ENVIORNMENTAL ENGINEERING - Dr. R.

4/4/2012
Jayakumar

SEDIMENTATION

Sedimentation, or clarification, is the process of letting

suspended material settle by gravity. Suspended material may
be particles, such as clay or silts,

More commonly, suspended material or floc is created from material

in the water and the chemical used in coagulation.

Sedimentation is accomplished by decreasing the

velocity of the water being treated to a point below which the particles
will no longer remain in suspension.

When the velocity no longer supports the transport of the

particles, gravity will remove them from the flow.

All the particle have more specific gravity than the liquid , will
move vertically downward due to gravitational force.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEDIMENTATION WATER TEMPERATURE

Several factors affect the separation of settleable solids from Another factor to consider in the operation of a sedimentation basin
water. Some of the more common types of factors to consider are: is the temperature of the water being treated.

PARTICLE SIZE
The size and type of particles to be removed have a significant
effect on the operation of the sedimentation tank, Because of
their density, sand or silt can be removed very easily
The velocity of the water-flow channel can be slowed to less
than one foot per second, and most of the gravel and grit will be
removed by simple gravitational forces
The shape of the particle also affects its settling characteristics.
A round particle, for example, will settle much more readily than
a particle that has ragged or irregular edges.
When the temperature decreases, the rate of settling becomes
slower
As the temperature decreases, the operator must make changes to
the coagulant dosage to compensate for the decreased settling rate.
A water treatment plant has the highest flow demand in the
summer when the temperatures are the highest and the
settling rates the best.
When the water is colder, the flow in the plant is at its lowest
and, in most cases, the detention time in the plant is increased
so the floc has time to settle out in the sedimentation basins

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ENVIORNMENTAL ENGINEERING - Dr. R. 4/4/2012
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SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES

CURRENTS
Most sedimentation tanks are divided into these separate
Several types of water currents may occur in the sedimentation zones:
basin:
INLET ZONE
Density currents caused by the weight of the solids in the tank, the
concentration of solids and temperature of the water in the tank.  The inlet or influent zone should provide a smooth transition from the
flocculation zone and should distribute the flow uniformly across the
Eddy currents produced by the flow of the water coming into the inlet to the tank.
tank and leaving the tank.
 The normal design includes baffles that gently spread the flow across
The currents can be beneficial in that they promote flocculation of the total inlet of the tank and prevent short circuiting in the tank.
the particles.
 The baffle could include a wall across the inlet, perforated with holes
However, water currents also tend to distribute the floc unevenly across the width of the tank.
throughout the tank; as a result, it does not settle out at an even
rate.

SETTLING ZONE
Outlet zone

 The settling zone is the largest portion of the sedimentation basin. The outlet zone should also be designed in the same way as
This zone provides the calm area necessary for the suspended inlet zone , so that water may be taken out from the tank without
particles to settle. causing any disturbance to the water of settling zone.

SLUDGE ZONE
Types of sedimentation tanks
• The sludge zone, located at the bottom of the tank, provides a
storage area for the sludge before it is removed for additional
Rectangular tanks
treatment or disposal.
Circular tanks
• If high flow velocities are allowed to enter the sludge zone, the sludge
could be swept up and out of the tank. Hopper – bottom tanks

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COAGULATION
The first step destabilizes the particle’s charges. Coagulants with
charges opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the
water to neutralize the negative charges on dispersed non-
settlable solids such as clay and color-producing organic
substances.
 Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles
are capable of sticking together.
 The slightly larger particles, formed through this process and
called microflocs,are not visible to the naked eye.
 The water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be
clear. If it is not, all the particles’ charges have not been
neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion.
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COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
All waters, especially surface waters, contain both dissolved and
suspended particles. Coagulation and flocculation processes are used
to separate the suspended solids portion from the water.
The suspended particles vary considerably in source, composition
charge, particle size, shape, and density.
Correct application of coagulation and flocculation processes and
selection of the coagulants depend upon understanding the
interaction between these factors.
Most solids suspended in water possess a negative charge and,
since they have the same type of surface charge, repel each other
when they come close together.
Therefore, they will remain in suspension rather than clump together
and settle out of the water.
 A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and
promote particle collisions is needed to achieve good coagulation.
 Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but insufficient mixing
will leave this step incomplete.
Coagulants should be added where sufficient mixing
will occur. Proper contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is 1
to 3 minutes.
Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended
particles are capable of sticking together.
The slightly larger particles, formed through this
process and called microflocs, are not visible to the naked
eye.
A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the
coagulant
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COAGULANT SELECTION
Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but insufficient
mixing will leave this step incomplete. Inorganic Coagulants

Coagulants should be added where sufficient mixing will occur. Inorganic coagulants such as aluminum and iron salts are the most
Proper contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 commonly used. When added to the water, they furnish highly
minutes. charged ions to neutralize the suspended particles.

The inorganic hydroxides formed produce short polymer chains

The dosage of coagulants which should be added in the water, which enhance microfloc formation Inorganic Coagulant Reactions
depends on the following factor
Common coagulant chemicals used are alum, ferric sulfate, ferric
a. Kind of coagulant chloride,and ferrous sulfate, . The reactions of each follows

b. Turbidity & temperature of water ALUM

c. Colour and pH A12(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> 2 Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6 CO2

Aluminum + Calcium gives Aluminum + Calcium + Carbon
d. Mixing and flocculation time Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide

FLOCCULATION
FERRIC SULFATE
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> 2 Fe(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6 CO2 called flocculation occurs.

Ferric + Calcium gives Ferric + Calcium + Carbon Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle
Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide size from sub microscopic microfloc to visible suspended
particles.
FERRIC CHLORIDE
Flocculators are slow stirring mechanisms, which forms floc
2 Fe Cl3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> 2 Fe(OH)3 + 3CaCl2 + 6CO2
Flocculators mostly consist of paddles which are revolving at
Ferric + Calcium gives Ferric + Calcium + Carbon very slow speed about 2-3 rpm.
Chloride Bicarbonate Hydroxide Chloride Dioxide
The paddales may revolve on a vertical or horizontal shaft
FERROUS SULFATE

FeS04 + Ca(HCO3)2 ------------> Fe(OH)2 + CaS04 + 2CO2 The detention time should be 30-60minutes
Ferrous + Calcium gives Ferrous + Calcium + Carbon
Sulfate Bicarbonate Hydroxide Sulfate Dioxide

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FLOCCULATION
FILTRATION
The process of passing the water through beds of sand or other
granular materials, is known as filtration
Broadly speaking , filters essentially consist of a thick
layer of sand and the water is allowed to pass through it.
generally two type of filters are used in water works
1. Slow sand filters
2. Rapid sand filters
THEORY OF FILTRATION
The phenomena on which filtration process removes
bacteria, colour,taste,odours,iron,manganese and make water
sparkling can be explained on the basis of following four
actions.
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The microflocs are brought into contact with each other
through the process of slow mixing.
Collisions of the microfloc particles cause them to bond to
produce larger, visible flocs called pinflocs.
The floc size continues to build through additional collisions
and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the
coagulant. Macroflocs are formed.
The flocculators provide number of gentle contacts between
the flocculating particle which are necessary for the formation
of floc.
a) Mechanical straining
sand consists of small pores , therefore suspended particles
which are larger in size cannot pass through sand bed and are
removed.
Small particles of suspended impurities move through the pores in
the sand, come in contact with sand surfaces and adhere causing
further reduction in the pore size.
b) Sedimentation
The voids between the sand bed act as a small settling basins.
very small particles of suspended matter ,colloidal particles and
some bacteria settle in these small settling basins and adhere to the
sand particles due to the physical attraction
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ENVIORNMENTAL ENGINEERING - Dr. R. 4/4/2012
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CLASSIFICATION OF FILTERS
c) Biological action
Filters may be classified as follows
suspended impurities contain some portion of organic
impurities such as algae, plankton etc . Which are food of 1) Gravity filters
various types of micro organisms.
a) Slow sand filters
These organisms act on the organic matter and cause
chemical and biological change in water. b) Rapid sand filters

The organic impurities form a layer on the top of sand bed 2) Pressure filters
which is known as dirty skin
Slow sand filters

d) Electrolytic action Construction of slow sand filters

The sand particles of filer media and ionized matter in These are watertight shallow tanks about 2.5 m to 4m deep and having
the water carry electrical charges of opposite nature , therefore surface area 100sq.m to 2000 sq. in plan.
they attract each other and neutralize the charge of each other

Slow sand filter

 These tanks contain 60-90 cm thick bed of sand ( filtering
media) supported on 30-60 cm thick gravel bed.

 Generally three to four layers of gravel having thickness of

15-20cm are used.

 The coarsest gravel is placed in the bottom and the smallest

size gravel is used in the topmost layer.

 The size of the bottom layer gravel is 40-60mm the size of the
intermediate layer 20-40 mm.

 The gravel is supported on a bed of concrete sloping towards

a central longitudinal drain connected by a system of open
jointed under drains.

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ENVIORNMENTAL ENGINEERING - Dr. R. 4/4/2012
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Operation of filter Construction of rapid sand filter

The water from the sedimentation tanks enters the slow and filters
through a submersible inlet.
This water is uniformly distributed over the sand bed without causing
any disturbances
The difference between the water above the sand bed and the outlet
chamber is called loss of head.
During filtering as the filtering media gets clogged due to impurities,
which stay in the pores
The scrapped sand is washed with water, dried and stored for return to
the filter at the time of the next washing
It essentially consists of an open watertight basin of masonry or
concrete.
On slopy floor of concrete ,underdrainage system , consisting of
one central longitudinal conduit with lateral pipes connecting from
all sides is laid
All pipes of under drainage-drainage system have holes on their
bottom side
The under drainage system is embedded in 60cm to 70cm thick
graded gravel. The size of gravel varies from 2.5 cm at the bottom
to 0.5 cm at the top.
The size of gravel depends on the rate of filtration , more the rate
of filtration , larger is the gravel size

Rapid Sand Filter

The main function of gravel layer is to support the sand layer over
it and prevent the sand particles from entering into under drain
pipes

on the top of gravel an equally thick layer of sand is spread

Operation of filter

 The water from coagulation, sedimentation tank enters the filter

unit through inlet pipe and is uniformly distributed on the whole
sand bed.

 Water after passing through the sand bed is collected through the
under drainage system in the filtered water well.

 The outlet chamber in this filter is also equipped with filter rate
controller.

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Pressure filter
o It is a rapid filter placed within a closed , watertight steel cylinder.
o The water passes through the sand bed under a pressure greater
than atmospheric.
o All the operation of this filter is similar to rapid gravity filters,
except that the coagulated water is directly applied to the filter
without mixing and flocculation.
Disinfection of water
The process of killing the infective bacteria from the water
and making it safe to the user is called disinfection.
The filters are unable to remove all the disease bacteria's. they
can remove only few types of bacteria
Before the water is supplied to the public it is utmost necessary to
kill all the disease causing bacteria.

o These filters are used on small supplies where water is received
under pressure, which can be used to force the water through the
filter.
o Mostly pressure filters are used for industrial plants, because
these are much suited for such places .
The chemicals or substances which are used for killing the
bacteria are known as disinfectants
The presence of harmful bacteria's may lead to the spread of
various diseases
Chlorine has been found as the most ideal disinfectant , it is
widely used most at all the water works

Methods of disinfection

The disinfection of water can be done by the following common

methods

• By the boiling water

• Ultra – violet rays
• Ozonisation
• By the use of excess lime
• Chlorination

DISINFECTION WITH OZONE

Ozone is an excellent disinfectant. It is used in gaseous form,

which is faintly blue in colour of pungent odour.

Ozone is an unstable allotropic form of oxygen, with its

every molecule containing three ozone atoms

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ENVIORNMENTAL ENGINEERING - Dr. R. 4/4/2012
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DISINFECTION BY EXCESS LIME

CHLORINATION

Lime is usually used at the water works for reducing the hardness
of water.
The addition of excess lime in the water increases the pH value
of the water
It has been noted that pH value more than 9.5, all bacteria are
killed.
chlorination has been used for many decades as a mean of
purifying water supplies.
Chlorine is a powerful oxidizing agent and vigorously reacts with
bacteria (destroys bacteria) fungi, algae and other forms of
organic matter

After killing the bacteria by using excessive lime, the next When chlorine gas enters the water, the following reaction
requirement is to reduce the pH value for making it fit for occurs:
domestic purpose
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl

Chlorine + Water → Hypochlorous Acid + Hydrochloric Acid

BREAK POINT CHLORINATION CURVE

H20 + Cl2= HOCl + H+ + Cl

Following this reaction, hypochlorous acid then undergoes an

ionization reaction to produce hypochlorite:

HOCl = H+ + OCl-

The efficiency of Hypochlorous acid in killing microorganism is

about 40 to 80 times greater than hypochlorite.

The effectiveness of chlorination is highly dependent upon the

pH of the water source, quantity of bacteria, algae and other
organic matter.

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ENVIORNMENTAL ENGINEERING - Dr. R. 4/4/2012
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CHLORINE DEMAND REMOVAL OF HARDNESS

Chlorine demand is define as the difference
between the amount of chlorine added to water and the
The removal or reduction of hardness from the water is
amount of chlorine (free available and combined
known as water softening
available) remaining at the end of a specified contact
period
The main advantage of water softening is reduction in
The chlorine demand for a sample of Water depends on
the consumption of soap.

Nature and concentration of chlorine consuming The raw water specially from the ground sources may
substances present in water contain large quantity of bicarbonates, sulphates,carbonates
and chlorides of calcium and magnesium as dissolved
Time of contact impurities.

pH value of water These dissolved impurities of salts usually make the water hard.

Temperature of water

REMOVAL OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS BOILING

Heat
Ca(HCO3)2 -----------> CaCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O
1. Boiling
Heat
Mg(HCO3)2 -----------> MgCO3↓ + CO2↑ +H2O
2. Freezing

3. Lime addition
ADDITION OF LIME
4. Lime soda process
Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 -----------> 2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O
5. Excess Lime treatment
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 -----------> CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O
6. Caustic soda process
The calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide are insoluble
In water and get precipitated and can be removed by
sedimentation tank.

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REMOVAL OF PERMANENT HARDNESS:
The methods employed for the removal of permanent hardness
from the water as known as water softening mechanisms.
1. Lime soda process : In this method, the lime and is sodium
carbonate or soda as have used to remove permanent hardness
from water.
The chemical reactions involved in this process are as
follows.
Mg(HCO3) + Ca(OH)2 --------> CaCO3 + Mg(CO3) + 2H2O
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 ----------> Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4
{ conversion of MgSO4 to CaSO4}
Ion exchange process.
Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminium
and sodium) which replace sodium Ions with calcium and
magnesium Ions when hard water is passes through a bed of
zeolites.
The zeolite can be regenerated by passing a
concentrated solution of sodium chloride through the bed. The
chemical reactions involved are,
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + Ca(HCO3)2 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3
(Zeolite)
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaSO4 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO +
Na2SO4
2SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O + CaC12 ----------> 2SiO2 Al2O3 CaO +
2NaCl
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CaSO4 + Na2CO3 ----------> CaCO3 + Na2SO4
{removal of sulphates}
CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------> Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --------------> Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
{ removal of chlorides}
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 --------------> CaCO3 + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 --------------> Mg CO3 + 2NaCl
{removal of chlorides}
Limes react with bicarbonates of sodium and magnesium to form
Carbonates and water
Magnesium carbonates react with additional lime and
are converted into Mg(OH)2 and settle in the form of precipitate
REMOVAL OF IRON AND MANGANESE
Iron and manganese react with dissolved oxygen to form
insoluble compounds.
Removing iron and manganese from drinking water
instead of trying to sequester it is recommended if the water
contains over 0.3 ppm of iron and over 0.05 ppm of manganese.
surface water generally does not contain large amounts
of iron or manganese.
Iron and manganese are found frequently in water
systems that obtain their water from wells and springs.
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ENVIORNMENTAL ENGINEERING - Dr. R.
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They can be removed during softening with lime, but most
commonly, iron and manganese removal is done by filtration
after oxidation with different agents.
OXIDATION WITH CHLORINE
Iron and manganese in water can be oxidized by chlorine,
converting them to ferric hydroxide and manganese dioxide.
The flocculated material can then be removed by filtration.
After filtration the chlorine is removed by the addition of
sodium bisulfide, sulfur dioxide, or sodium bisulfide.
Aeration
Iron is easily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen.
Aeration provides the dissolved oxygen needed to convert the
iron and manganese from their ferrous and manganous forms to
their insoluble oxidized ferric and manganic forms.
It takes 0.14 ppm of dissolved oxygen to oxidize 1 ppm of iron; it
takes 0.27 ppm of dissolved oxygen to oxidize 1 ppm of
manganese.
There are many ways to provide the aeration.
Either the water being treated is dispersed into the air or
else air is bubbled into the water.
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OXIDATION WITH PERMANGANATE
The use of potassium permanganate for the oxidization of
iron or manganese is common in water treatment
Potassium permanganate oxidizes iron and manganese
into their insoluble states.
Use of permanganate is more effective at oxidizing
manganese than aeration or chlorination.
When oxidizing with permanganate, the operation of the
filters becomes important since the reaction also continues
to take place in the filter media.
The raw water which found in various natural resources cannot be directly used by
The public for the various purposes , before removing the impurities.
The water must be free from disease spreading germs.
For palatability the water should be free from unpleasant tastes, odours and having sparkling
appearance
Objectives of water treatment
To remove the dissolved gases, colour and odour
To remove the unpleasant and objectionable tastes and colours from the water
To kill all the pathogenic germs
To make water fit for domestic use as cooking and washing
To eliminate the tuberculating and corrosive properties of water which effects the conduits
and pipes
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