LABORATORY MANUAL

BSAG- 210
BIOLOGY-II - Practical

(For private circulation only)

Prepared By: Prof. Harpreet Singh Burmi

Name of the Student: ..............................................................

Registration Number/Roll. No.: .............................................
Course & Semester: ...............................................................
Department of Agriculture, Innocent Hearts Group Institutions, Loharan, Jalandhar
Phone : +91-181-2276041,2465290, Fax : +91-181-2271809 E-mail:info@ihgi.in,
 General guidelines for the students

1. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work. Extra books, purses, bags
etc. should be kept in the racks placed in the laboratories
2. Student is expected to be punctual in lab, should keenly perform the experiment allotted to him without
moving from one lab to another and even experimental set up should not be left until it unavoidable.
3. Mobile phones are not allowed in the labs and should be kept in the bags in silent or witch-off mode.
4. A Student is expected to maintain the decorum of the laboratory by maintaining proper discipline.
5. Clean up your work area before leaving.

Dress code:

1. Shorts and sandals should not be worn in the lab at any time. Shoes are required when working in the
laboratories.
2. Students must have lab coat, gloves and mask with them every time.

Compulsory things to be carried by the students in lab:

Lab coat, gloves, mask, calculator, butter paper, fractional weights and stationary items.

Safety Guidelines:

1. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your supervisor.
2. Wear safety glasses when working with hazardous materials or use such materials in fuming hood.
3. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agent.
4. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or confined.
 INDEX

Sr. Name of Experiment Date Remarks

1 Study of cell structure and cell division

Microscopic study of histological preparations of simple and

2
compound tissues

3 Anatomy of a mammal

4 Slides of frog development

5 General survey of animal kingdom up to classes

Experiment 1
AIM: Study of Cell Structure & Cell Division.

STRUCTURES OF CELL
Cell is the unit of structure and function. They are the building blocks of an organism. Irrespective of the
nature of organisms (plant or animal) they are either made up of single cell or many cells, the former are
called unicellular and the latter are called multicellular organisms; in the latter, cells are differentiated into
various kinds and they are grouped into tissues, which perform special and special function.
When the cell is observed through light microscopes, which may have the maximum resolution of about
2000 times, very few details can be made out. On the other hand, if sections of the cells are observed
through electron microscope, which has a resolution power ranging from 50,000 to 150,000 times
enlargement, even smaller structures stand out clearly. In spite of high resolution, it is not possible to make
out all the structural details. The following structures are found in the cell, 1) Cell wall, 2) Plasma
membrane, 3) Nucleus, 4) Plastids, 5) Mitochondria, 6) Golgi complex, 7) Ribosome, 8) Cytoskeleton, 9)
Micro bodies, 10) Centrosomes,11) endoplasmic reticulum, 12) central vacuole and 13) Non living cell
inclusions.

Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is the outer coating of the cell and contains the cytoplasm, substances within it and the
organelle. It is a double-layered membrane composed of proteins and lipids. The lipid molecules on the
outer and inner part (lipid bilayer) allow it to selectively transport substances in and out of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous structure that contains a network of tubules and vesicles.
Its structure is such that substances can move through it and be kept in isolation from the rest of the cell
until the manufacturing processes conducted within are completed. There are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum – rough (granular) and smooth (agranular).
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER / granular ER) contains a combination of proteins and enzymes.
These parts of the endoplasmic reticulum contain a number of ribosome giving it a rough appearance. Its
function is to synthesize new proteins.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER / agranular ER) does not have any attached ribosome. Its function
is to synthesize different types of lipids (fats). The smooth ER also plays a role in carbohydrate and drug
metabolism.

Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is a stacked collection of flat vesicles. It is closely associated with the endoplasmic
reticulum in that substances produced in the ER are transported as vesicles and fuses with the Golgi
apparatus. In this way, the products from the ER are stored in the Golgi apparatus and converted into
different substances that are necessary for the cell’s various functions.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are vesicles that break off from the Golgi apparatus. It varies in size and function depending on
the type of cell. Lysosomes contain enzymes that help with the digestion of nutrients in the cell and break
down any cellular debris or invading microorganisms like bacteria.
A structure that is similar to a lysosome is the secretory vesicle. It contains enzymes that are not used within
the cell but emptied outside of the cell, for example the secretory vesicles of the pancreatic acinar cell
release digestive enzymes which help with the digestion of nutrients in the gut.

Peroxisomes
These organelles are very similar to the lysosomes and contain enzymes that act together in the form of
hydrogen peroxide to neutralize substances that may be toxic to the cell. Peroxisomes are formed directly
from the endoplasmic reticulum rather than from the Golgi apparatus like lysosomes.

Mitochondria
These are the powerhouses of the cell and break down nutrients to yield energy. Apart from producing its
own energy, it also produces a high-energy compound called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) which can be
used as a simple energy source elsewhere. Mitochondria are composed of two membranous layers – an outer
membrane that surrounds the structure and an inner membrane that provides the physical sites of energy
production. The inner membrane has many in folding that form shelves where enzymes attach and oxidize
nutrients. The mitochondria also contain DNA which allows it to replicate where and when necessary.

Nucleus
The nucleus is the master control of the cell. It contains genes, collections of DNA, which determines every
aspect of human anatomy and physiology. The DNA which is arranged into chromosomes also contains the
blueprint specific for each type of cell which allows for replication of the cell. Within the nucleus is an area
known as the nucleolus. It is not enclosed by a membrane but is just an accumulation of RNA and proteins
within the nucleus. The nucleolus is the site where the ribosomal RNA is transcribed from DNA and
assembled.

Microfilaments and Microtubules

Microfilaments and microtubules are rigid protein substances that form the internal skeleton of the cell
known as the cytoskeleton. Some of these microtubules also make up the centrioles and mitotic
spindles within the cell which are responsible for the division of the cytoplasm when the cell divides. The
microtubules are the central component of cilia, small hair-like projections that protrude from the surface of
certain cells. It is also the central component of specialized cilia like the tail of the sperm cells which beats
in a manner to allow the cell to move in a fluid medium.

CELL DIVISION

Mitosis is the process where a single cell divides resulting in generally two identical cells, each containing
the same number of chromosomes and genetic content as that of the original cell. Mitosis consists of four
stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase, and very specific cellular events occur during each
stage to insure that the cell divides properly.
Meiosis is the process by which the gametes (sperm and eggs) are produced. Meiosis consists of two nuclear
divisions, meiosis I and II. Meiosis results in a sum total of four cells from each parent cell. Each new cell
contains half the number of diploid chromosomes.

Experimental Procedure
Mitosis
a. Observing mitosis of plant cells- the slide of onion root tip 1. Put an onion root tip slide on the
microscope stage. Under low power magnification (10×), observe the area near the root cap, because this
area is the growing area, in which all cells are cubic and in different phases of mitosis.
2. Locate and observe cells in each phase of mitosis under high power magnification (40×). It will be
necessary to move the slide to find each of the four phases.
(1) Interphase----Before mitosis, cells are in Interphase. In the centre of cytoplasm, there is a round
nucleus, while chromatins are diffused in the nucleus, and the nuclear membrane and the nucleolus can
be seen clearly.
(2) Prophase----Chromatins undergo condensation gradually and then turn into chromosomes. At this
point, each chromosome contains two DNA molecules organized as sister chromatids held together
by a centromeres. At the end of prophase, the nuclear membrane dissolves and the nucleolus
disappears. Another characteristic which is not visible on the following slides are the centrioles
 (only in animal cells), which migrate to opposite poles and will become the core of the microtubule
organizing centre (MTOC).
(3) Metaphase----The simplest phase of mitosis to identify is characterized by the “lining up” of the
chromosomes along the metaphase or equatorial plate. Spindle fibres may or may not be visible
connecting the centromeres of the sister chromatids to opposite ends of the cell.
(4) Anaphase----The centromeres split and all sister chromatids separate. Pulled by spindle fibres, sister
chromatids move to the opposite poles respectively.
(5) Telophase----The chromosomes become decondensed gradually, and finally turn into chromatins.
The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus appear once again, forming two new nuclei. Spindle
fibres disappear. Cytokinesis, the process of dividing the cytoplasm, began in anaphase and is now
leaving some definitive characteristics during Telophase. In plant cell, the appearance of the cell
plate (a precursor to the cell wall) is a characteristic of Telophase.

Meiosis
Meiosis is divided into two steps: Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Each step of meiosis is divided into the
appropriate Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, & Telophase stages with the number I or II following it to
identify meiosis I or meiosis II. Let us look at the stages of meiosis in order by observing the slide of locust
testes.
Meiosis I
Prophase I: Similar to prophase of mitosis with one important difference:
Crossing Over: Pairs of homologous chromosomes synapse together to form tetrads and exchange
genetic information (DNA). Crossing over creates new, recombinant chromosomes. Prophase I encompasses
five stages.
(1) Leptotene----During this stage, individual chromosomes begin to condense into long strands within
the nucleus. However the two sister chromatids are still so tightly bound that they are
indistinguishable from one another.
(2) Zygotene---- At this stage, the synapsis (pairing/coming together) of homologous chromosomes
takes place.
(3) Achytene----This stage contains the following chromosomal crossover. Non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes randomly exchange segments of genetic information over regions of
homology.
(4) Diplotene----Homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. However, the
homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where
crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed in
Anaphase I.
(5) Diakinesis----This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible.
Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible.
Other than this observation, the rest of the stage closely resembles prometaphase of mitosis; the
nucleoli disappear, the nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles, and the meiotic spindle begins
to form.

Metaphase I: Brief stage in which tetrads line up in the equatorial plane of the cell.
Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite ends of cell. Each chromosome
still contains a pair of sister chromatids.
Telophase I: Two groups of chromosomes come together at opposite poles. Each group becomes
surrounded by a new nuclear membrane. Chromosomes uncoil, nucleoli reappear. Cleavage of the
cytoplasm occurs in as mitosis.
Interphase: may be very brief or absent between meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis II: Meiosis II is the second part of the meiotic process. Much of the process is similar to mitosis.
The end result is production of four haploid cells. From the two haploid cells produced in meiosis I. The
four main steps of Meiosis II are: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II.
Prophase II: DNA condenses into chromosomes. No crossing over occurs.
Metaphase II: Individual chromosomes line up in the equatorial plane of the cell.
Anaphase II: Chromatids separate and begin to migrate to opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase II and Cytokinesis: A full set of chromosomes reaches each pole of the cell. Four different
gametes are produced.

Remark filled by faculty:

 Experiment 2

AIM: Microscopic study of histological preparations of simple and compound tissues.

Plant Tissue:
Plant tissues can also be divided differently into two types:

1. Meristematic or Simple tissues

2. Permanent tissues.
Meristematic tissue
Meristematic tissue consists of actively dividing cells, and leads to increase in length and thickness of the
plant. The primary growth of a plant occurs only in certain, specific regions, such as in the tips of stems or
roots. It is in these regions that meristematic tissue is present. Cells in these tissues are roughly spherical or
polyhedral, to rectangular in shape, and have thin cell walls. New cells produced bymeristem are initially
those of meristem itself, but as the new cells grow and mature, their characteristics slowly change and they
become differentiated as components of the region of occurrence of meristimatic tissues, they are classified
as:

 Apical Meristem - It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and increases the length of the
stem and root. They form growing parts at the apices of roots and stems and are responsible for increase
in length, also called primary growth. This meristem is responsible for the linear growth of an organ.
 Lateral Meristem - This meristem consist of cells which mainly divide in one plane and cause the
organ to increase in diameter and growth. Lateral Meristem usually occurs beneath the bark of the tree
in the form of Cork Cambium and in vascular bundles of dicots in the form of vascular cambium. The
activity of this cambium results in the formation of secondary growth.
 Intercalary Meristem - This meristem is located in between permanent tissues. It is usually present at
the base of node, inter node and on leaf base. They are responsible for growth in length of the plant and
increasing the size of the internodes, They result in branch formation and growth.
The cells of meristematic tissues are similar in structure and have thin and elastic primary cell wall made up
of cellulose. They are compactly arranged without inter-cellular spaces between them. Each cell contains a
dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. Dense protoplasm of meristematic cells contains very few
vacuoles. Normally the meristematic cells are oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape.
Meristematic tissue cells have a large nucleus with small or no vacuoles, they have no inter cellular spaces.
Permanent tissues
The meristematic tissues that take up a specific role lose the ability to divide. This process of taking up a
permanent shape, size and a function is called cellular differentiation. Cells of meristematic tissue
differentiate to form different types of permanent tissue. There are 3 types of permanent tissues:

1. simple permanent tissues

2. complex permanent tissues
3. special or secretory tissues (glandular).
Simple tissues
A group of cells which are similar in origin; similar in structure and similar in function are called simple
permanent tissue. They are of four types:
1. Parenchyma
2. Collenchyma
3. Sclerenchyma
4. Epidermis
Parenchyma
Parenchyma is the bulk of a substance. In plants, it consists of relatively unspecialised living cells with thin
cell walls that are usually loosely packed so that large spaces between cells (intercellular spaces) are found
in this tissue. This tissue provides support to plants and also stores food. In some situations, a parenchyma
contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, in which case it is called a chlorenchyma. In aquatic
plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to give support to them to float on water. Such a
parenchyma type is called aerenchyma. Each individual parenchymatous cell may be isodiametric,
spherical, oval, cylindrical, rectangular, stellate or long spindle like.
Collenchymas
Collenchyma is Greek word where "Collen" means gum and "chyma" means infusion. It is a living tissue of
primary body like Parenchyma. Cells are thin-walled but possess thickening of cellulose, water
and pectin substances (pectocellulose) at the corners where number of cells join together. This tissue gives a
tensile strength to the plant and the cells are compactly arranged and have very little inter-cellular spaces. It
occurs chiefly in hypodermis of stems and leaves. It is absent in monocots and in roots.
Collenchymatous tissue acts as a supporting tissue in stems of young plants. It provides mechanical support,
elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in manufacturing sugar and storing it as starch. It is
present in the margin of leaves and resist tearing effect of the wind.
Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma is Greek word where "Sclrenes" means hard and chyma" means infusion. This tissue consists
of thick-walled, dead cells. These cells have hard and extremely thick secondary walls due to uniform
distribution of lignin. Lignin deposition is so thick that the cell walls become strong, rigid and impermeable
to water. Sclerenchymatous cells are closely packed without inter-cellular spaces between them. Thus, they
appear as hexagonal net in transverse section. The cells are cemented with the help of lamella. The middle
lamella is a wall that lies between adjacent cells. Sclerenchymatous cells mainly occur
in hypodermis, pericycle, secondary xylem and phloem. They also occur in endocarp of almond and
coconut. It is made of pectin, ligni], protein. The cells of sclerenchymatous cells can be classified as:

1. Fibres- Fibres are long, elongated sclerenchymatous cells with pointed ends.
2. Sclereids- Sclerenchymatous cells which are short and possess extremely thick,
lamellated, lignified walls with long singular piths. They are called sclereids.
The main function of Sclerenchymatous tissues is to give support to the plant. Provides hardness and
protective covering to seed and nuts
Epidermis
The entire surface of the plant consists of a single layer of cells called epidermis or surface tissue. The entire
surface of the plant has this outer layer of epidermis. Hence it is also called surface tissue. Most of the
epidermal cells are relatively flat. The outer and lateral walls of the cell are often thicker than the inner
walls. The cells forms a continuous sheet without inter cellular spaces. It protects all parts of the plant.
Complex permanent tissue
The complex tissue consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit. Complex tissues
help in the transportation of organic material, water and minerals up and down the plants. That is why it is
also known as conducting and vascular tissue. The common types of complex permanent tissue are:
 Xylem or wood
 Phloem or bast.
Xylem and phloem together form vascular bundles.

Xylem
Xylem consists of:
 Tracheid
 Vessel Members
 Xylem fibers
 Xylem parenchyma.
Xylem is a chief, conducting tissue of vascular plants. It is responsible for conduction of water and mineral
ions/salt. Xylem is a very important plant tissue as it is part of the 'plumbing system' of a plant. Think of
bundles of pipes running along the main axis of stems and roots. It carries water and dissolved substances
throughout and consists of a combination of parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids and ray cells. Long
tubes made up of individual cells are the vessels Tracheae, while vessel members are open at each end.
Internally, there may be bars of wall material extending across the open space. These cells are joined end to
end to form long tubes. Vessel members and tracheids are dead at maturity. Tracheids have thick secondary
cell walls and are tapered at the ends. They do not have end openings such as the vessels. The tracheids ends
overlap with each other, with pairs of pits present. The pit pairs allow water to pass from cell to cell. While
most conduction in the xylem is up and down, there are some side-to-side or lateral conduction via rays.
Rays are horizontal rows of long-living parenchyma cells that arise out of the vascular cambium. In trees,
and other woody plants, ray will radiate out from the center of stems and roots and in cross-section will look
like the spokes of a wheel.
Phloem
Phloem consists of:

 Sieve tube
 Sieve cell
 Companion cell
 Phloem fiber
 Phloem parenchyma.
Phloem is an equally important plant tissue as it also is part of the 'plumbing system' of a plant. Primarily,
phloem carries dissolved food substances throughout the plant. This conduction system is composed of
sieve-tube member and companion cells, that are without secondary walls. The parent cells of the vascular
cambium produce both xylem and phloem. This usually also includes fibers, parenchyma and ray cells.
Sieve tubes are formed from sieve-tube members laid end to end. The end walls, unlike vessel members in
xylem, do not have openings. The end walls, however, are full of small pores where cytoplasm extends from
cell to cell. These porous connections are called sieve plates. In spite of the fact that their cytoplasm is
actively involved in the conduction of food materials, sieve-tube members do not have nuclei at maturity. It
is the companion cells that are nestled between sieve-tube members that function in some manner bringing
about the conduction of food. Sieve-tube members that are alive contain a polymer called callose, a
carbohydrate polymer, forming the callus pad/callus, the colourless substance that covers the sieve plate.
Callose stays in solution as long as the cell contents are under pressure. Phloem transports food and
materials in plants upwards and downwards as required.

Animal Tissues:

Grouped in to four basic types: connective, muscle, nervous and epithelial. Multiple tissue types compose
organs and body structures. While all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types,
the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of
the cells comprising a particular tissue type may differ developmentally for different classifications of
animals.
The epithelium in all birds and animals is derived from the ectoderm and endoderm with a small
contribution from the mesoderm, forming the endothelium, a specialized type of epithelium that composes
the vasculature. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a single layer of cells held together via
occluding junctions called tight junctions, to create a selectively permeable barrier. This tissue covers all
organism surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways, and the
digestive tract. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other
tissues below by a basal lamina.
Connective tissue
Connective tissues are fibrous tissues. They are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is
called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid. For example, blood has plasma as its
matrix and bone's matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. Blood,
bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. There are three types
of connective tissue:
1) Fibrous connective tissue
2) Skeletal connective tissue
3) Fluid connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Muscle cells form the active contractile (see contractility) tissue of the body known as muscle tissue or
muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions are to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or
movement within internal organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral
or smooth muscle, which is found in the inner linings of organ (anatomy); skeletal muscle, which is found
attached to bone providing for gross movement; and cardiac muscle which is found in the heart, allowing it
to contract and pump blood throughout an organism. They are the longest group of cells in the human body.
Nervous tissue
Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as neural tissue. In
the central nervous system, neural tissue forms the brain and spinal cord and, in the peripheral nervous
system forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, inclusive of the motor neurons.
Epithelial tissue
The epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover the organ surfaces such as the surface of the skin,
the airways, the reproductive tract, and the inner lining of the digestive tract. The cells comprising an
epithelial layer are linked via semi-permeable, tight junctions; hence, this tissue provides a barrier between
the external environment and the organ it covers. In addition to this protective function, epithelial tissue may
also be specialized to function in secretion and absorption. Epithelial tissue helps to protect organs from
microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.
Functions of epithelial tissue:

 The cells of the body surface form the outer layer of skin.
 Inside the body, epithelial cells form the lining of the mouth & alimentary canal & protect these organs.
 Epithelial tissues help in absorption of water & nutrients.
 Epithelial tissues help in elimination of waste.
 Epithelial tissues secrete enzymes and/or hormones in the form of glands.
There are many kinds of epithelium, and nomenclature is somewhat variable. Most classification schemes
combine a description of the cell-shape in the upper layer of the epithelium with a word denoting the
number of layers: either simple (one layer of cells) or stratified (multiple layers of cells). However, other
cellular features, such as cilia may also be described in the classification system. Some common kinds of
epithelium are listed below:

 Simple squamous epithelium

 Stratified squamous epithelium
 Simple cuboidal epithelium
 Transitional Epithelium
 Ciliated columnar epithelium
 Columnar epithelium,
 Glandular epithelium,
 Ciliated columnar epithelium

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 Experiment 3

AIM: Anatomy of Mammals.

Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine which studies the structure of living organisms. Human
anatomy studies the structure of humans, zootomy deals with animal body structures, and phytotomy studies
the structure of plants. There are many branches to anatomy, such as comparative anatomy, developmental
anatomy or pathological anatomy, etc. The basic unit of life is a cell. Groups of cells with similar functions
form tissue. There are four basic types of animal tissues: connective, epithelial, muscle, and nervous. An
organ is formed by a collection of tissues; while an organ system comprises two or more organs which
cooperate with one another in order to perform a certain task. The body is a unique collection of
interdependent organ systems.

An organ system is a group of anatomical structures that work together to perform a specific function or
task. Although we learn about each organ system as a distinct entity, the functions of the body's organ
systems overlap considerably, and your body could not function without the cooperation of all of its organ
systems. In fact, the failure of even one organ system could lead to severe disability or even death.
The human body is composed of 11 different organ systems. These include the following:

 Integumentary
 Muscular
 Skeletal
 Nervous
 Circulatory
 Lymphatic
 Respiratory
 Endocrine
 Urinary/excretory
 Reproductive
 Digestive

The Integumentary system includes your skin, hair, subcutaneous fat and nails. The Integumentary system
offers protection from the environment, provides form and individual recognition characteristics and aids in
temperature and water regulation. Your skin is the site where vitamin D is generated. The integument, or
skin, also serves as an anchor for sensory receptors (which are part of the nervous system) that detect pain,
cold, warmth and pressure.
The muscular system includes the skeletal muscles but excludes smooth and cardiac muscles, which are
included in other organ systems. The muscular system provides locomotion and support, allows us to
manipulate our surroundings and - due to its high metabolic activity - produces heat.
The skeletal system is composed of bones, joints, cartilage, ligaments and tendons. Your skeleton provides
structural support and protection for your internal organs. In cooperation with your muscular system, your
skeletal system participates in movement and locomotion. Your skeleton also serves as a reservoir for
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and other minerals that are important in a wide array of physiological
processes.
The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, autonomic and somatic nerves (i.e. involuntary and
voluntary nerves) and all sensory organs, including those that serve vision, smell, sensation, balance,
hearing and taste. Your nervous system coordinates your movements and controls your responses to both
external and internal stimuli. It serves as the storehouse and processing center for memories, it regulates
mood and it provides the mechanisms for social interaction and development.
The circulatory system includes your heart, blood vessels and blood. Your circulatory system is
responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to every cell, tissue and organ in your body. It also conveys
immune cells, electrolytes, hormones and other vital substances throughout your body. The circulatory
system directly communicates with the lymphatic system, leading many to count these two systems as one.
The lymphatic system is made up of the lymphatic vessels, which travel with your blood vessels, and the
lymph nodes, where immune cells are produced. The lymphatic system returns a clear fluid called 'lymph'
from your tissues and organs to your heart. Lymph is produced by the leakage of a small amount of fluid
from your blood vessels into the surrounding tissues. The lymphatic system also transports fats absorbed
from your intestine and carries immune cells from one place to another in your body.

The respiratory system encompasses the organs of breathing, which include your nose, pharynx (mouth),
larynx (throat), trachea (windpipe), bronchi and bronchioles (airways), lungs and diaphragm. Your sinuses,
which are lined by the same type of cells that line your upper air-ways are included in the respiratory
system. Your respiratory system is the principal site of gas exchange in your body. It is here that oxygen is
absorbed into to your bloodstream and carbon dioxide is removed. Air moving through your respiratory
system also provides you with the ability to vocalize (i.e., speak and sing).
The endocrine system includes all hormone-producing organs, or 'glands,' such as the thyroid, pituitary,
pancreas, adrenals, hypothalamus, gonads and pineal. The hormones produced by these organs are released
directly into your bloodstream. These chemical messengers travel throughout your body and help regulate
the activities of other organ systems. Many hormones, such as insulin from your pancreas and thyroxin from
your thyroid gland, are essential for life.
The reproductive system or genital system is a system of sex organs within an organism which work
together for the purpose of sexual reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones,
and pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive system. Unlike most organ systems,
the sexes of differentiated species often have significant differences. These differences allow for a
combination of genetic material between two individuals, which allows for the possibility of greater genetic
fitness of the offspring.

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 Experiment 4

AIM: Slides of Frog Development.

Embryology is the study of development of animals. It deals with the changes in fertilized egg to become an
adult. The stages of embryonic development differ in different chordates but help early stages and basic
steps of development and similar in all.

Fertilization and development of egg of frog

Sequence of events before and during the embryonic development of frog includes
i) Gamatogenesis: formation and differentiation of sex cells or gametes.
ii) Fertilization: fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote.
iii) Cleavage: division of zygote
iv) Blastulation: formation of hollow ball of cells.
v) Gastrulating: Movement arrangement of embryonic cells to form 3 primary germ layers.
vi) Organogenesis or organ formation: Differentiation and development of organ system from primary
germinal layers.
vii) Differentiation and morphogenesis: Acquisition (thing acquired) of morphological feature of the
organism.
Vii) Growth: increase in size through the development.

Mating behaviour (June to September)

· Vocal sac and pads involve
· Ovipositon by female
· Insemination by male

The Egg
The frog egg is a huge cell; its volume is over 1.6 million times larger than a normal frog cell. During
embryonic development, the egg will be converted into a tadpole containing millions of cells but containing
the same amount of organic matter.
 The upper hemisphere of the egg — the animal pole — is dark.
 The lower hemisphere — the vegetal pole — is light.
 When deposited in the water and ready for fertilization, the haploid egg is at metaphase of meiosis II
Fertilization
Entrance of the sperm initiates a sequence of events:
 Meiosis II is completed.
 The cytoplasm of the egg rotates about 30 degrees relative to the poles.
 In some amphibians (including Xenopus), this is revealed by the appearance of a light-colored band,
the gray crescent.
 The gray crescent forms opposite the point where the sperm entered.
 It foretells the future pattern of the animal: its dorsal (D) and ventral (V) surfaces; its anterior (A)
and posterior (P); its left and right sides.
 The haploid sperm and egg nuclei fuse to form the diploid zygote nucleus.

Early embryonic development or development of eggs

The fertilized egg undergoes series of mitotic division the development of egg up to the formation of three
germinal layers includes the following stages.
I) Cleavage
II) Morulation
III) Blastulation
IV) Gastrulation
 I) Cleavage or Segmentation

1) Size of egg becomes 1.6mm after 2.3hrs of fertilization and cleavage starts all cleavage is mitotic and
holoblastic.
2) First division is vertical which begins as small furrow at the animal pole and finally surrounds the eggs. It
makes two equal blastomeres.
3) Second division is also vertical but night angles to the first one from four blastomeres.
4) Third division is horizontal passing above the equatorial plane forming 8 unequal blastomeres. Upper
four are smaller, known as micromeres and lower four cells are larger called megameres. (4 to 5 hrs)
5) Fourth and fifth (after 20 minutes of 3rd cleavage) are again vertical from 16 cells. 8 are micromeres and
8 are megameres.
6) Two horizontal 6th and 7th division produce 32 cells. After 32 cells stage the division becomes less
regular.

II) Morulation: it is a mulberry shaped ball of cells due to rapid division of micromeres than megameres.

III) Blastulation: Due to rapid and non synchronizing cleavage of micromeres and megameres a cavity
appears in the center known as blastocoel and stage called blastula. The division of blastomeres and gets
filled with a fluid.
Primary germ layers viz. ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm are formed. Various organs are formed from
there layers. Hence, there parts are called presumptive or prospective areas (fate map)
These areas changes into
a. Ectoderm changes into epidermis and neural tube.
b. A small area near vegetal pole is presumptive notochord.
c. Mesoderm lies side of notochord.
d. The remainder of the vegetal half forms the future endoderm.

VI) Gastrulation
During gastrulation, cell movements result in a massive reorganization of the embryo from a simple
spherical ball of cells, the blastula, into a multi-layered organism. During gastrulation, many of the cells at
or near the surface of the embryo move to a new, more interior location.
The primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) are formed and organized in their proper
locations during gastrulation. Endoderm, the most internal germ layer, forms the lining of the gut and other
internal organs. Ectoderm, the most exterior germ layer, forms skin, brain, the nervous system, and other
external tissues. Mesoderm, the the middle germ layer, forms muscle, the skeletal system, and the
circulatory system.

V) Postgastular stage and organogeny

Gatrulation is completed in about 30 hours after Ovipositon. Different tissues and embryonic organs are
formed from the three primary germ layers.
a. formation of notochord (notogenesis):
· Notochord develops from the mesodermal layer of archenteron.
· Mesodermal cells from notochord, mesoderm and endoderm.
· Cells of roof archenteron become vacuolated and a sheath is formed around vacuolated cells.
· Later the notochord is replaced by vertebral column.
b. Formation of nuron tube (neurulation):
· By the end of Gatrulation, the neural plate appears plate appears by thickening of ectoderm cells.
· Lateral plate appears by thickening of ectoderm cells.
· Neural plate sinks downward to from a neural groove. The folds join and neural tube is formed.
· Cavity of neural tube (neurocoel) called central cannal of brain and spinal cord
· Front end of neural fold form a neuropore.
· Neural folds merge posteriorly and enclose the blastospore.
· From neuropore to the previous but now closed blastospore from a cannal which is called neuroentric
cannal.
· Anterior broad end of neural tube modifies into brain and the neural tube from medulla.
e. Formation of coelom:
· Coelom is formed by mesoderm.
· A split occurs in the mesoderm and outer in the mesoderm and outer parietal or somatic mesoderm
(below the skin ) and an inner visceral or splanchnic endoderm is formed around the wall of archenteron.
· The cavity thus formed between the layers is called splanchnic coel (future coelom)
· Splanchnocoel extended downward below the guts to appear v-shaped in section.
· Visceral layer (which cover viscera or different organs) united with endoderm to form the get wall or
splanchnopleure, wall of oesophagus intestine rectum etc.

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 Experiment 5

AIM: General survey of Animal Kingdom up to classes.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA:
All multicellular eukaryotes which lack cell wall and are heterotrophs are kept under this kingdom. The
animals indirectly or directly depend for food on plants. They follow the holozoic mode of nutrition.
Holozoic nutrition involves ingestion of food and use of internal cavity for digestion of food. Most of the
animals are capable of locomotion. Sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female which is
followed by embryological development.

Basis Of Classification
Levels of Organisation
1. Cellular Level: In case of cellular level organization, a single cell is responsible for all the metabolic
activities. Cellular level organization is present in unicellular animals and some of the muclticellular
animals.
2. Tissue Level: In case of tissue level organization, a group of cells is responsible for all the metabolic
activities, e.g. coelenterates.
3. Organ Level: In case of organ level organization, some specialized organs are present for some
specific functions, e.g. Platyhelminthes.
4. Organ System Level: In organ system level organization, complex organ systems are present for
various functions, e.g. mollusca, chordate.
Symmetry
Some of the animals are almost asymmetrical. Their body cannot be divided into two equal halves from any
plane, e.g. sponges.
Radial Symmetry: In case of radial symmetry, any plane passing through the central axis divides the body
into two identical halves, e.g. coelenterates, ctenophores, echinoderms, etc.
Bilateral Symmetry: In case of bilateral symmetry, the body can be divided into two identical halves only
through a single plane, e.g. annelida, arthropoda, etc.
Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation
When the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, the animal is called a diploblastic animal. The two
layers are; ectoderm and endoderm. Mesoglea; which is an undifferentiated layer is present between the
ectoderm and endoderm. Example: coelenterates.
When the cells are arranged in three embryonic layers, the animal is called triploblastic animal. The three
layers are; ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Examples: Platyhelminthes to chordates.
Coelom
The body cavity; which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom.
Coelomates: If coelom is present, the animal is called coelomate, e.g. annelids, molluscs, arthropods,
echnioderms, hemichordates and chordates.
Pseudoceolomates: If the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm but the mesoderm is present as scattered
pouches in between the ectoderm and endoderm, the animal is called pseudocoelomate, e.g. aschelminthes.
Acoelomates: When the body cavity is absent, the animal is called acoelomate, e.g. platyhelminthes.
Segmentation
The body of some animals is externally and internally divided into segments with serial repetition of at least
some organs. For example; the body of the earthworm shows metameric segmentation. This phenomenon is
called metamerism.
Notochord
Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure. It is formed on the dorsal side during embryonic
development in some animals. If notochord is present then the animal comes under chordates. An animal
without notochord is called non-chordate, e.g. porifera to echinoderms.
Taxonomic Levels of Organisation

Linnaeus's system has seven levels:

1. Kingdom
2. Phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species

Every animal on the planet, down to the most microscopic creature you can imagine, can be classified
according to this system.
These levels start out broadly — that means the top levels have the most animals, and they get narrower and
narrower as you go down. So, by the time you get to the species, there is only one animal in the group. You
can imagine these levels as an upside-down triangle.

Kingdom
Generally, scientists agree there are six kingdoms. The animal kingdom (called Kingdom Animalia)
is just one of those. In case you're interested, the others are Achaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protists,
Fungi and Plants. Originally, Linnaeus only identified two kingdoms: plant and animal. Some
scientists think that viruses should have their own kingdom, but currently they are not included
under this system.
Phylum
Within the animal kingdom, the animals are divided into more than 30 phyla (which is the plural of
"phylum"). You might be interested in Phylum Chordata — it's the one humans and all animals with
backbones are in (do you see how "chordata" looks like the word "cord" — like spinal cord?).
Phylum Arthropoda contains insects, spiders and other animals with segmented bodies, like shrimp.
Arthropods have their skeletons on the outside of their bodies (think of the hard shell of a lobster)
and other characteristics in common.
Class
The third level of classification is class. For example, Phylum Chordata has classes in it like birds,
mammals (Mammalia) and reptiles.
Order
The next level, or rank, is order. Orders are smaller groups within the different classes. Lepidoptera
is the order of moths and butterflies. Carnivora is the order within Mammalia that has the most
diversity in animal size.
Family
The fifth rank of classification is family. (When you get to this rank, people sometimes disagree
about which family an animal belongs to, so you may find that different sources tell you different
things. This can even happen with orders.) The family for dogs is Canidae.
Genus
This rank looks like "genius," doesn't it? It's the second-to-last rank, and a genus may have only one
or two animals in it. If animals are in the same genus, they are really closely related. In fact, you may
not be able to tell them apart just by looking at them! When we write the name of the genus, we
capitalize it and italicize it. For example, the genus of dogs (and wolves, too!) is Canis.
Species
If animals can breed together successfully, they are a species. When an animal is called by its
scientific name, then that means it is being identified by its genus and species. We use a lowercase
letter and italics for the species. The scientific name of dogs is Canis familiaris; however, the
scientific name of wolves is Canis lupus.

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