Mechanical Properties and Strength of Materials:

Stress - resistance to a change in the form of a body due to loading force.

- force acts in the interior of the body and resists the external
forces tending to change the shape.

Kinds of Stress:
Static - gradual
Impact - suddenly applied
Fatigue - fluctuating / alternating
Creep - High temperature change

General Classification:
Simple - one directional
Combined - multi-directional

Types of Simple Stress:

Normal
 Tensile
 Compressive
 Bearing
Tangential / Shearing
Torsional
Transverse or bending

Simple Stress Equation:

𝑷
𝑺=
𝑨
Where: P = applied load
A = cross sectional area  to applied load

Strain / Deformation:
 Change in geometry or shape of the body under stress
𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 (𝒅) = , 𝒊𝒏
𝑳𝟏 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
Where:
L2 – L1 = elongation or deformation
L1 - original length and L2 - length after applied load
Hooke’s Law – applicable for materials within the elastic range which states that
unit stress is directly proportional to unit strain.
S  d

Therefore, S = Ed
Where E is modulus of elasticity
𝑷 𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏
𝑰𝒇 𝑺 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅 =
𝑨 𝑳𝟏
𝑷 𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏
= 𝑬[ ]
𝑨 𝑳𝟏
𝑷𝑳
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 = 𝟏 = 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑨𝑬

Stress-Strain Diagram

U
Y
P
E L

Stress
in psi.

Strain , in./ in.

OE - elastic range
EP - Proportionality range
Y - Yield point or Stretch point
L - Lower Yield point
U - Ultimate strength
Factor of Safety:
- ratio of the ultimate stress to the working stress.
- for design purpose, this signifies that the stress applied to a system or
equipment will not cause any mechanical failure or collapse.
- Should always be sufficient to produce a working stress below the elastic
limit.

Factor of Safety = Ultimate Stress / Working Stress

 Working Stress = allowable stress or design stress

= must always be below elastic limit

Problem:
1. A short hollow cylinder made of AISI 4023 steel, with an inner diameter
equal to 75% of the outer diameter, is to support a load of 5 tons. What
should be the outer diameter if the factor of safety is 2, based upon the
yield point ?
Given:
50 tons

SAE 1040 steel

Do = outside diameter
Di = inside diameter = 0.75 Do
F.S. (Factor of Safety) = 2.0
Required: Do = ?
Solution:
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚
Using AIS1 4023 Steel (Ch.E HB) ,

Ultimate Stress (Yield Pt.) = 85,000 psi

𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝟖𝟓,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = = = 𝟒𝟐, 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚 𝟐
𝑷
𝑺=
𝑨
𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝝅(𝑫𝑶 𝟐 − 𝑫𝒊 𝟐 ) 𝝅[(𝑫𝑶 𝟐 ) − (𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝑫𝑶 )𝟐 ]
𝑨= = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟑𝟔 𝑫𝑶 𝟐
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃𝒔
𝑷 𝟓 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 ( 𝟏 𝒕𝒐𝒏 )
𝑺= = = 42,500 psi
𝑨 𝟎.𝟑𝟒𝟑𝟔 𝑫𝑶 𝟐

10000
𝐷𝑂 = √ = 0.685 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
0.3436(42500)

2. A 1½ inch diameter, UNS K03005 steel bar 8- inch long is subjected to a

tensile load of 20,000 lbs. What is the apparent factor of safety, based upon:
a. Ultimate strength? b. yield point ?
Given:
20,000 lbs. 20,000 lbs.
Required:
F.S. based on ultimate stress and yield stress

Solution:
UNS K03005: (Ch.E HB 8th Edition)
Sult = 415 MPa (60,192 psi)
S yield = 241 MPa (34,955 psi)

𝑷 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃𝒔 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃𝒔

𝑺= = = = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟑𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟖 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝑨 𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝝅(𝟏. 𝟓 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉 )𝟐
𝟒 𝟒

F.S. based on Ultimate = 60,192 psi / 11,317.68 psi = 5.3 ≈ 6.0

F.S. Based on Yield = 34,955 psi / 11,317.68 psi = 3.0
Thin-walled Cylinders:
A cylindrical tank, carrying a gas or fluid under a pressure is subjected to
tensile forces which resist the bursting forces developed across longitudinal
and transverse section.
p’
A. Longitudinal Section t
P P

p’
L

A A

D
By Free-body Diagram:
𝑃 = 𝑝′ 𝐷𝐿
where p’ = pressure intensity
𝑷 𝒑′ 𝑫𝑳
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑺 = =
𝑨 𝟐𝒕 (𝑳)

𝒑′ 𝑫 𝒑′ 𝑹
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑺 = 𝒐𝒓
𝟐𝒕 𝒕

Where:
S = tangential stress
p’ = internal pressure
D = diameter ; R = radius
t = thickness of the cylinder
Circumferential section / Transverse

p’
D
P

P t

By Free-body Diagram:
′
𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝑃= 𝑝 ( )
𝟒
where p’ = pressure intensity

𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝑝′ (
𝑷 𝟒 )
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑺 = =
𝑨 𝑫𝒕
𝒑′ 𝑫 𝒑′ 𝑹
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑺 = 𝒐𝒓
𝟒𝒕 𝟐𝒕

Where:
S = tangential stress
p’ = internal pressure
D = diameter ; R = radius
t = thickness of the cylinder
Vessel Design:
A. Storage and process vessels
a. Atmospheric tanks - applies to any tank that is designed to be used
within plus or minus several hundred pascals ( a few
pounds per square foot) of atmospheric pressure. It may
be either open to the atmosphere or enclosed.
Usually designed with vertical cylindrical shape and a
relatively flat bottom at ground level for economic reason
and usually as per API standards and specifications.
b. Elevated Tanks – applies to tanks which can supply a large flow and also
provide flow after pump failure.
c. Open Tanks - used to store materials that will not be harmed by water,
weather or atmospheric pollution.
d. Closed Pressure Tanks - Vertical tanks constructed with domed or
coned roofs, which operate at pressures above several hundred pascals (a
few pound per square foot) or up to 15 psi or which are still relatively close
to atmospheric pressure. Also, can be built according to API Standards.
e. Gas Holders - use to store gases at atmospheric condition.

B. Pressure Vessels
A closed container for the containment of pressure which specifically
excludes vessels having an internal pressure not exceeding 103 KPa (15
Psi) and applicable for pressures not exceeding 20,670 kPa (3,000 psi).
It can be built according to API-ASME code and specification.

Vessel Design Equations

I. SHELL Design
A. API – ASME Code*
𝐩𝐃
𝐭𝐬 = +𝐂
𝟐 𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 − 𝐩
where:
tS = minimum shell thickness
𝟏
C = corrosion allowance usually taken as 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐡
𝟏𝟔
D = inside diameter before corrosion is added
p = maximum internal pressure
𝐒𝐰 = working or allowable tensile stress
𝐞𝐣 = efficiency of the welded joints
* (Process Equipment Design by. Hesse and Rushton)
Welding Efficiencies (𝐞𝐣 ) for API-ASME Code :
1. Single V or U butt joint
 For t S < 5/8 inch e = 0.70
2. Single V – butt joint with Backing up strip
 For t S < 1 ¼ inch e = 0.80
3. Double V or U butt joint
 For t S > 5/8 inch to any t e = 0.80
4. Single and double lap joint with plug weld (full fillet)
 For t S < 5/8 inch e = 0.65
5. Single full fillet lap joint without plug weld
 For t S < 5/8 inch e = 0.55

B. ASME – UPV Code

𝐩𝐫 𝐫
𝟏. 𝐭𝐬 = +𝐂 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭 𝐬 ≤
𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝐩 𝟐

𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 + 𝐩 𝐫
𝟐. 𝐭 𝐬 = 𝐫√ −𝐫+𝐂 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭 𝐬 >
𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 − 𝐩 𝟐
where:
tS = minimum wall thickness of shell
p = maximum allowable internal pressure
r = inside radius of the shell before corrosion allowance
𝐒𝐰 = maximum allowable working stress
𝐞𝐣 = efficiency of joint expressed as fraction
(Refer to p. 554- 5th ed. - Plant Design and Economics for Ch.E. by Peters
& Timmerhaus)

Welding Efficiencies (𝐞𝐣 ) for ASME-UPV Code :

For double welded butt joints:
If fully radiographed e = 1.0
If spot examined e = 0.85
If not radiographed e = 0.70
In general, for spot examined,
If electric resistance weld e = 0.85
If lap welded e = 0.80
If single butt welded e = 0.60
*(Please refer to Plant Design and Unit Eco by Peters & Timmerhaus)
Working Stress (Sw) for API-ASME Code :

𝐒𝐰 = 𝐒𝐮𝐥𝐭 𝐱 𝐅𝐒 𝐱 𝐅𝐦 𝐱 𝐅𝐚 𝐱 𝐅𝐫

Where:
𝐒𝐮𝐥𝐭 = ultimate or yield strength of the material
Fs = type of steel factor
= reciprocal of factor of safety
If factor of safety is not given,
Metal Temperature Plate and Forged Steel ,% Cast Steel, %
Up to 𝟔𝟓𝟎°𝐅 25.0 16.7
700 23.7 16.4
750 21.0 14.7
800 18.0 12.9
850 15.0 11.1
900 12.0 9.3
950 9.0 7.5
1000 6.2 5.7
*(Source data: Table 4-2 p.84 Process Eqpt. Design by Hesse &Rushton)

Fm = Material factor or grade of steel

= 1.0 for firebox grade and high tensile strength carbon steel
= 0.97 fpr normal or flange grade steel
= 0.92 for structural or mild steel ; for material not greater than
5/8” thickness and temperature not exceeding 450 oF and also
for materials whose Sult is 55,000 psi or less
Fa = radiographing factor
= 1.12
= mandatory for vessels made of ASTM A-150 and A-149 steel
= can only be employed when all the main joints of the vessels
are radiographed otherwise it is will be 1.0
Fr = stress relieving factor
= 1.06 (1.0 if not stress –relieved)
= mandatory when the plate thickness of the shell or head at any
welded joints exceeds 1 ¼ inches
= mandatory for thinner plates when the thickness exceeds
( D + 50 ) / 20 where D is the shell diameter in inches. For D <
20 inches, D is assumed to be 20.
Working Stress (Sw) for ASME-UPV Code :

1. Usually using Factor of safety = 5.0

2. *Please refer to Table 12-10 p. 555 of Plant Design and Economics
for Chemical Engineers 5th edition by Peters and Timmerhaus

Recommended working stress values (𝐒𝐰 )

Temperature, °𝐂 𝐒𝐰 , 𝐤𝐏𝐚
Metal
-29 to 343 94,500
Carbon Steel
399 82,700
(SA-285, Gr. C)
454 57,200
Low Alloy Steel for -29 to 427 94,500
resistance to H2 and 510 75,800
H2 S (SA-387, Gr.12 565 34,500
C1.1 649 6,900
-29 to 399 137,900
High-tensile steel for
454 115,800
heavy wall vessels (SA-
510 69,000
302, Gr. B)
538 42,750
-29 128,900
High- Alloy steel for
343 77,200
cladding and corrosion
427 72,400
resitance Stainless 304
538 66,900
-29 128,900
345 79,300
Stainless 316
427 75,800
538 73,100
*(Please refer to the latest ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code)

II. HEAD Design

Head design equation for API -ASME Code :

1. Flanged and dished head

Crown
Radius

Flange Length

Knuckle
Radius

For Diameter of vessel 12” to 180” ( Head is seamless )

For Diameter of vessel 180 to 216 “ (one welded center seam)

Crown Radius (L) = inside diameter of vessel (D) – 6 inches

Knuckle Radius = three times the head thickness
= 6% of the inside diameter of vessel (D)
Flange Length = standard and dependent on thickness of the
head (Table 3-5 p. 70 PED)

For Head with pressure on the concave side :

𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝐩𝐋
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣
where:
tH = minimum wall thickness of the head
p = maximum allowable internal pressure
L = crown radius
𝐒𝐰 = maximum allowable working stress
𝐞𝐣 = efficiency of joint on the head
= 1.0 if head is seamless
For Head with pressure on the convex side :
 𝟏. 𝟑𝟗 𝐩𝐋
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣

2. Std. Ellipsoidal :
𝐩𝐃
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝟐 𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣

where:
tH = minimum wall thickness of the head
p = maximum allowable internal pressure
D = inside diameter of the vessel
𝐒𝐖 = maximum allowable working stress
𝐞𝐣 = efficiency of joint on the head
= 1.0 if head is seamless
3. Std. Dished :

𝐩𝐋𝐖
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝟐 𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣
where:
𝐊𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐤𝐥𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬
W = function of ( )
𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬
𝐊𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐤𝐥𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬
W
𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬
0.06 1.80
0.07 1.70
0.08 1.65
0.09 1.60
0.10 1.55
0.11 1.50
0.12 1.47
0.13 1.44
 0.14 1.41
0.15 1.40
0.16 1.38
0.17 1.37
0.18 1.35
0.19 1.32
0.20 1.30
0.25 1.25
0.50 1.12
1.00 1.00

4. Conical
𝐩𝐌
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝟐 (𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐀) 𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣
where:
M = arithmetic mean diameter of cone
A = half of the included angle which usually 60o
i.e. A = 30 o
5. Hemispherical
𝐩𝐃
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝟒 𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣
6. Flat Heads

𝟎. 𝟑𝐩
𝐭 𝐇 = 𝐃√ +𝑪
𝐒𝐰

𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝐩
𝐭 𝐇 = 𝐃√ +𝑪
𝐒𝐰
 𝟎. 𝟓𝐩
𝐭 𝐇 = 𝐃√ +𝑪
𝐒𝐰

** Note:
1. t H equations for ellipsoidal and dished, are for concave side. Multiply by
5/3 for convex side
2. For manhole consideration, add 15% on the computed 𝐭 𝐇

Head design equation for ASME- UPV Code :

( Refer to p. 554 Plant Design and Economics by Peters – 5th Edition

1. For Ellipsoidal Head:

𝐩𝐃
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝟐 𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝐩

2. For torispherical (spherically dished ) Head :

𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟓 𝐩 𝐋
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝐩

3. For hemispherical Head :

𝐩𝐋
𝐭𝐇 = +𝐂
𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝐩

Special design Equation for Spherical Shell (ASME-UPV Code):

𝐩𝐫
𝐭𝐬 = +𝐂 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭 𝐬 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝐫
𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝐩
 𝟑 𝟐𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝐩
𝐭 𝐒 = 𝐫 (√ )−𝐫+𝐂 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭 𝐬 > 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝐫
𝟐𝐒𝐰 𝐞𝐣 − 𝐩

where:
tS = minimum wall thickness of shell
p = maximum allowable internal pressure
r = inside radius of the shell before corrosion allowance
𝐒𝐰 = maximum allowable working stress
𝐞𝐣 = efficiency of joint expressed as fraction

Material of construction : UNS S31600

From Ch.E Handbook:
UNS S31600 Tensile Strength = 565 MPa (81,847.6 psi)
th
From Plant Design & Eco. by Peters & Timmerhaus 5 Ed. (T12-10 p. 555) :
SS 316 Working Stress Value (Sw) = 128,900 (18,700 psi)