.32)
⎝ p cr ⎠
and εAB = 0.77 Tcr (15.33)
= 1.15 Tb (15.34)
3
where V, T, and p are the volume (cm /g mole), absolute temperature, and total pressure,
respectively, and the suffix b is for the boiling state and cr for the critical parameters.
Example 15.2 Hydrogen gas diffuses through a steel wall of 2 mm thickness. The molar
concentration of hydrogen at the interface is 1.5 kg·mol/m3 and zero on the outer face. Calculate
the diffusion rate of the hydrogen if its diffusivity coefficient is 0.3 × 10–12 m2/s.
Solution
Given: Diffusion of hydrogen through a steel wall
To find: Diffusion rate of the hydrogen
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state diffusion
2. One-dimensional diffusion without any chemical reaction
3. Constant properties
Analysis: The one-dimensional molar diffusion is given by
C A1 − C A2 0.3 × 10 −12 × (1.5 − 0)
NA = D AB = = 1.5 × 10–10 kg·mol/m2·s Answer
L 0.002
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Example 15.3 Calculate the diffusion coefficient for CO2 in air at atmospheric pressure and
25°C.
Solution
The diffusion coefficient in gases is
T 3/2 1 1
DAB = 435.7 +
p (V + VB1/3 )
1/3
A MA MB
From Table 15.1, we have
VCO 2 = 34.0 Vair = 29.9
M CO 2 = 44 Mair = 28.9
(298) 3/ 2 1 1
Thus, DAB = 435.7 × × +
(1.01325 × 10 ) (34 + 29.9 )
5 1/3 1/3
28.9 44
= 0.132 cm2/s = 13.2 × 10–6 m2/s Answer
Example 15.4 Hydrogen gas is maintained at a pressure of 2.4 bar and 1 bar on the opposite
side of a plastic membrane 0.3 mm thick. The binary diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in the
plastic is 8.7 × 10–8 m2/s. The solubility of hydrogen in the membrane is 1.5 × 10–3 kg mol/m3 · bar.
Calculate, under a uniform condition of 25°C, the
(i) Molar concentration of hydrogen on opposite faces of the membrane
(ii) Molar and mass diffusion flux of hydrogen through the membrane
Solution
Given: Diffusion of two hydrogen gas streams through a plastic membrane
Solubility S = 1.5 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3·bar
p1 = 2.4 bar p2 = 1 bar
L = 0.3 mm DAB = 8.7 × 10–8 m2/s
T = 25°C = 298 K M H 2 = 2 kg/kg·mol
To find:
(i) Molar concentrations of hydrogen at opposite faces of the membrane
(ii) Molar and mass diffusion flux
Analysis:
(i) Molar concentrations: the molar concentration, pressure, and solubility are related as
C = Sp
Therefore C H 2 , 1 = 1.5 × 10–3 × 2.4 = 3.6 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3 Answer
C H 2 , 2 = 1.5 × 10–3 × 1 = 1.5 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3 Answer

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(ii) Molar and mass diffusion fluxes are calculated as

DAB (C H 2 , 1 − C H 2 , 2 )
Molar flux = NA =
L
(8.7 × 10 m 2 /s) × (3.6 × 10 −3 − 1.5 × 10 −3 ) (kg mol/m 3 )
−8
=
(0.3 × 10 −3 m)
= 6.09 × 10–7 kg mol/m2·s Answer
Mass diffusion flux = M H 2 × N A = 2 × 6.09 × 10–7 = 1.218 × 10–6 kg/m2·s Answer
Example 15.5 The tire tube of a vehicle has a surface area of 0.62 m2 and a wall thickness of
10 mm. The tube is filled with air at a pressure of 2.2 bar. The air pressure drops to 2.18 bar in a
period of 6 days. The solubility of the air in the rubber is 0.075 m3 of air/m3 of rubber at 1 bar.
The volume of air in the tube is 0.034 m3 and the operating temperature is 300 K. Calculate the
diffusivity of air in the rubber.
Solution
Given: Diffusion of air in a tire tube
A = 0.62 m2 V = 0.034 m3
Δx = 10 mm = 0.01 m p1 = 2.2 bar p2 = 2.18 bar
t = 6 days = 518,400 s S = 0.075 m of air/m3 of rubber
3
T = 300 K
To find: Diffusivity, or the diffusion coefficient of air
Assumptions:
1. Steady diffusion of air in the tube
2. Gas constant of air as 0.287 kJ/kg·K
3. Constant properties
4. Atmospheric pressure as 1 bar
Analysis: The initial mass of air in the tube is
p1V 220 × 0.034
m1 = = = 0.0868 kg
RT1 0.287 × 300
The mass of air in the tube after 6 days is
p 2 V 218 × 0.034
m2 = = = 0.0860 kg
RT2 0.287 × 300
The mass of air escaped through the tube is
Δm = m1 – m2 = 0.0868 – 0.0860 = 0.0008 kg
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The mass flux of air escaped is

m A Mass of air escaped
=
A Time elapsed × Surface area
0.0008 kg
= = 2.49 × 10–9 kg/m2·s
518400s × 0.62 m 2
The mean solubility of air in the rubber tube at the inner surface is
S = 0.075 × 219 = 0.1642 m3/m3 of rubber
Solubility = Volume at mean inside pressure
∴ V1 = 0.1642 m3 for 1 m3 of rubber volume at the inside
V2 = 0.075 × 1 bar = 0.075 m3/m3 of tube volume
The corresponding mass concentrations at the inner and outer surfaces are
p V 219 × 0.1642
ρ A1 = m 1 = = 0.4176 kg/m3
RT1 0.287 × 300
p atm V2 100 × 0.075
and ρA = = = 0.0871 kg/m3
2
RT2 0.287 × 300
The diffusion flux rate of the air through the rubber tube is then
m A D AB ( ρ A1 − ρ A 2 )
=
A x 2 − x1
m A ( x 2 − x1 ) 2.49 × 10 −9 × 0.01
or DAB = = = 7.509 × 10–11 m2/s Answer
A ( ρ A1 − ρ A 2 ) (0.4176 − 0.0871)
15.6 GENERAL MASS DIFFUSION EQUATION

Mass transfer by molecular diffusion is analogous to heat transfer by conduction or momentum
transfer in laminar flow. Mass transfer by molecular diffusion may occur in a stagnant fluid or in
a fluid in laminar flow. As with the Fourier conduction equation of heat conduction,
g ( x) 1 ∂T
∇ 2T + =
k α ∂t
the derivation for a mass transfer equation can be made.
Let us consider a differential volume of sides dx, dy, and dz as shown in Figure 15.4. The
mass balance of species A diffusing through the control volume in the stagnant medium B is
15.6 GENERAL MASS DIFFUSION EQUATION 1113
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Figure 15.4 Control volume for the mass diffusion equation in Cartesian coordinates
given as the net rate of the diffusion fluxes that enter the control volume in the x, y, and z
directions, expressed as
NA, X dy dz + NA, Y dx dz + NA, Z dx dy (15.35)
where NA = molar flux.
The net rate of diffusion fluxes leaving the control volume in the x, y, and z directions is
NA, (x + dx) dy dz + NA, (y + dy) dx dz + NA, (z + dz) dx dy
According to Taylor’s series expansion,
∂
NA, (x + dx) ≈ NA, x +
(NA, x ) dx
∂x
The mass of species A accumulated in the control volume due to diffusion is
Net rate of flux in – Net rate of flux leaving the control volume
⎡∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
= − ⎢ (NA, x ) + (NA, y ) + (NA, z ) ⎥ dx dy dz (15.36)
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
In mass diffusion, the mass generation rate is important. The mass generation in any species
may be due to the chemical reaction that may generate or absorb a particular species. If m A, g is
the mass generation rate per unit volume,
The net rate of mass generation of species A = m A, g dx dy dz (15.37)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Due to mass accumulation and mass generation in the control volume, the mass concentra-
tion of the control volume may change. The rate of change of molar concentration of species A is
∂ CA
= dx dy dz (15.38)
∂t
Making the mass balance on the control volume we have
⎡∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
− ⎢ (NA , x ) + (NA , y ) + (NA , z ) ⎥ dx dy dz + m A, g dx dy dz
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦
∂ CA
= dx dy dz
∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂C
or − (NA , x ) + (NA , y ) + (NA , z ) m A, g = A
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Using Fick’s law in terms of the molar concentration,
∂ CA
NA, x = − DAB
∂x
∂ ⎛ ∂ CA ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ CA ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ CA ⎞ ∂ CA
we get − ⎜ −DAB ⎟− ⎜ −DAB ⎟− ⎜ −DAB ⎟ + m A, g =
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂ y ⎝ ∂ y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂t
∂ 2 CA ∂ 2 CA ∂ 2 CA m A, g 1 ∂ CA
or + + + = (15.39)
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
DAB DAB ∂ t
This is a governing mass diffusion equation in Cartesian coordinates.
Without any mass generation, Eq. (15.39) takes the form
1 ∂ CA
∇ 2 CA = (15.40)
DAB ∂t
∂ CA
In steady state, = 0, and thus Eq. (15.40) becomes
∂t
∇ 2 CA = 0 (15.41)
For one dimension, the governing equation in steady state without mass generation modifies
to
∂ 2 CA
=0 (15.42)
∂x 2
15.7 DIFFUSION THROUGH A STAGNANT GAS

The evaporation of pure liquids such as benzene, acetone, carbon tetrachloride, gasoline, and
water in air are some examples of diffusion through stagnant air.
15.7 DIFFUSION THROUGH A STAGNANT GAS 1115
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 15.5 Diffusion of water vapor into the air
Consider the isothermal evaporation of water from a surface and its diffusion through a
stagnant air as shown in Figure 15.5. The free surface of water is exposed to air in the tank and
the air that is flowing over the tank in a perpendicular direction removes the water vapor that
reaches that level. We assume the following.
1. The system is isothermal and the total pressure remains constant.
2. The system is in steady state, and hence the concentration profile of the air does not
change.
3. The air and water vapor behave as an ideal gas.
As water evaporates, it diffuses upward through the air, and in steady state this upward
movement is balanced by a downward diffusion of air. Therefore, the concentration at any
location x remains constant.
The diffusion of air downward is given by
D A M A dpA
m A = − AB (15.43)
R uT dx
where A = cross-sectional area of the tank
MA = molecular weight of component A
At the surface of water, the air cannot move downward, and hence there must be bulk mass
movement upward with a velocity to compensate for the mass diffusion of air downward.
Upward mass transfer of air = – ρA uA A
p
= − A MA A u A (15.44)
R uT
where uA is the bulk mass velocity in the upward direction.
Equating Eqs. (15.43) and (15.44),
− DAB A M A dpA p
= − A M A A uA
R uT dx R uT
D dpA
we get uA = AB (15.45)
pA dx
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Now the mass of water diffusion upward is

D A M w dp w
m w = − AB (15.46)
R uT dx
The bulk transport rate of water vapor is
p M
(m w ) bulk = ρ w A u A = w w A u A
R uT
pw D dpA
= M w A AB (15.47)
R uT pA dx
The total mass transport rate upward = Upward mass diffusion of water
+ Water vapor carried away by bulk movement of moving air
D A M w dp w p w M w A DAB dpA
(m w ) total = − AB +
R uT dx pA R u T dx
The partial pressure of water vapor pw can be expressed in terms of total pressure by using
Dalton’s law:
pA + pw = p (constant)
dpA dp
or = − w
dx dx
The total mass flow rate of water vapor is
D A M w ( pA + p w ) dp w
(m w ) total = − AB
R uT pA dx
DAB A M w p dp w
or (m w ) total = − (15.48)
R uT p − p w dx
This relation is called Stefan’s law. Integrating Eq. (15.48) gives
x2 D AMw p∞ dp w
(m w ) total ∫ dx = − AB p∫
x1 R uT p s p − pw
DAB A M w ⎛ p − p∞ ⎞
(m w ) total (x2 – x1) = p ln ⎜ ⎟
R uT ⎝ p − ps ⎠
DAB A M w p ⎛ p − p ∞ ⎞ DAB A p M w ⎞ ⎛ pA
or (m w ) total = ln ⎜ ⎟= ⎟ ln ⎜ 2
(15.49)
R u T (x 2 − x1 ) ⎝ p − p s ⎠ R u T (x 2 − x1 ) ⎜⎝ pA 1
⎟
⎠
The distribution of partial pressures of air and water vapor with distance x is shown in
Figure 15.6.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 15.6 Variation of partial pressures of air and water during evaporation
The diffusion of a medium through a stationary medium in terms of concentrations can be

expressed as
NA D C ⎛ C − C A2 ⎞ 2
= AB ln ⎜ ⎟ mol/m ·s (15.50)
A L ⎜ C − CA ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠
Example 15.6 An open pan 20 cm in diameter 20 mm deep is filled with water to a level of 10
mm and is exposed to air at 25°C. Assuming mass diffusivity of 0.25 × 10–4 m2/s, calculate the
time required for all the water to evaporate.
Solution
Given: Evaporation of water from an open pan
d = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Δx = 20 mm – 10 mm = 10 mm = 0.01 m
T = 25°C = 298 K DAB = 0.25 × 10–4 m2/s
To find: The time required for all the water to evaporate
Assumption: Total pressure of 1 atm
Analysis: The partial pressures of water vapor that corresponds to the saturation tempera-
tures of 298 K are
ps = 3.169 kPa (from the steam table)
p∞ = 0 at the top of the pan, dry air
For water diffusion in stagnant air, we have
DAB A M w p ⎛ p − p∞ ⎞
(m w ) total = ln ⎜ ⎟
R uT ( x 2 − x1 ) ⎝ p − p s ⎠
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
π π
A = d2 =
× (0.2) 2 = 0.0314 m 2
4 4
Mw = 18
p = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
(m w ) total 0.25 × 10 −4 × 18 1.01325 × 10 5 ⎛ 101.32 − 0 ⎞
∴ = × × ln ⎜ ⎟
A 8314 × 298 0.01 ⎝ 101.325 − 3.169 ⎠
= 5.96 × 10–5 kg/m2·s
The time required for the evaporation of all the water is then
π
(m w ) total × As × t = d 2 × height of water × ρ w
4
π π
5.96 × 10–5 × × (0.2)2 × t = (0.2)2 × 0.01 m × 1000
4 4
or t = 1677355 = 46.6 h Answer
Example 15.7 A well that is 40 m deep and 9 m in diameter is exposed to atmosphere at 25°C.
(See Figure 15.7.) The air at the top has relative humidity of 50%. Calculate the rate of diffusion
of water vapor through the wall. Take DAB = 2.58 × 10–5 m2/s, Mw = 18 kg/kg·mol.
Solution
Given: Evaporation of water in stagnant air
Δx = 40 m d=9m
T = 25°C = 298 K RH = 0.5
–5 2
DAB = 2.58 × 10 m /s Mw = 18 kg/kg·mol
To find: Diffusion rate of the water
Analysis: The partial pressure ps of water vapor at level 1,
which corresponds to 25°C, is
Figure 15.7 Schematic
ps = 3.169 kPa
for Example 15.7
The partial pressure of air at the top of the well is
p∞ = RH × ps = 0.5 × 3.169 = 1.585 kPa
The diffusion rate of water into the air is then
(m w ) total = × ln ⎜ ⎟
R uT ( x 2 − x1 ) ⎝ p − ps ⎠
2.58 × 10 −5 × (π /4) × 9 2 × 18 1.01325 × 10 5 ⎛ 101.325 − 1.585 ⎞
= × ln ⎜ ⎟
8314 × 298 40 ⎝ 101.325 − 3.169 ⎠
= 1.1924 × 2533.125 × 0.0160 = 4.835 × 10–7 kg/s Answer
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Example 15.8 Estimate the diffusion rate of water from the bottom of a test tube 1.5 cm in
diameter and 15 cm long into dry atmospheric air at 25°C. (See Figure 15.8.)
Take a diffusion coefficient of 25.6 × 10–6 m2/s.
Solution
Given: Evaporation of water from a test tube
d = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
x2 – x1 = Δx = 15 cm = 0.15 m
T = 25°C = 298 K
DAB = 25.6 × 10–6 m2/s
To find: Diffusion rate of the water
Analysis: The partial pressure of water vapor at level 1, which
corresponds to the saturation temperature of 25°C, is
ps = 3.169 kPa Figure 15.8 Schematic
for Example 15.8
The partial pressure of water at the top of the tube, dry air, is
p∞ = 0
The diffusion rate of the water from the tube is then
R uT x 2 − x1 ⎝ p − p s ⎠
25.6 × 10 −6 × (π /4) × (0.015) 2 × 18 1.01325 × 10 5 ⎛ 101.32 − 0 ⎞
= × × ln ⎜ ⎟
8314 × 298 0.15 ⎝ 101.32 − 3.169 ⎠
= 3.28 × 10–14 × 675500 × 0.0317 = 7.05 × 10–10 kg/s
= 0.0025 gm/h Answer
Example 15.9 In a solar pond, salt is placed at the bottom of the pond, which is 1.5 m deep.
The surface is flushed constantly so that the concentration of salt at the top layer is zero. The salt
concentration at the bottom layer is 5 kg mol/m3. Calculate the rate at which the salt is washed
off at the top at steady-state condition per m2. Take DAB = 1.24 × 10–9 m2/s. The total concentra-
tion = 55.55 kg mol/m3.
Solution
Given: Diffusion of salt into a solar pond
L = 1.5 m C A2 = 0 C A1 = 5 kg·mol/m3
DAB = 1.24 × 10–9 m2/s C = 55.55 kg·mol/m3
To find: Diffusion rate of the salt
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Analysis: The diffusion rate of salt through a solar pond is given by

NA D ⎛ C − C A2 ⎞
= AB C ln ⎜ ⎟
A L ⎜ C − CA ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠
1.24 × 10 −9 ⎛ 55.55 − 0 ⎞
= × 55.55 × ln ⎜ ⎟
1.5 ⎝ 55.55 − 5 ⎠
–9 2
= 4.33 × 10 kg·mol/m ·s Answer
15.8 CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER

Convective mass transfer involves the diffusion of a fluid with the bulk movement of another
fluid or the diffusion between two immiscible moving fluids. It is a situation analogous to
convective heat transfer. Convective mass transfer can also be classified as free convection and
forced convection. In free mass convection, the concentration gradient changes the density of the
fluid, which may be acted upon by the buoyancy force. The evaporation of alcohol or gasoline are
examples of free mass convection.
In forced mass convection one fluid moves with appreciable velocity over another fluid. The
evaporation of water from the ocean, cooling towers, and the exhaust gases from an automobile
that are forced to pass over a catalytic converter are some examples of forced mass convection.
The fluid flow may be laminar or turbulent. If the fluid flow is laminar, all of the transport
between a surface and the moving fluid will be by molecular means. On the other hand, if the
fluid flow is turbulent, there will be physical movement of lumps of fluid across streamlines,
transported by eddies that are present. The properties of these eddies may be 10 times larger than
the molecular values. Therefore, mass transfer by forced convection is larger than by free
convection.
15.8.1 Steady-State Diffusion Through a Plane Membrane

In the diffusion of a small quantity of fluid A through a stationary gas B, or the diffusion of a
dilute solution of A with a liquid or solid B, the mass or molar average velocity of the mixture is
very small. Such cases can be treated as the diffusion of A through a stationary medium or plane
membrane B.
Consider the mass diffusion of a fluid A through a stationary medium B of thickness L, as
shown in Figure 15.9. The molar concentrations of fluid A at two faces are CA1 and CA2,
respectively. For steady-state one-dimensional without any chemical reaction, the molar diffusion
Eq. (15.42) is
d 2 CA
=0
dx 2
subjected to the following boundary conditions:
at x =0 CA = C A,1
and at x =L CA = CA, 2
15.8 CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER 1121
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The solution of this equation after double integration is

CA = C1x + C2 (15.51)
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration and are evaluated from the boundary conditions
at x =0 C2 = CA,1
(CA, 2 − CA,1 )
at x =L C1 =
L
Substituting this into Eq. (15.51), we get
x
CA = ( CA, 2 – CA,1 ) + CA,1 (15.52)
L
The mass flux of A at any x is
m A d CA
= JAX = −DAB
A dx
d ⎡ x ⎤
= −DAB ⎢(CA, 2 − CA,1 ) L + CA,1 ⎥
dx ⎣ ⎦ Figure 15.9 Plane wall
⎛ CA, 2 − CA,1 ⎞ subjected to
= −DAB ⎜ ⎟ steady-state diffusion
⎝ L ⎠
DAB A
or m A = (CA,1 − CA, 2 ) (15.53)
L
CA,1 − CA, 2 CA,1 − CA, 2 Concentration potential
m A = = =
L R m, A Diffusion resistance
A DAB
L
where Rm, A = (15.54)
A DAB
This is known as diffusion resistance, which is similar to the thermal resistance of a plane slab.
We also can obtain the mass transfer or diffusion resistance for various other geometries.
The convective film resistance on a solid surface in terms of the convective mass transfer
coefficient Kc is
1
Rm, film = (15.55)
Kc A
For a cylindrical shell of radii r1 and r2, we have
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
Rm, cyl = ⎝ r1 ⎠ (15.56)
2π L DAB
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
For a spherical shell of radii r1 and r2, we get

r2 − r1
Rm, sph = (15.57)
4π r1 r2 DAB
This electrical analogy of mass diffusion can be extended to a composite membrane as used in
conduction heat transfer.
Example 15.10 A rubber tube was used to transport hydrogen gas at 2.0 atm and 34°C. The
inner and outer diameters of the rubber tube are 25 mm and 40 mm, respectively. The diffusion
coefficient of hydrogen in rubber is 2.2 × 10–8 m2/s and the solubility of hydrogen in rubber is
3.12 × 10–3 kg mol of H2 per m3 of rubber at 1 atm. Calculate the diffusion flux of the hydrogen
per meter length of tube. Assume that the concentration of the hydrogen at the outer surface of
the tube is negligible. The gas constant for hydrogen is 4160 J/kg·K.
Solution
Given: Diffusion of hydrogen through a rubber tube
d1 = 25 mm r1 = 12.5 × 10–3 m
d2 = 40 mm r2 = 20 × 10–3 m
p = 2 atm T = 34°C = 307 K
–8 2
DAB = 2.2 × 10 m /s S = 3.12 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3 at 1 atm
CA 2 = 0 R H 2 = 4160 J/kg·K
To find: Diffusion flux of hydrogen per meter length of the tube
Analysis: The solubility of H2 gas at 2 atm in rubber tubing is
⎛ 2 atm ⎞
S = 3.12 × 10–3 ⎜ –3
⎟ = 6.24 × 10 kg·mol/m
3
⎝ 1 atm ⎠
Further,
Volume of gas at mean pressure = Solubility
∴ V = 6.24 × 10–3 kg mol/m3
Using the ideal gas law, we have
pV
m=
R H2 T
(2 × 1.01325 × 10 5 N/m 2 ) × (6.24 kg mol/m 3 )

=
(4160 J/kg ⋅ K) × (307 K)
= 9.90 × 10–4 kg mol/m3
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The molar concentrations at the two surfaces are

C H1 = m = 9.90 × 10–4 kg mol/m3
and C H2 = 0
The diffusion flux through the cylindrical rubber tubing is
C H1 − C H 2
m =
R m , cyl
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟
where Rm, cyl = ⎝ r1 ⎠ = ⎝ 12.5 ⎠ = 34.0 × 10 5 (m 2 ⋅ s) −1
2π L DAB 2π × 1 × 2.2 × 10 −8
9.90 × 10 −4 − 0
Thus m = = 2.9 × 10–10 kg/s·m Answer
34.0 × 10 5
15.8.2 Equimolar Counter Diffusion

In the distillation of two components whose molar latent heats of vaporization are equal, a
physical situation is encountered wherein the flux of one gaseous component is equal to but acts
in an opposite direction from another gaseous component. Such diffusion is called equimolar
counter diffusion.
Consider two large chambers that contain gas component A and gas component B and that
are connected by a passage as shown in Figure 15.10 in such a way that each molecule of gas A is
replaced by a molecule of B and vice versa. The total pressure p is equal to pA + pB (i.e., is
uniform throughout).
Figure 15.10 Equimolar counter diffusion in a binary mixture
Using Fick’s law, the molar diffusion rates of components A and B are given by
d CA
NA = − DAB (15.58)
dx
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
d CB
and NB = −DBA (15.59)
dx
For steady-state conditions
NA + NB = 0 or NA = –NB
and DAB = DBA
d CA d CB
we get = −
dx dx
Rearranging Eq. (15.58) and integrating
x2 C A,2
NA ∫ dx = −DAB ∫ d CA
x1 CA,1
NA ( x 2 − x1 ) = −DAB (CA, 2 − CA,1 )

DAB (CA,1 − CA, 2 )
or NA = (15.60)
x 2 − x1
For a perfect gas, the molar concentration of A is related to the partial pressure
nA ρ A p
CA = = = A
V M A R uT
DAB
For an ideal gas A, NA = ( p A,1 − p A, 2 ) kg·mol/m2·s (15.61)
R u T (x 2 − x1 )
DBA
For an ideal gas B, NB = ( p B,1 − p B, 2 ) kg·mol/m2·s (15.62)
R u T (x 2 − x1 )
Equations (15.61) and (15.62) are equations of steady-state equimolar counter diffusion.
15.8.3 Mass Transfer Coefficient

The convective mass transfer coefficient Kc can be defined in a manner that is similar to that used
to define the convection heat transfer coefficient h. Thus
m A = Kc A ( ρ A1 − ρ A 2 ) (15.63)
where m A = diffusive mass flux of component A, kg/s
Kc = mass transfer coefficient, m/s
ρ A 1 , ρ A 2 = concentration through which diffusion occurs, kg/m3
The steady-state diffusion across a layer of thickness Δx is given by Fick’s law:
DAB A ( ρ A 1 − ρ A 2 )
m A = (15.64)
Δx
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The convection mass transfer coefficient can also be defined in terms of molar flux and
molar concentrations.
NA kg ⋅ mol/s ⋅ m 2
Kc = = = m/s (15.65)
(CA,1 − CA, 2 ) kg ⋅ mol/m 3
and mass (kg·mol/s) = Kc A (CA,1 − CA, 2 )
for diffusion of water through a stagnant air layer.
The mass concentration difference may be modeled as
Mw
ρ A1 − ρ A2 = ( p s − p∞ )
R uT
and the mass transfer coefficient for this situation can be obtained from Eqs. (15.49) and (15.63):
⎧M ⎫ D ApMw ⎛ p − p∞ ⎞
Kc A ⎨ w ( p s − p ∞ ) ⎬ = AB ln ⎜ ⎟
⎩ R uT ⎭ R u T (x 2 − x1 ) ⎝ p − p s ⎠
DAB p ⎛ p − ps ⎞
or Kc = × ln ⎜ ⎟ (15.66)
( x 2 − x1 ) ( p s − p ∞ ) ⎝ p − p∞ ⎠
where ps = saturation pressure of water corresponds to the saturation
temperature of water
p∞ = partial pressure of water vapor in air
The convection mass transfer coefficient is measured in m/s in SI units.
Example 15.11 A tank contains a mixture of CO2 and N2 in the mole proportion of 0.2 and 0.8
at 1 bar and 290 K. (See Figure 15.11.) It is connected by a duct of cross-sectional area 0.1 m2,
0.5 m long to another tank containing a mixture of CO2 and N2 in the molar proportion of 0.8 and
0.2, respectively. Calculate the diffusion rates of CO2 and N2. Assume diffusivity coefficient DAB =
0.17 × 10–4 m2/s.
Solution
Given: Equimolar diffusion of CO2 and N2
x2 – x1 = 0.5 m
Ac = 0.1 m2
DAB = 0.17 × 10–4 m2/s
p = 1 bar
T = 290 K Figure 15.11 Schematic for
To find: Diffusion rates of CO2 and N2 Example 15.11
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Analysis: The partial pressures of two gases in two tanks are

p = pi + p2 pi = xi p
p A 1 = 0.2 bar p A 2 = 0.8 bar
p B1 = 0.8 bar p B 2 = 0.2 bar
For the rate of molar diffusion of CO2 using
DAB A ⎡ p A 2 − p A 1 ⎤ 0.17 × 10 −4 × 0.1 × (0.8 − 0.2) × 10 5
NA = ⎢ ⎥=
R u T ⎣ x 2 − x1 ⎦ 8314 × 290 × 0.5
= 8.46 × 10–8 kg mol/s
and m A = MANA = 44 × 8.46 × 10–8 = 3.73 × 10–6 kg/s Answer
Similarly for NB,
NB = – NA = 8.46 × 10–8 kg mol/s = 2.37 × 10–6 kg/s Answer
Example 15.12 A mixture of benzene and toluene is being distilled in a distillation column at 1
bar and 108°C. The liquid phase contains 20% mole of benzene and the vapor phase contains
60% mole of benzene, respectively. At the operating conditions, the vapor pressure of toluene is
0.75 bar and its diffusivity is 5.2 × 10–6 m2/s. Assuming equimolar diffusion, calculate the molar
diffusion flux of toluene, if the diffusion zone is 0.2 mm thick.
Solution
Given: Equimolar diffusion of benzene and toluene
p = 1 bar = 105 Pa T = 108°C = 381 K
γA = 0.2 γB = 0.6
pv, toluene = 0.75 bar DAB = 5.2 × 10–6 m2/s
x2 – x1 = 0.2 mm = 2 × 10–4 m
To find: Molar diffusion flux of toluene
Analysis: The partial pressure of toluene in the liquid phase is
p t1 = (1 − γ A ) p = (1 − 0.2) × 0.75 = 0.6 bar
The partial pressure of toluene in the vapor phase is
p t 2 = (1 − γ B ) p = (1 − 0.6) × 0.75 = 0.3 bar
For the equimolar diffusion, the molar diffusion flux, Eq. (15.61) is
DAB ( p t 1 − p t 2 ) 5.2 × 10 −6 × (0.6 − 0.3) × 10 5
Ntoluene = =
R u T x 2 − x1 8314 × 381 × 2 × 10 −4
= 2.46 × 10–6 kg·mol/m2·s Answer
15.9 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS IN CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER 1127
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
15.9 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS IN CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER

Dimensionless parameters are often used to correlate convective transport data. In convection
heat transfer, the Reynolds number, Prandtl number, and Nusselt number are used. Some of the
same parameters, along with some newly defined dimensionless ratios, will be useful in the
correlation of convective mass transfer.
The molecular diffusivities of the three transport phenomena are
(i) Momentum diffusivity ν = μ /ρ
(ii) Thermal diffusivity, α = k /ρ C
(iii) Mass diffusivity, DAB
All these diffusivities are measured in m2/s, and thus the ratio of any two diffusivities
becomes dimensionless.
Schmidt number. This is the ratio of momentum diffusivity to mass diffusivity. It is
designated as Sc and expressed as
Momentum diffusivity ν
Sc = = (15.67)
Mass diffusivity DAB
The role of the Schmidt number in convective mass transfer is analogous to the role of the
Prandtl number in convection heat transfer. It compares the relative thicknesses of velocity and
concentration boundary layers.
Lewis number. This is the ratio of thermal diffusivity to mass diffusivity. It is designated
as Le and expressed as
Thermal diffusivity α k
Le = = = (15.68)
Mass diffusivity DAB ρ C DAB
The Lewis number compares the relative thicknesses of thermal and concentration boundary
layers.
Sherwood number. This is analogous to the Nusselt number in convection heat transfer
and may be expressed as the ratio of the concentration gradient at the surface to the overall
concentration gradient. It is also called the mass transfer Nusselt number NuAB. Here we will
designate it as Sh.
Concentration gradient
Sh =
Overall concentration gradient
Molecular mass transport resistance K c L
= = = f (Re, Sc) (15.69)
Convective mass transport resistance DAB
15.9.1 Analogy Between Heat and Mass Transfer

The mechanisms of heat, momentum, and mass transfer are closely related, and they are almost
identical. Therefore, data of one transfer operation should be used to predict the rate of transfer in
another operation.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The heat and momentum transfers are interrelated by Reynolds analogy for fluids having
Pr = 1.
Nu h C fx
= = St = (15.70)
Re Pr ρ Cp u∞ 2
A similar analysis for mass and momentum transfer for Sc = 1 results
Sh Cfx
=
Re Sc 2
K L ν μ
where Sh = c and Sc = =
DAB DAB ρ DAB
Kc L Cfx
∴ =
⎛ ρ um L ⎞ ⎛ μ ⎞ 2
DAB ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ μ ⎠ ⎝ ρ DAB ⎠
Kc Cfx
or = (15.71)
um 2
The Reynolds-Colburn analogy for tube flow may also be extended to mass transfer prob-
lems to express the friction factor as
K c 2/3 f
Sc = (15.72)
um 8
which is analogous to
f
Stx Pr2/3 =
8
When Pr and Sc are not unity, the Reynolds-Colburn equation for turbulent flow inside tubes is
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr1/3 (15.73)
The analogous relation for mass transfer in a wetted wall column is given as
Sh = 0.023 Re0.8 Sc1/3 (15.74)
A wetted column means there is a vertical tube with liquid flowing in a thin film down the inside
wall of the tube and a gas flowing upward in the tube.
15.9.2 Correlation for Convective Mass Transfer

In our discussion of convection heat transfer, it was observed that the energy and momentum
equations for a laminar boundary layer on a flat plate are
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
u +v = ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T
and u +v =α 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
15.9 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS IN CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER 1129
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
If we consider a laminar boundary layer on a flat plate in which mass diffusion occurs, the
equation for concentration can be written as
∂ CA ∂C ∂ 2 CA
u + v A = DAB (15.75)
∂x ∂y ∂y 2
where CA is the molar concentration of component A diffusing through the boundary layer.
The similarities between the governing equations for heat, mass, and momentum transfer
suggest that the empirical correlation for mass transfer coefficient would be similar to that of heat
transfer coefficient. Thus
K x
Shx = cx = f (Re x ,Sc)
DAB
For flow over a smooth flat plate, the local value of the mass transfer coefficient can be ob-
tained from the relation
K x
Shx = cx = 0.332 (Re x ) 1/ 2 Sc1/3
DAB
for laminar flow Re < 5 × 105 (15.76)
δ
and = Sc1/3 (15.77)
δc
where δ = thickness of the velocity boundary layer
δc = thickness of the concentration boundary layer
The corresponding average value is
Sh = 0.664 Re1/L 2 Sc 1/3 (15.78)
or Kc = 2Kcx (15.79)
For a mixed boundary condition, the average value of the mass transfer coefficient can be
obtained from
L − 870) Sc
Sh = (0.037 Re 0.8 1/3
(15.80)
The mass transfer coefficient from a turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate is
Shx = 0.0292 Re 0.8
x Sc
1/3
for Re > 5 × 105 (15.81)
The coefficient of friction for flow over a smooth flat plate can be obtained from the Rey-
nolds analogy for mass transfer as
K cx 2/3 Cfx
for laminar flow: Sc = = 0.332 Re −x 1/2 (15.82)
u∞ 2
K cx 2/3 Cfx
for turbulent flow: Sc = = 0.296 Re–1/5 (15.83)
u∞ 2
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
When both heat and mass transfer occur simultaneously, the heat and mass transfer coeffi-
cients may be related as
h
= ρ Cp Le2/3 (15.84)
Kc
For turbulent flow through pipes, the mass transfer coefficient is correlated as
Kc d
= 0.023 Re0.83 Sc0.44 (15.85)
DAB
For diffusion over a sphere,
Sh = 2 (1 + 0.276 Re1/2 Sc1/3) (15.86)
15.10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER

As discussed in Chapter 7, dimensional analysis predicts various dimensionless parameters by
correlating experimental data. These are forced convection and natural convection mass transfer.
15.10.1 Forced Convection Stream

Consider the mass transfer from the walls of a circular tube to a fluid. The mass transfer is the
result of the concentration gradient. The variables that affect the phenomenon are listed here with
their symbols and dimensions.
Variable Symbol, units Dimensions
Tube diameter d, m L
3
Fluid density ρ, kg/m ML–3
Fluid viscosity μ, kg/m·s ML–1t –1
Fluid velocity u, m/s Lt –1
Mass diffusivity DAB, m2/s L2t –1
Mass transfer coefficient Kc, m/s Lt –1
There are six variables that affect the phenomenon of mass transfer forced convection, and
they are expressed in three primary dimensions (M, L, and t). According to the Buckingham π
theorem, the number of independent dimensionless groups formed is 6 – 3 = 3 or
f (π1, π2, π3) = 0
The variables of the core group are DAB, ρ, d, and Kc and u and μ are selected variables.
Thus
a
π1 = DAB ρ b d c Kc
d
π2 = DAB ρe d f u
g
π3 = DAB ⋅ρh di μ
15.10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER 1131
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Writing π1 in dimensional form, we have

M0 L0 t0 = L2 a t − a M b L−3b Lc L t −1
Equating the exponents of the dimensions on both sides gives
M: 0 = b
L: 0 = 2a – 3b + c + 1
t: 0 = –a – 1
The solution of these simultaneous equations gives
a = –1
b =0
c =1
K d
Thus π1 = c = Sh (Sherwood number)
DAB
Similarly, the π2 and π3 groups yield
ud μ
π2 = and π3 = = Sc (Schmidt number)
DAB ρ DAB
Dividing π2 by π3, we get
π2 u d ρ DAB ρ u d
= × = = Re
π3 DAB μ μ
The result of dimensional analysis for forced convection mass transfer indicates that
Sh = f (Re, Sc) (15.87)
which is analogous to the heat transfer correlation,
Nu = f (Re, Pr) (15.88)
15.10.2 Natural Convection Mass Transfer

The phenomenon of natural convection mass transfer is affected by the following variables:
Variable Symbol, units Dimensions
Characteristic length L, m L
2
Mass diffusivity DAB, m /s L2t –1
Fluid density ρ, kg/m3 ML–3
Fluid viscosity μ, kg/m·s ML–1t –1
Buoyancy force gΔ ρA, kg/m2·s2 ML–2t –2
Mass transfer coefficient Kc, m/s Lt –1
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
There are six variables that affect the phenomenon, and they are expressed in three primary
dimensions. According to the Buckingham π theorem, the number of independent dimensionless
groups formed is 6 – 3 = 3 or π1, π2, and π3 are
a
π1 = DAB Lb μ c K c
d
π2 = DAB Le μ f ρ
g
π3 = DAB Lh μ i g Δ ρA
Solving for the three π groups, we get
K L
π1 = c = Sh (Sherwood number)
DAB
ρ DAB 1
π2 = = (reciprocal of Schmidt number)
μ Sc
L3 g Δ ρA
and π3 =
μ DAB
Multiplying π2 and π3, we get
⎛ ρ DAB ⎞ ⎛ L3 g Δ ρA ⎞ ρ L3 g Δ ρ A
π2π3 = ⎜ ⎟×⎜ ⎟= = GrAB (15.89)
⎝ μ ⎠ ⎝ μ D AB ⎠ μ2
where GrAB is called the mass transfer Grashof number.
The natural convection mass transfer suggests the correlation
Sh = f (GrAB, Sc) (15.90)
which is analogous to the relation for natural convection heat transfer.
15.11 EVAPORATION OF WATER INTO AIR

In the atmosphere, the continuous evaporation and condensation of water with moving wind from
the soil, ocean, rivers, and lakes influence every activity of life and provide the variety of
climates that govern the environments on the earth. There are also several engineering situations
in which the evaporation of water along with heat transfer is important: e.g., humidifiers,
dehumidifiers, absorbers, desert coolers, and wet bulb thermometers.
During the evaporation of water by moving air over the water surface (evaporative cooling),
the energy associated with the phase change is the latent heat of vaporization of liquid. The
energy required for evaporation must come from water by lowering its temperature. However,
under steady-state conditions, the latent heat supplied by water during its evaporation is equal to
the heat supplied to water by the surrounding air, which in turn also gets cooled.
15.11 EVAPORATION OF WATER INTO AIR 1133
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Under steady-state conditions (refer to Figure 15.12), the energy balance at the air–water
interface is
qconv = qevap
m
or h (T∞ – Ts) = w h f g (15.91)
A
m w
where = Kc ( ρs – ρ∞) from Eq. (15.63)
A
and m w = mass rate of the water that evaporates
h and Kc = heat and mass transfer coefficients, respectively
ρs and ρ∞ = mass concentrations at the surface and ambient, respectively
Rearranging Eq. (15.91) gives
h
(T∞ − Ts ) = hfg ( ρs – ρ∞)
Kc
Using Eq. (15.84), we get
ρCp Le2/3 (T∞ – Ts) = hfg ( ρs – ρ∞) (15.92)
This equation can be applied to a wet bulb thermometer to obtain the relative humidity or
ambient temperature. In terms of partial pressures we have
M w ps M p
ρs = and ρ ∞ = w ∞
R u Ts R u T∞
M w hf g ⎛ p s p∞ ⎞
∴ ρ Cp Le2/3 (T∞ – Ts) = ⎜ − ⎟
R u ⎝ Ts T∞ ⎠
The air properties should be used at Tf,
T + Ts
Tf = ∞
2
and Tf is approximately equal to Ts and T∞. Figure 15.12 Diffusion of water into air
from a horizontal surface
Thus (T∞ – Ts) =
hf g M w
( p s − p∞ ) (15.93)
ρ C p L2/3
e R u Tf
Replacing ρ RuTf with Mair p gives

⎛M ⎞
hf g ⎜ w ⎟
Then (T∞ – Ts) = ⎝ M air ⎠ × ⎛ p s − p ∞ ⎞ (15.94)
⎜ ⎟
C p Le 2/3 ⎝ p p ⎠
where p is the total pressure.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Introducing specific humidity we obtain

m M w pv
ω= v = (15.95)
m air M air p ∞
p v1 p∞ M p v2 ps M
= ω air and ≈ = ω 2 air
p∞ p Mw p∞ p Mw
Then Eq. (15.94) takes the form
ω 2 − ω1 Cp
= Le2/3 (15.96)
T∞ − Ts hfg
Example 15.13 Air at 35°C and 1 atm flows at a velocity of 60 m/s over a
(i) Flat plate 0.5 m long
(ii) Sphere 5 cm in diameter
Calculate the mass transfer coefficient of water vapor in air. Ignore the concentration of
vapor in air.
Solution
Given: Flow of air over the bodies with
p = 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 T∞ = 35°C = 308 K
u∞ = 60 m/s
To find: Mass transfer coefficients
Analysis: The diffusion coefficient of water vapor in air (from Appendix Table A.11) is
DAB = 0.256 × 10–4 m2/s
The properties of air at 35°C (from Table A.4) are
1.01325 × 10 5
ρ= = 1.146 kg/m 3
287 × 308
and Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg·K μ = 2 × 10–5 kg/m·s Pr = 0.706
μ 2 × 10 −5
The Schmidt number is Sc = = = 0.682
ρ DAB 1.146 × 0.256 × 10 −4
(i) Flow over flat plate, Lc = 0.5 m
ρ u ∞ L c 1.146 × 60 × 0.5
Re = = = 1.719 × 10 6
μ 2 × 10 −5
which is greater than 5 × 105, and thus the flow is turbulent.
Using Eq. (15.81), we have
Sh = 0.0296 Re0.8 Sc1/3
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
K c × 0.5
or = 0.0296 × (1.719 × 10 6 ) 0.8 × (0.632) 1/3 = 2472.2
0.256 × 10 −4
or Kc = 0.1265 m/s Answer
(ii) Flow over a sphere, Lc = d = 0.05 m
ρ u ∞ d 1.146 × 60 × 0.05
Re = = = 171,900
μ 2 × 10 −5
Using correlation, Eq. (15.86), we find
Sh = 2 [1 + 0.276 Re1/2 Sc1/3]
K c × 0.05
= 2 [1 + 0.276 × (171900)1/2 × (0.632)1/3] = 198.4
0.256 × 10 −4
or Kc = 0.101 m/s Answer
Example 15.14 Air at 50°C and 1 atm flows over the surface of a water reservoir at an average
velocity of 2.3 m/s. The water surface is 0.65 m long and 0.65 m wide. The water surface
temperature is estimated at 30°C. The relative humidity of the air is 40%. The density of the air is
1.105 kg/m3 and its viscosity is 1.943 × 10–5 kg/m·s. Calculate the amount of water vapor that
evaporates per hour per square meter of water surface and state the direction of diffusion.
Solution
Given: Evaporation from the surface of a water reservoir
T∞ = 50°C p = 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
u∞ = 2.3 m/s L = 0.65 m A = 0.65 × 0.65 = 0.4225 m2
Ts = 30°C = 303 K RH = 0.4
3
ρ = 1.105 kg/m μ = 1.943 × 10–5 kg/m·s
To find: The amount of water evaporation per hour per square meter of the reservoir with
direction and diffusion
Analysis: The Reynolds number of fluid flow is
ρ u ∞ L 1.105 × 2.3 × 0.65
Re = = = 85.02 × 10 3
μ 1.943 × 10 −5
This is less than 5 × 105, and thus the flow is laminar. The diffusion coefficient = 0.256 ×
10 m2/s (from Appendix Table A.11), thus the Schmidt number is
–4
μ 1.943 × 10 −5
Sc = = = 0.686
ρ DAB 1.105 × 0.256 × 10 −4
Using correlation, we get
Sh = 0.664 Re1/L 2 Sc1/3
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
K c × 0.65
or = 0.664 × (85.02 × 103)1/2 × (0.686)1/3 = 170.75
0.256 × 10 −4
or Kc = 6.725 × 10–3 m/s
The partial pressure of water vapor at the water surface corresponding to the saturation tem-
perature of 30°C is
p s1 = 4.246 kPa
The saturation pressure of water vapor at 50°C is
p s 2 = 12.35 kPa
The partial pressure of water vapor in air at 50°C, 40% RH, is
p∞ = RH × p s 2 = 0.4 × 12.35 = 4.94 kPa
The concentrations are
p s1 M w 4.246 × 18
ρw = ρs = = = 0.0303 kg/m 3
1
R u Ts 8.314 × 303
p∞ M w 4.94 × 18
and ρ w = ρ∞ = = = 0.0353
2
R u Ts 8.314 × 303
The mass flux of water vapor evaporated is then
m w
= K c ( ρ s − ρ ∞ ) = 9.03 × 10 −3 × (0.0303 − 0.0353)
A
= – 4.513 kg/m2·s = – 0.162 kg/m2·h Answer
Because ρ∞ > ρs, the water vapor diffuses from the air to the water. Answer
Example 15.15 A tray 40 cm long and 20 cm wide is full of water. Air at 30°C flows over the
tray along the length at 2 m/s. The moving air is at 1.013 bar and the partial pressure of water in
the air is 0.007 bar. Calculate the rate of evaporation if the temperature of the water is 25°C.
Take for air ρ = 1.2 kg/m3, ν = 15 × 10–6 m2/s.
DAB = 0.145 m2/h
Solution
Given: Forced convective evaporation from a tray
L = 40 cm = 0.4 m w = 20 cm = 0.2 m
T∞ = 30°C Ts = 25°C
u∞ = 2 m/s p = 1.013 bar
3
ρair = 1.2 kg/m ps = 0.007 bar
ν = 15 × 10 m /s DAB = 0.145 m2/h = 4.03 × 10–5 m2/s
–6 2
To find: Rate of evaporation of water from the tray

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Analysis: The properties of water at 25°C are

ρg = ρs = 0.0231 kg/m3
u L 2 × 0.4
The Reynolds number is ReL = ∞ = = 53333.33
ν 15 × 10 −6
which is less than 5 × 105, and thus the flow is laminar.
ν 5 × 10 −5
Schmidt number Sc = = = 1.24
DAB 4.03 × 10 −5
Using Eq. (15.78) we have
Sh = 0.664 Re1/2 Sc1/3 = 0.664 × (53333.33)1/2 × (1.24)1/3 164.74
164.74 164.74 × 4.03 × 10 −5
and Kc = DAB = = 0.0166 m/s
L 0.4
The rate of evaporation is
K c AM w
m w = K c A (ρ A 1 − ρ A 2 ) = ( p s − p∞ )
R uT
where ps = saturation pressure of water vapor that corresponds to the
saturation temperature of water (25°C) = 3.169 kPa
and p∞ = partial pressure of water vapor in air at 0.007 bar
= 0.7 kPa
0.0166 × (0.4 × 0.2) × 2918
Thus, m w = × (3.169 − 0.7)
8.314 × 298
= 2.382 kg/s = 0.0857 kg/h Answer
Example 15.16 (i) The water in a 5 m × 15 m outdoor swimming pool is maintained at a
temperature of 27°C. The average ambient temperature and relative humidity are 27°C and 40%,
respectively. Assuming a wind speed of 2 m/s in the direction of the long side of the pool, estimate
the mass transfer coefficient for the evaporation of water from the pool surface.
(ii) If the air stream is at 50°C while the bulb temperature is at 22°C, calculate the relative
humidity of the air stream.
Solution
Given:
(i) Evaporation of water from a swimming pool
L = 15 m w =5m RH = 40%
T∞ = T = 27°C = 300 K u∞ = 2 m/s
(ii) Ts = 22°C T∞ = 50°C
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
To find:
(i) Mass transfer coefficient for evaporation
(ii) Relative humidity of air for a change of state
Analysis:
(i) The thermophysical properties of air and water at 27°C are
For air ν = 15.89 × 10–6 m2/s
1
For water vg = 22.93 m3/kg → ρA = = 0.0436 kg/m 3
22.93
DAB = 0.26 × 10–4 m2/s
ν 15.89 × 10 −6
DAB 0.26 × 10 −4
u∞ L 2 × 15
The Reynolds number is ReL = = = 1,887,980
ν 15.89 × 10 −6
which is greater than 5 × 105, and thus the flow is turbulent.
For the mixed boundary conditions, using correlation, Eq. (15.80), we have
L − 870) Sc
Sh = (0.037 Re 0.8 1/3
= [0.037 (1,887,980)0.8 – 870] × (0.611)1/3 = 2556

K L
Further, ShL = c
DAB
2556 × 0.26 × 10 −4
or Kc = = 4.43 × 10–3 m/s Answer
15
(ii) The mean film temperature is
T + T∞ 22 + 50
Tf = s = = 36°C
2 2
From Table A.4, the properties of air at 36°C are
ρ = 1.14 kg/m3 Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg·K Pr = 0.7
–5 –4 2
μ = 2 × 10 kg/m·s DAB = 0.26 × 10 m /s (from Table A.11)
ν μ 2 × 10 −5
The Schmidt number is Sc = = = = 0.675
DAB ρ DAB 1.14 × 0.26 × 10 −4
α Sc 0.675
The Lewis number is Le = = = = 0.964
DAB Pr 0.7
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The properties of water at 22°C (from Table A.7) are

vg = 52.08 m3/kg hfg = 2449 kJ/kg·K
1
ρs = = 0.01920 kg/m3
vg
Using Eq. (15.92) for energy transfer on the wet bulb, we have
ρ Cp Le2/3 (T∞ – Ts) = hfg ( ρs – ρ∞)
where ρ, ρs, ρ∞ are the densities of the air, the water vapor at the water surface, and in the air,
respectively.
Using the values gives
1.14 × 1.006 × (0.964)2/3 (50 – 22) = 2449 × (0.01920 – ρ∞)
or ρ∞ = 0.01920 – 0.01295 = 0.00625 kg/m3

1 1
The density of air at 50°C is ρs = = = 0.0817 kg/m3
vg 12.23
ρ ∞ 0.00625
Thus the relative humidity is RH = = = 0.0765 = 7.65% Answer
ρs 0.0817
Example 15.17 The dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures recorded by a thermometer in moist
air are 27°C and 17°C, respectively. Calculate the specific humidity of the air, assuming the
following values:
Pr = 0.74 Sc = 0.6 Mw = 18
Mair = 29 Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg·K p = 1.0132 × 105 N/m2
Solution
Given: The temperature measured by dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers
T∞ = 27°C Ts = 17°C
To find: Specific humidity of air
Analysis: The specific humidity of air ω1 can be obtained from Eq. (15.96):
ω 2 − ω1 Cp
= Le 2/3
T∞ − Ts hf g
Mw ps
where ω2 = × during evaporation
M air p − p s
At 17°C (from Table A.7) we have
ps = 1.917 kPa
hfg = 2461 kJ/kg·K
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
⎛ 18 ⎞ 1.917
∴ ω2 = ⎜ ⎟× = 0.0120 kg/kg of dry air
⎝ 28.9 ⎠ 101.32 − 1.917
Pr 0.74
The Lewis number is Le = = = 1.233
Sc 0.6
0.0120 − ω1 1.004
Then = × (1.233) 2/3 = 0.00047
27 − 17 2461
and ω1 = 0.0073 kg/kg of dry air Answer
Example 15.18 Air at 1 atm, 25°C containing a small quantity of iodine flows with a velocity of
4 m/s inside a 25 mm diameter tube. Calculate the mass transfer coefficient for the iodine transfer
from the gas stream to the wall surface. If Cm is the mean concentration of the iodine in
kg·mol/m3 in the air stream, calculate the rate of deposition of iodine on the tube surface, where
the iodine concentration is zero.
Solution
Given: Flow of air containing iodine through a tube
p = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar T = 25°C = 298 K
u∞ = 4 m/s d = 25 mm
To find:
(i) Mass transfer coefficient of iodine
(ii) Rate of deposition of iodine on the tube surface
Analysis:
(i) For air at 25°C at 1 atm (from Table A.11),
ν = 1.58 × 10–5 m2/s
For iodine, DAB = 0.826 × 10–5 m2/s (from Table A.11)
u ∞ d 4 × 25 × 10 −3
The Reynolds number is Re = = = 6329
ν 1.58 × 10 −5
ν 1.58 × 10 −5
DAB 0.826 × 10 −5
K c d K c × 25 × 10 −3
The Sherwood number is Sh = =
DAB 0.826 × 10 −5
and using correlation, Eq. (15.85), we have
Sh = 0.023 Re0.83 (Sc)0.44 = 0.023 (6329)0.83 (1.913)0.44 = 43.73
43.73 × 0.826 × 10 −5
or Kc = = 0.0144 m/s Answer
25 × 10 −3
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) The rate of deposition of iodine is calculated as

NA = Kc (Cm – Cw) = 0.0144 × (Cm – 0)
= 0.0144 Cm kg·mol/m2·s Answer
Example 15.19 An earthenware pot cools water by keeping its outside surface wet with a
volatile liquid of molecular weight 120 kg/kg·mol. If this pot is placed in dry air at 40°C with heat
and mass transfer occurring simultaneously by forced convection, what is the steady temperature
of the cold water inside the pot? Take
hfg = 120 kJ/kg ps = 3530 N/m2
DAB = 0.2 × 10–4 m2/s
Solution
Given: Evaporation from an earthenware pot
Mw = 120 kg/kg·mol hfg = 120 kJ/kg
T∞ = 40°C = 313 K DAB = 0.2 × 10–4 m2/s
ps = 3530 N/m2
To find: Water temperature inside the pot
Analysis: Assuming the mean film temperature is 300°C, the properties of air from Table
A.4 are
ρ = 1.16 kg/m3 Cp = 1.00 kJ/kg·K
–6 2
α = 22.5 × 10 m /s
α 22.5 × 10 −6
Then Le = = = 1.125
DAB 0.2 × 10 −4
The evaporative cooling effect is given by
M w hf g ⎡ p s p∞ ⎤
T∞ – Ts = ⎢ − ⎥
R u ρ C p Le 2/3
⎣ Ts Ts ⎦
Putting p∞ = 0 and rearranging, we get
hf g M w p s
Ts2 − Ts T∞ + =0
R u ρ C p Le 2/3
120 × 120 × 3530 × 10 −3
or Ts2 − 313 Ts + =0
8.314 × 1.16 × 1.007 × (1.125) 2/3
or Ts2 − 313 Ts + 4838 = 0
+313 ± 313 2 − 4 × 4838

Hence Ts = = 296.7 K = 23.7°C Answer
2 ×1
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Example 15.20 Calculate the temperature of dry air at 1 atm whose wet bulb temperature is
18.3°C. If the air stream temperature is 32.2°C and the wet bulb temperature remains 18.3°C,
what would be the relative humidity of the air stream? Take
DAB = 0.26 × 10–4 m2/s α = 0.221 × 10–4 m2/s
Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg·K
Solution
Given: The temperature measurement by a wet bulb thermometer
(i) p = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
Twb = 18.3°C
(ii) Tdb = 32.2°C Twb = 18.3°C
–4 2
DAB = 0.26 × 10 m /s α = 0.221 × 10–4 m2/s
Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg·K
To find:
(i) Dry bulb temperature when Twb = 18.3°C
(ii) Relative humidity when Tdb = 32.2°C and Twb = 18.3°C
Analysis:
(i) From the steam table at 18.3°C, we have
pg = ps = 2.107 kPa
vg = 65.08 m3/kg
hfg = 2456 kJ/kg
1 1
ρs = = = 0.01536 kg/m 3
vg 65.08
For dry air, ρ∞ = 0

p 1.01325 × 100
The density of air is ρ= = = 1.212 kg/m 3
RT 0.287 × (18.3 + 273)
α 0.221 × 10 −4
The Lewis number is Le = = = 0.85
D 0.26 × 10 −4
Using Eq. (15.92) we have
ρ Cp (Le)2/3 (T∞ – Ts) = h f g ( ρ s − ρ ∞ )
2456 × (0.01536 − 0)
or T∞ – 18.3 = = 34.5°C
1.212 × 1.004 × (0.85) 2/3
or dry air temperature T∞ = 34.5 + 18.3 = 52.8°C Answer

15.12 SUMMARY 1143
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Here
T∞ = 32.2°C Ts = 18.3°C ρ = 1.212 kg/m3
hfg = 2456 kJ/kg·K Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg·K
Le = 0.85 ρ∞ ≠ 0
Using these in Eq. (15.92), we get
2456 × (0.01536 − ρ ∞ )
(32.2 – 18.3) =
1.212 × 1.004 × (0.85) 2/3
or 0.01536 – ρ∞ = 0.0062
or ρ∞ = 0.0092 kg/m3
From the steam table at 32.2°C, we have
vg = 29.24 m3/kg
1 1
∴ ρs = = = 0.0342 kg/m 3
vg 29.24
ρ ∞ 0.0092
Thus RH = = = 26.9% Answer
ρ s 0.0342
15.12 SUMMARY
The transport of mass on a microscopic level as a result of diffusion from a region of high
concentration to that of a lower concentration is called mass transfer.
The mass can be transferred by molecular diffusion, convection, and by change of phase.
The diffusion mass transfer is a molecular phenomenon and the diffusion coefficient or mass
diffusivity is a property.
Fick’s law states that the mass flux of a constituent per unit area is proportional to the con-
centration gradient:
m A d ρA
= − DAB
A dx
Alternatively,
d CA
NA = − DAB
dx
where m A = mass flow rate of the component A, kg/s
A = cross-sectional area, m2
ρA = mass concentration, kg/m3
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
CA = mole concentration, kg mol/m3

NA = molar flux
DAB = mass diffusivity of component A in component B, m2/s
The three-dimensional mass diffusion equation is
1 ∂ CA
∇ 2 CA =
DAB ∂ t
The mass diffusion of water in stagnant gases is given as
R u T (x 2 − x1 ) ⎝ p − ps ⎠
where ps and p∞ are the partial pressures of water at the free water level and the container level,
respectively. Here, p is the total pressure, Ru is the universal gas constant, DAB is the diffusion
coefficient, Mw is the molecular weight of water, and T is the absolute temperature.
The convective mass transfer involves the diffusion of one fluid through the movement of
the other fluid. In free mass convection, the concentration gradient changes the density of fluid,
which may be acted upon by the buoyancy force. In forced mass convection, one fluid is moving
with an appreciable velocity over the other.
The steady-state diffusion through a plane membrane is given as
CA,1 − CA, 2
m A =
R m, A
where Rm, A is known as the diffusion resistance and
L
Rm, A = for plane fluid column
A DAB
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
Rm, A = ⎝ r1 ⎠ for cylindrical fluid column
2π L DAB
When diffusion fluxes of two components in a fluid mixture are equal but acting in the op-
posite direction, such diffusion is called equimolar counter diffusion and is given as
DAB (CA,1 − CA, 2 )
NA =
x 2 − x1
The mass transfer coefficient Kc is defined in terms of mass flux as
m A D
Kc = = AB m/s
A ( ρ A,1 − ρ A, 2 ) Δ x
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1145
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
In terms of molar flux it is

NA
Kc = m/s
(CA.,1 − CA, 2 )
The Reynolds-Colburn analogy for the mass transfer rate yields to
K c 2/3 f
Sc =
um 8
and ShD = 0.023 Re 0.83
D Sc
0.44
where Sc, the Schmidt number, is a ratio of momentum diffusivity to mass diffusivity. The other
dimensionless numbers used in mass transfer are the Lewis number (Le) and the Sherwood
number (Sh), which are defined as
Thermal diffusivity α
Le = =
Mass diffusivity DAB
Concentration gradient
and Sh =
Overall concentration gradient
The continuous evaporation of water into air results in a humidity increase in air and the
cooling of water simultaneously and yields the form
ω 2 − ω1 Cp
= Le 2/3
T∞ − Ts hf g
where ω1 and ω2 are specific humidities before and after evaporation.
Review Questions
1. Why does mass transfer take place?
2. State the modes of mass transfer and give suitable examples.
3. Explain Fick’s law of diffusion. What is mass diffusivity? What is its dimension?
4. Compare Newton’s law of viscosity, the Fourier law of heat conduction, and Fick’s law of
diffusion.
5. Define mass fraction, mole fraction, molar concentration, mass flux, and molar flux.
6. State the generalized mass diffusion equation.
7. Explain the molecular diffusion through a stagnant gas.
8. Explain steady-state diffusion through a plane membrane.
9. What is diffusion resistance? What is the convective mass transfer coefficient and what is
its dimension?
10. Explain equimolar counter diffusion.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
11. Define and explain the physical significance of the

(a) Schmidt number (b) Lewis number (c) Sherwood number
12. Explain the dimensional analysis for convective mass transfer.
13. Explain evaporation of water into air.
14. For simultaneous flow of heat and mass on a flat plate, prove that
h
= ρ C p Le 0.67
Kc
15. Derive an expression for diffusion of one gas through a stagnant gas in terms of the
logarithmic mean partial pressures. Consider the pressure and temperature of the system to
be constant.
16. Show that the total mass of water vapor diffused from a water column to air passing over it
is given by
DAB A M w φ ⎛ p − p w2 ⎞
R u T ( x 2 − x1 ) ⎜⎝ p − p w1 ⎟
⎠
where DAB = diffusion coefficient
A = cross-sectional area of the water column
Ru = universal gas constant
Mw = molecular weight of water vapor
x2 – x1 = height of the container above the water level
p = total pressure
p w1 = partial pressure of water vapor at the water surface
p w2 = partial pressure of water vapor at the top of the container
17. Derive the Stefan’s equation for the rate of evaporation from the surface of a lake.
Problems
1. Estimate the diffusion rate of oxygen through a 1 cm2 area when it is diffusing through
stagnant carbon monoxide at 0°C and 1 atm under steady-state conditions. The partial
pressure of oxygen at two planes 0.3 cm apart is 100 mm Hg and 25 mm Hg, respectively.
Assume DAB = 0.185 cm2/s and Ru = 8.314 kJ/kg mol·K.
[Answer: 2.962 × 10–6 gm·mol/s]
2. An open tank, 6 mm in diameter, contains a 1 mm deep layer of benzene (M = 78
kg/kg·mol) at its bottom. The vapor pressure of benzene in the tank is 13.15 kPa and its
diffusion takes place through a stagnant air film 2.5 mm thick at the operating temperature
of 20°C. The diffusivity of the benzene in the tank is 8.0 × 10–6 m2/s. (a) Calculate the dif-
fusion rate of benzene. (b) If the density of the benzene is 880 kg/m3, calculate the time
taken for the entire layer of benzene to evaporate. Take atmospheric pressure as 101.3 kPa.
PROBLEMS 1147
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. At the bottom of a well 2.5 m in diameter is water 5 m deep. Calculate the diffusion rate
into dry atmospheric air at 25°C and 1.032 bar. Take diffusion coefficient DAB = 0.0925
m2/h. [Answer: 2.122 × 10–3 kg/h]
4. Hydrogen gas is maintained at 5 bar and 1 bar on the opposite side of a plastic membrane
that is 0.3 mm thick. The temperature is 25°C and the binary diffusion coefficient of
hydrogen in the plastic is 8.7 × 10–8 m2/s. The solubility of hydrogen in the membrane is
1.5 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3 bar. What is the mass flux of hydrogen by diffusion through the
membrane?
5. Calculate the mass diffusivity of the binary gas mixture of air–water vapor at 273 K and 1
atm and compare the result with that given in Table 10.2.
6. Calculate the diffusion coefficient for benzene in atmospheric air at 25°C.
7. Estimate the diffusion rate of water from the bottom of a test tube 10 mm in diameter and
15 cm long into dry atmospheric air at 25°C. Given: DAB = 0.256 × 10–4 m2/s.
[Answer: 1.131 × 10–10 kg/s]
8. Two large vessels contain uniform mixtures of nitrogen (component A) and carbon dioxide
(component B) at 1 atm, T= 289 K, but at different concentrations. Vessel 1 contains 90%
N2 and 10% CO2 by moles, whereas vessel 2 contains 20% N2 and 80% CO2 by moles. The
two vessels are connected by a duct of 0.1524 m ID, and 1.22 m long. Determine the rate
of nitrogen transfer between the two vessels by assuming that steady-state transfer takes
place in view of the large capacity of the two reservoirs. Take the mass diffusivity for
the N2–CO2 mixture as 0.16 × 10–4 m2/s.
9. A deep narrow tube open at the top contains toluene at the bottom. Air inside the tube is
motionless, while at the top the toluene concentration is zero. The entire system is at 1 atm,
18.7°C, when DAB = 0.826 × 10–4 m2/s. The saturated vapor pressure of toluene at the
liquid surface is 0.026 atm. Determine the rate of evaporation of toluene per unit area if the
distance from the liquid surface to the top is 1.524 m. [Answer: 0.597 × 10–8 kg mol/m2·s]
10. One method of measuring diffusion coefficients of vapors is to measure the rate of
evaporation of a liquid in narrow tubes. In one such experiment, a glass tube 1 cm in di-
ameter was filled with water at 20°C to within 4 cm of the top. Dry air at 20°C and 1.013
bar was blown across the top of the tube. At the end of 24 hours of steady-state operation,
the level of the water dropped 0.1 cm. Calculate the diffusivity of the air–vapor system at
20°C.
11. Air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure flows with a velocity of 7.6 m/s inside a 2.5 cm
inner diameter pipe. The inside surface of the tube contains a deposit of naphthalene. De-
termine the mass transfer coefficient for the transfer of naphthalene from the pipe surface
into the air in regions away from the inlet.
12. Dry air at atmospheric pressure and 10°C flows over a flat plate with a velocity of 1 m/s.
The plate is covered with a film of water that evaporates into the air stream. Determine the
average mass transfer coefficient for the transfer of water vapor over a distance of 0.6 m
from the leading edge of the plate.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
13. Atmospheric air at 30°C flows over a wet bulb thermometer that reads 20°C. Calculate the
concentration of water vapor in the air stream and the relative humidity of the air.
14. Dry air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure blows over a 30 cm2 surface of ice at a velocity
of 1.5 m/s. Estimate the amount of moisture evaporated per hour, assuming that the block
of ice is perfectly insulated except for the surface exposed to the air stream.
15. A thin plastic membrane is used to separate helium from a gas stream. Under steady-state
conditions, the concentration of helium in the membrane is known to be 0.02 kg·mol/m3
and 0.005 kg·mol/m3 at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. If the membrane is
1 mm thick and the binary diffusion coefficient of helium with respect to the plastic is
10–19 m2/s, what is the mass flux by diffusion?
16. Oxygen gas is maintained at a pressure of 2 bar and 1 bar on opposite sides of a rubber
membrane that is 0.5 mm thick, and the entire system is at 25°C. What is the molar diffu-
sive flux of O2 through the membrane? What are the molar concentrations of O2 on both
sides of the membrane (outside the rubber)?
17. Helium gas is stored at 20°C in a spherical container of fused silica that has an inner
diameter of 0.20 m and a wall thickness of 2 mm. If the container is charged to an initial
pressure of 4 bar, what is the rate at which this pressure decreases with time?
[Answer: 2.63 × 10–8 bar/s]

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15

15.2 MODES OF MASS TRANSFER

15.2.1 Mass Transfer by Diffusion (Molecular or Eddy Diffusion)

4. The evaporation of moisture during the drying of clothes or wood

15.2.2 Mass Transfer by Convection

15.2.3 Mass Transfer by Change of Phase

15.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

15.4 CONCENTRATIONS, VELOCITIES, AND FLUXES

where Ru is the universal gas constant = MR = 8.314 kJ/kg mole·K and

uA – u = mass diffusion velocity of component A

(iv) Mass concentration of CO2 and O2

Thus ρ = ρ O 2 + ρ CO 2 = 0.793 + 1.636 = 2.429 kg/m3

(ix) Mass fluxes

15.5 FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

Figure 15.2 Diffusion in a binary mixture

σAB = collision diameter in Å (Angstroms)

C H 2 , 2 = 1.5 × 10–3 × 1 = 1.5 × 10–3 kg·mol/m3 Answer

(ii) Molar and mass diffusion fluxes are calculated as

The mass flux of air escaped is

15.6 GENERAL MASS DIFFUSION EQUATION

15.7 DIFFUSION THROUGH A STAGNANT GAS

Figure 15.5 Diffusion of water vapor into the air

Now the mass of water diffusion upward is

The diffusion of a medium through a stationary medium in terms of concentrations can be

Analysis: The diffusion rate of salt through a solar pond is given by

15.8 CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER

15.8.1 Steady-State Diffusion Through a Plane Membrane

The solution of this equation after double integration is

For a spherical shell of radii r1 and r2, we get

(2 × 1.01325 × 10 5 N/m 2 ) × (6.24 kg mol/m 3 )

The molar concentrations at the two surfaces are

15.8.2 Equimolar Counter Diffusion

Figure 15.10 Equimolar counter diffusion in a binary mixture

NA ( x 2 − x1 ) = −DAB (CA, 2 − CA,1 )

15.8.3 Mass Transfer Coefficient

Analysis: The partial pressures of two gases in two tanks are

15.9 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS IN CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER

15.9.1 Analogy Between Heat and Mass Transfer

15.9.2 Correlation for Convective Mass Transfer

15.10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER

15.10.1 Forced Convection Stream

Writing π1 in dimensional form, we have

15.10.2 Natural Convection Mass Transfer

15.11 EVAPORATION OF WATER INTO AIR

Replacing ρ RuTf with Mair p gives

Introducing specific humidity we obtain

To find: Rate of evaporation of water from the tray

Analysis: The properties of water at 25°C are

= [0.037 (1,887,980)0.8 – 870] × (0.611)1/3 = 2556

The properties of water at 22°C (from Table A.7) are

or ρ∞ = 0.01920 – 0.01295 = 0.00625 kg/m3

(ii) The rate of deposition of iodine is calculated as

+313 ± 313 2 − 4 × 4838

For dry air, ρ∞ = 0

or dry air temperature T∞ = 34.5 + 18.3 = 52.8°C Answer

CA = mole concentration, kg mol/m3

In terms of molar flux it is

11. Define and explain the physical significance of the

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