Chapter 1 PDF

Functions, Limits and Continuity
Chapter 1
Eusebio R. Lina, Jr.
Department of Mathematics and Physics

Visayas State University
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte
August 29, 2017
Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Functions, Limits and Continuity August 29, 2017 1 / 130
Outline
1 Functions ans their Representations
2 Functions as Mathematical Models
3 Limit and Continuity

Introduction to Limits
Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
5 Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions and the Squeeze Theorem
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
Functions ans their Representations
Definition (Relation)
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
Definition (Function)
Let X and Y be two nonempty sets. A function from X into Y is a relation that
associates with each element of X exactly one element of Y.
Let X and Y be two nonempty sets. A function from X into Y is a relation that
associates with each element of X exactly one element of Y.
A function is a set of ordered pairs of numbers (x, y) in which no two distinct
ordered pairs have the same first number. The set of all admissible values of x
is called the domain of the function, and the set of all resulting values of y is
called the range of the function.
Working Definition
A function is an equation for which any x that can be plugged into the
equation will yield exactly one y out of the equation.
Remark
The symbols x and y denote variables. Because the value of y is dependent of
the value of x, x denotes the independent variable and y denotes the
dependent variable.
Notation
If f is the function having domain variable x and range variable y, the symbol
f (x)
denotes the particular value of y that corresponds to the value of x. The

notation f (x) is called the function value.
Example
Which of the following relations is/are function(s)?
1 {(−1, 0), (0, −3), (2, −3), (3, 0), (4, 5)}
2 {(6, 10), (−7, 3), (0, 4), (6, −4)}
3 {(1, 0), (−1, 0), (2, 0), (−2, 0), (3, 0), (−3, 0)}
4 {(0, 1).(0, −1), (0, 2), (0, −2), (0, 3), (0, −3)}
Example
Which of the following equations are functions and which are not?
1 y = 5x + 1
2 y = x2 − 1
3 y2 = x + 1
4 x 2 + y2 = 9
Evaluating Functions
Evaluating a function is really nothing more than asking what its value is for
specific values of x. Another way of looking at it is that we are asking what
the y value for a given x is.
Example
√
Given f (x) = x2 − 2x + 8 and g(x) = x + 6 evaluate each of the following.
1 f (3) and g(3) 5 f (t + 1) and f (x + 1)

2 f (−10) and g(−10) 6 f (x3 )
3 f (0)
4 f (t) 7 g(x2 − 5)
Piecewise Functions.
A piecewise function is a function that is broken into pieces and which piece
you use depends upon value of x.
Example
Given 
2 if t ≤ −4
3t + 4

g(t) = 10 if − 4 < t ≤ 15

1 − 6t if t > 15

evaluate each of the following.
1 g(−6) 4 g(15)
2 g(−4)
3 g(1) 5 g(21)
Determining the Domain and Range of Functions

The domain of an equation is the set of all x’s that we can plug into the
equation and get back a real number for y. The range of an equation is
the set of all y’s that we can ever get out of the equation.
Note that we did mean to use equation in the definitions above instead of
functions. These are really definitions for equations. However, since
functions are also equations we can use the definitions for functions as
well.
Determining the range of an equation/function can be pretty difficult to
do for many functions and so we aren’t going to really get into that. We
are much more interested here in determining the domains of functions.
From the definition the domain is the set of all x’s that we can plug into a
function and get back a real number. At this point, that means that we
need to avoid division by zero and taking square roots of negative
numbers.
Example
Determine the domain of each of the following functions.
x+3
1 g(x) =
x2 + 3x − 10
√
2 f (x) = 5 − 3x
√
7x + 8
3 h(x) =
x2 + 4
√
10x − 5
4 r(x) =
x2 − 16
Answers
1 All real numbers except −5 and 2.
2 {x : x ≤ 53 }
3 {x : x ≥ − 87 }
1
4 {x : x ≥ 2 except 4}
There are four possible ways to represent a function:

verbally (by a description in words)
numerically (by a table of values)
visually (by a graph)
algebraically (by an explicit formula)
Graph of a Function
If f is a function, then the graph of f is the set of all points (x, y) in the plane
R2 for which (x, y) is an ordered pair.
Vertical Line Test

A vertical line intersects the graph of a function in at most one point.
Example
Determine the domain and range of the following functions. Sketch the graph.
(
1 f (x) = (x − 1)3 + 1 −x2 + 4 if x < 1
3 h(x) =
2x − 1 if x ≥ 1

x − 1
 if x < 3
2 g(x) = 5 if x = 3 x2 − 9
4 f (x) =
x−3

2x + 1 if 3 < x.

5 g(x) = |x|
Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer function is defined by
f (x) = bxc
where
bxc = n if n ≤ x < n + 1, where n is an integer.
That is bxc is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Example
Sketch the graph of
g(x) = bxc − x.
Determine the domain and range.
Operations of Functions
New functions may be formed from given functions by adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing function values. Consequently, these new functions
are known as the sum, difference, product, and quotient of the original
functions.
Given two functions f and g:
(i) their sum, denoted by f + g, is the function defined by
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);
(ii) their difference, denoted by f − g, is the function defined by
(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x);
(iii) their product, denoted by f · g, is the function defined by
(f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x);
(iv) their quotient, denoted by f /g, is the function defined by
(f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x), g(x) 6= 0.

In each case (from the preceding definition) the domain of the resulting
function consists of the values of x common to the domains of f and g, with
the additional requirement in case (iv) that the values for x for which g(x) = 0
are excluded.
Composite Function
Given two functions f and g the composite function, defined by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
and the domain of f ◦ g is the set of all numbers x in the domain of g such that
g(x) is in the domain of f .
Example
Given f (x) = 2 + 3x − x2 and g(x) = 2x − 1, evaluate each of the following.
1 (f + g)(4)
2 g−f
3 (fg)(x)
4 (f /g)(0)
5 (f ◦ g)(x)
6 (g ◦ f )(x)
Even and Odd Function

(i) A function f is an even function if for every x in the domain of f ,
f (−x) = f (x).
(ii) A function f is an odd function if for every x in the domain of f ,
f (−x) = −f (x).
In both parts (i) and (ii), it is understood that −x is in the domain of f
whenever x is.
Types of Functions
1 Polynomial function
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0
(i) Constant function f (x) = c, where c is a constant

(ii) Identity function f (x) = x
(iii) Quadratic function
(iv) Cubic Function
2 Rational function − a function that can be expressed as a quotient of two
polynomial functions.
P(x)
R(x) = , Q(x) 6= 0.
Q(x)
Types of Functions
3 Algebraic function − a function formed by a finite number of algebraic
operations on the identity function and constant function. For example,
(x3 − 2x2 + 5)7

f (x) = √
3 5
x −4
4 Transcendental function
(i) Trigonometric functions
(ii) Logarithmic functions
(iii) Exponential functions
(iv) Inverse trigonometric functions
(v) Hyperbolic functions
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
Functions as Mathematical Models
In applications of calculus, we need to express a real-world situation in terms

of a functional relationship, called mathematical model.
Example
Express the hypotenuse h of a right triangle with an area of 25m2 as a function
of its perimeter P.
Example
Express the hypotenuse h of a right triangle with an area of 25m2 as a function
of its perimeter P.
Example
A rectangular storage container with an open top has a volume of 10 m. The
length of its base is twice its width. Material for the base costs $10 per square
meter; material for the sides costs $6 per square meter. Express the cost of
materials as a function of the width of the base.
Example
A box with an open top is to be constructed from a rectangular piece of
cardboard with dimensions 12 in. by 20 in. by cutting out equal squares of
side at each corner and then folding up the sides as in the figure. Express the
volume V of the box as a function of x.
Example
The volume of a gas having a constant pressure is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature, and at a temperature of 175◦ the gas occupies 100 m3 .
(a) Find the mathematical model expressing volume as a function of
temperature.
(b) What is the volume of the gas at temperature 140◦ ?
Example
A wholesaler sells a product by the pound (or fraction of a pound); if not more
than 10 pounds are ordered, the wholesaler charges $2 per pound. However,
to invite large orders the wholesaler charges only $1.80 per pound if more
than 10 pounds are ordered.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the total cost of the order as a
function of the product ordered.
(b) Sketch the graph of the function in part (a).
(c) Determine the total cost of an order of 9.5 lb and of an order of 10.5 lb.
Example
In a forest predator feeds on prey, and for the first time since the end of the
hunting season the predator population is a function f of x, the number of prey
in the forest, which in turn is a function g of t, the number of weeks that have
elapsed since the end of the hunting season. If
1 2
f (x) = x − 2x + 50 and g(t) = 4t + 52,
48
where 0 ≤ t ≤ 15, do the following
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the predator population as a
function of the number of weeks since the end of the hunting season.
(b) Find the predator population 11 weeks after the close of the hunting
season.
Quiz
Perform the following as indicated.
r
x−5
1 Define the domain of the function f (x) = .
x2 + x − 6
|x − 3|
2 Give the domain and range of the function g(x) = . Sketch the
3−x
graph.
3 Determine analytically whether the function is even, odd or neither.
(
z3 − z −2 if x < 0
(a) f (z) = 2 (c) h(x) =
z +1 2 if 0 ≤ x
|x|
(b) g(x) = 4
x +5
1 2
4 Let f (x) = and g(x) = 2 .
x−1 x +1
(a) Find (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).
(b) Find the domain of (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).
(c) Evaluate (f ◦ g)( 12 ) and (g ◦ f )( 12 ).
Problem Set
1 Find a formula for the described function and state its domain.
(a) A rectangle has perimeter 20 m. Express the area of the rectangle as a
function of the length of one of its sides.
(b) Express the surface area of a cube as a function of its volume.
(c) An open rectangular box with volume 2 m3 has a square base. Express the
surface area of the box as a function of the length of a side of the base.
2 For a vibrating spring, the rate of vibrations is directly proportional to
the square root of the tension on the string, and a particular string
vibrates 864 times per second under a tension of 24 kg.
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the number of vibrations as a
function of the tension.
(b) Find the number of vibrations per second under a tension of 6 kg.
Problem Set
3 In a lake, a large fish feeds on a medium-size fish, and the population of

the large fish is a function f of x, the number of medium-size fish in the
lake. In turn, the medium-size fish feed on small fish, and the population
of the medium-size fish is a function of w, the number of small fish in the
lake. If √ √
f (x) = 20x + 150 and g(w) = w + 5000,
do the following:
(a) Find a mathematical model expressing the population of the large fish as a
function of the number of small fish.
(b) Find the number of large fish when the lake contains 9 million small fish.
4 A taxi company charges two dollars for the first mile (or part of a mile)
and 20 cents for each succeeding tenth of a mile (or part). Express the
cost C (in dollars) of a ride as a function of the distance x traveled (in
miles) for , 0 < x < 2, and sketch the graph of this function.
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
What is a limit?
Definition
Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval containing
a, except possibly at the number a itself. The limit of f (x) as x approaches a
in L, written as
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if the following is true: Given any > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0
such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − L| < .
An Intuitive Introduction
Limits, the foundations of calculus, seem so artificial and weasely: “Let x
approach 0, but not get there, yet we’ll act like it’s there . . .” Ugh.
Limits, the foundations of calculus, seem so artificial and weasely: “Let x
approach 0, but not get there, yet we’ll act like it’s there . . .” Ugh.
Understanding Limit
What is a limit? Our best prediction of a point we didn’t observe.
How do we make a prediction? Zoom into the neighboring points. If
our prediction is always in-between neighboring points, no matter how
much we zoom, that’s our estimate.
Why do we need limits? Math has black hole scenarios (dividing by
zero, going to infinity), and limits give us an estimate when we can’t
compute a result directly.
How do we know we’re right? We don’t. Our prediction, the limit, isn’t
required to match reality. But for most natural phenomena, it sure seems
to.
Limits let us ask “What if?”. If we can directly observe a function at a
value (like x = 0, or x growing infinitely), we don’t need a prediction.
The limit wonders, “If you can see everything except a single value, what
do you think is there?”.
When our prediction is consistent and improves the closer we look, we
feel confident in it. And if the function behaves smoothly, like most
real-world functions do, the limit is where the missing point must be.
Pretend you’re watching a soccer game. Unfortunately, the connection is
choppy:
Ack! We missed what happened at 4:00. Even so, what’s your prediction
for the ball’s position?
Easy. Just grab the neighboring instants (3:59 and 4:01) and predict the
ball to be somewhere in-between.
And it works! Real-world objects don’t teleport; they move through
intermediate positions along their path from A to B. Our prediction is
“At 4:00, the ball was between its position at 3:59 and 4:01”. Not bad.
With a slow-motion camera, we might even say “At 4:00, the ball was
between its positions at 3:59.999 and 4:00.001”.
A Geometric Example
Look at a polygon inscribed in a circle:
A Geometric Example
Look at a polygon inscribed in a circle:
As the number of sides of the polygon increases, the polygon is getting closer
to becoming a circle.
If we refer to the polygon as an n-gon, where n is the number of sides we can

make some mathematical statements:
As n gets larger, the n-gon gets closer to being a circle.
As n approaches infinity, the n-gon approaches the circle.
The limit of the n-gon, as n goes to infinity is the circle.
The symbolic statement is:

lim (n − gon) = circle
n→∞
The n-gon never really gets to be the circle, but it gets close - really, really
close, and for all practical purposes, it may as well be the circle. That is what
limits are all about!
FYI
Archimedes used this method WAY before calculus to find the area of a circle.
Finding π “experimentally” is tough: bust out a string and a ruler?

We can’t measure a shape with seemingly infinite sides, but we can
wonder “Is there a predicted value for π that is always accurate as we
keep increasing the sides?”
Archimedes figured out that π had a range of
10 1
3 <π<3
71 7
using a process like this:
An Informal Description of Limit

If f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to a single number L as x approaches c from
either side, the limit for f (x) as x approaches c, is L. This limit is written as
lim f (x) = L.
x→c
Graphical Introduction to Limits of Functions

Consider the function f (x) = 2x − 1.
x −2 −1 0 1 2 3
f (x) −5 −3 −1 1 ? ?

We can examine what occurs at a particular point by the limit ideas presented
in the previous chapter. Using the function
f (x) = 2x − 1,
let us examine what happens near x = 2 through the following chart:

Consider the function
2x2 + x − 3
f (x) = .
x−1
+x−3 2
x f (x) = 2x x−1
0 0.3
0.25 3.5
0.5 4
0.75 4.5
0.9 4.8
0.99 4.98
0.999 4.998
0.9999 4.9998
0.99999 4.99998

2x2 + x − 3
f (x) = .
x−1
+x−3 2
x f (x) = 2x x−1
2 7
1.75 6.5
1.5 6.0
1.75 5.5
1.1 5.2
1.01 5.02
1.001 5.002
1.0001 5.0002
1.00001 5.00002
Definition
Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval containing
a, except possibly at the number a itself. The limit of f (x) as x approaches a
in L, written as
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if the following is true: Given any > 0, however small, there exists a δ > 0
such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − L| < .
Making the Definition Readable
Example
Use the definition to prove
lim (4x − 5) = 3.
x→2
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
Limit Theorems
Theorem (Limit of a Linear Function)

If m and b are any constants
lim mx + b = ma + b.
x→a
Theorem (Limit of a Constant)

If c is a constant, then for any number a
lim c = c.
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem (Limit of an Identity Function)

If m and b are any constants
lim x = a.
x→a
Theorem (Limit of the Sum and Difference of Two Functions)

If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M, then
x→a x→a
lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± M.

x→a
Theorem (Limit of the Sum and Difference of n Functions)

If lim f1 (x) = L1 , lim f2 (x) = L2 , . . . and lim fn (x) = Ln , then
x→a x→a x→a
lim [f1 (x) ± f2 (x) ± . . . ± fn (x)] = L1 ± L2 ± . . . ± Ln .

x→a
Limit Theorems
Example
Evaluate the following limits.
1 lim (2x − 7)
x→−2
2 lim 15
x→100
3 lim x
x→99
Limit Theorems
Theorem (Limit of the Product of Two Functions)
x→a x→a
lim [f (x) · g(x)] = LM.

x→a
Theorem (Limit of the Product of n Functions)

If lim f1 (x) = L1 , lim f2 (x) = L2 , . . . and lim fn (x) = Ln , then
x→a x→a x→a
lim [f1 (x)f2 (x) . . . fn (x)] = L1 L2 . . . Ln .

x→a
Theorem (Limit of the nth Power of a Function)

If lim f (x) = L and n is any integer, then
x→a
lim [f (x)]n = Ln .
x→a
Limit Theorems
Example
4 lim 5x(2x − 7)
x→2
5 lim (6x + 17)5
x→−3
6 lim [5x4 − 4x3 + 3x2 − 15]
x→−2
Limit Theorems
Theorem (Limit of the Quotient of Two Functions)

x→a x→a
f (x) L
lim = , if M 6= 0.
x→a g(x) M
Theorem (Limit of the nth Root of a Function)

If n is a positive integer and lim f (x) = L, then
x→a
p
n
√n
lim f (x) = L
x→a
with the restriction that if n is even, L > 0.
Limit Theorems
Theorem (Limit of the nth Power of a Function)
If lim f (x) = L and n is any integer, then
x→a
lim [f (x)]n = Ln .
x→a
Theorem
If a is any real number except zero, then
1 1
lim = .
x→a x a
Theorem
If a > 0 and n is a positive integer, or if a ≤ 0 and n is an odd positive integer,
then √ √
lim n x = n a.
x→a
Limit Theorems
Theorem (Uniqueness of a Limit)

If it exists, lim f (x) is unique. That is, if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = M, then
x→a x→a x→a
L = M.
Limit Theorems
Example
2x − 7
7 lim 2
x→4 x − 12
r
2x − 7
8 lim 4 2
x→4 x − 12
s
x3 + 2x + 3
9 lim
x→2 x2 + 5
25 − x2
10 lim
x→5 5 − x
√
x−3
11 lim
x→9 x − 9
Exercises
Find the limit.
1 lim (z3 + 8) 3x − 1
z→−2
8 lim
x→1/3 9x2 − 1
2 lim (y3 − 2y2 + 3y − 4)
y→−1 3x2 − 17x + 20
3x + 4
9 lim
x→4 4x2 − 25x + 36
3 lim
x→2 8x − 1 s3 − 1
2x + 1 10 lim
4 lim 2 s→1 s − 1
x→−1 x − 3x + 4 s
s
x2 + 3x + 4 8t3 − 27
5 lim
11 lim
x→2 x3 + 1 t→3/2 4t2 − 9
√
x+5−2
r
5 + 2x
6 lim 3 12 lim
x→−3 5−x x→−1 x+1
√
z2 − 25 3
x−1
7 lim 13 lim
z→−5 z + 5 x→1 x − 1
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
One-sided Limits
Consider the function √

f (x) = 4 − x.
What is
lim f (x)?
x→4
One-sided Limits
Numbers x near c fall into two natural categories: those that lie to the left of c
and those that lie to the right of c.
Left-hand Limit
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→c−
to indicate that as x approaches c from the left, f (x) approaches L.
One-sided Limits
Numbers x near c fall into two natural categories: those that lie to the left of c
and those that lie to the right of c.
Left-hand Limit
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→c−
to indicate that as x approaches c from the left, f (x) approaches L.
Right-hand limit
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→c+
to indicate that as x approaches c from the right, f (x) approaches L.
One-sided Limits
One-sided Limits
Existence of a Limit
One-sided limits give us a simple way of determining whether or not a
(two-sided) limit exists:
lim f (x) = L
x→c
if and only if
lim f (x) = L
x→c−
and
lim f (x) = L.
x→c+
One-sided Limits
Example
Let (
2x + 1, if x ≤ 0
f (x) =
x2 − x if x > 0.
Find
lim f (x).
x→0
One-sided Limits
Example
Let (
2x + 1, if x ≤ 0
f (x) =
x2 − x if x > 0.
Find
lim f (x).
x→0
One-sided Limits
Example
Let h be defined by (
4 − x2 , if x ≤ 1
h(x) =
2 + x2 , if 1 < x.
Find each of the following limits if they exist:
lim h(x); lim h(x); lim h(x).

x→1− x→1+ x→1
One-sided Limits
Example
Find, if it exists,
|x − 10|
lim .
x→10 x − 10
One-sided Limits
Example
Let h be defined by

x√+ 5,
 if x < −3
h(x) = 9 − x2 , if − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3

3 − x, if 3 < x.

Find each of the following limits if they exist:
lim h(x); lim h(x); lim h(x); lim h(x); lim h(x); lim h(x)
x→−3− x→−3+ x→−3 x→3− x→3+ x→3
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
Infinite Limits
In this section, we discuss functions whose values increase or decrease

without bound as the independent variable gets closer and closer to a fixed
number.

5
f (x) = .
x2
Infinite Limits
Definition (Function Values Increasing without Bound)

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval I containing
a, except possibly at the number a itself. As x approaches a, f(x) increases
without bound, which is written
lim f (x) = +∞
x→a
if for any number N > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that if
0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) > N.
Infinite Limits
Definition (Function Values Decreasing without Bound)

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval I containing
a, except possibly at the number a itself. As x approaches a, f(x) decreases
without bound, which is written
lim f (x) = −∞
x→a
if for any number N > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that if
0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) < N.
Infinite Limits
Theorem
If r is any positive integer, then
1
(i) lim r = +∞;
x→0 x
+
(
1 −∞ if r is odd
(ii) lim r =
x→0 x
−
+∞ if r is even
Infinite Limits
Theorem
If a is any real number and if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = c, where c is any
x→a x→a
constant not equal to 0, then
(i) if c > 0 and f (x) → 0 through positive values of f (x),
g(x)
lim = +∞.
x→a f (x)
(ii) if c > 0 and f (x) → 0 through negative values of f (x),
g(x)
lim = −∞.
x→a f (x)
Infinite Limits
Theorem
(iii) if c < 0 and f (x) → 0 through positive values of f (x),
g(x)
lim = −∞.
x→a f (x)
(iv) if c < 0 and f (x) → 0 through negative values of f (x),
g(x)
lim = +∞.
x→a f (x)
The theorem is also valid if x → a is replaced by x → a+ or x → a− .
Infinite Limits
Example
Evaluate the ff. limits, if they exist.
√
2x x2 − 4
1 lim 5 lim
x→1 x − 1 x→2+ x − 2
x2 + x + 2
2 lim 2 √
x→3+ x − 2x − 3 4 − x2
x2 + x + 2 6 lim
3 lim 2 x→2− x − 2
x→3− x − 2x − 3
x2 + x + 2 bxc − 4
4 lim 2 7 lim
x→3 x − 2x − 3 x→4− x−4
Infinite Limits
Theorem
(i) If lim f (x) = +∞, and lim g(x) = c, where c is any constant, then
x→a x→a
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = +∞.

x→a
(ii) If lim f (x) = −∞, and lim g(x) = c, where c is any constant, then
x→a x→a
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = −∞.

x→a
Infinite Limits
Theorem
If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is any constant except 0, then
x→a x→a
(i) if c > 0, lim f (x) · g(x) = +∞;
x→a
(ii) if c < 0, lim f (x) · g(x) = −∞.
x→a
Infinite Limits
Theorem
If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is any constant except 0, then
x→a x→a
(i) if c > 0, lim f (x) · g(x) = +∞;
x→a
(ii) if c < 0, lim f (x) · g(x) = −∞.
x→a
Theorem
If lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = c, where c is any constant except 0, then
x→a x→a
(i) if c > 0, lim f (x) · g(x) = −∞;
x→a
(ii) if c < 0, lim f (x) · g(x) = +∞.
x→a
Infinite Limits
Example
Find the limit, if it exists.

1 1
1 lim +
x→2+ x − 2 x+2

5 x+4
2 lim ·
x→3 (x − 3)3 x − 4
"√ #
4 − x2 x − 3
3 lim ·
x→2− x−2 x+2
Infinite Limits
Definition (Verical Asymptote)

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function f if at least
one of the following statements is true.
(i) lim f (x) = +∞
x→a+
(ii) lim f (x) = −∞
x→a+
(iii) lim f (x) = +∞
x→a−
(iv) lim f (x) = −∞
x→a−
Infinite Limits
Example
Find the vertical asymptote of the graph of function f defined by
3
f (x) = .
x−3
Exercise
Find the limit analytically.

√
2−t x2 − 3
1 lim 5 lim
t→2− (t − 2)2 x→0+ x3
+ x2
√
3 + x2 1 3
2 lim 6 lim − 2
x→0+ x s→2− s − 2 s −4
√
3 + x2 2x3 − 5x2
3 lim 7 lim
x→0 x2 x→1− x2 − 1
√
16 − x2 bx2 c − 1
4 lim 8 lim
x→4− x−4 x→1− x2 − 1
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
Limit at Infinity
Introduction
In this section, we consider limits of functions when the independent variable
either increases or decreases without bound.
Limit at Infinity
Introduction
In this section, we consider limits of functions when the independent variable
either increases or decreases without bound.
6x2 − 5x
f (x) = .
3x2 + 1
Let x take on the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 100, 1000, 100000, and so on,
allowing x to increase without bound. What happened to the value of f (x) as x
increases without bound?
Limit at Infinity
Definition (Limit of f (x) as x Increases without Bound)

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval
(a, +∞). The limit of f (x), as x increases without bound, is L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→+∞
if for any > 0, however small, there exists a number N > 0 such that
if x > N then |f (x) − L| < .
Limit at Infinity
Definition (Limit of f (x) as x Decreases without Bound)

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval
(−∞, a). The limit of f (x), as x decreases without bound, is L, written
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
if for any > 0, however small, there exists a number N < 0 such that
if x < N then |f (x) − L| < .
Limit at Infinity
Theorem
If r is any positive integer, then
1
(i) lim r = 0
x→+∞ x
1
(ii) lim r = 0
x→−∞ x
Limit at Infinity
Evaluate each of the following limits.

1 lim (2x4 − x2 − 8x)
x→+∞

1 5 3 2
2 lim t + 2t − t + 8
t→−∞ 3
Limit at Infinity
Evaluate each of the following limits.

1 lim (2x4 − x2 − 8x)
x→+∞

1 5 3 2
2 lim t + 2t − t + 8
t→−∞ 3
Important Note
If p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial of degree n (i.e.
an 6= 0) then,
lim p(x) = lim an xn and lim p(x) = lim an xn .

x→+∞ x→+∞ x→−∞ x→−∞
Limit at Infinity
Example
4x − 3
1 lim
x→+∞ 2x + 5
2x2 − x + 5
2 lim
x→−∞ 4x3 − 1
3x + 4
3 lim √
x→+∞ 2x2 − 5
3x + 4
4 lim √
x→−∞ 2x2 − 5
4z2 + z6
5 lim
z→+∞ 1 − 5z3
4z2 + z6
6 lim
z→−∞ 1 − 5z3
Limit at Infinity
Exercise
8 + x − 4x2
s
3 x2 + 3 4 lim √
1 lim x→−∞ 6 + x2 + 7x4
x→+∞ 27x2 − 1 √
t + 12t − 2t2
3

h i 5 lim
x→−∞
p
2 lim 2x + 1 − 4x2 + 5
x→+∞ 3x7 − 4x2 + 1
6 lim
8 + x − 4x2 x→+∞ 5 − 10x2
3 lim √ 4z2 + z3
x→+∞ 6 + x2 + 7x4 7 lim √
z→−∞ 5z8 + 9z4 − 40
Limit at Infinity
Definition (Horizontal Asymptote)

The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of the function f if at
least one of the following statements is true:
(i) lim f (x) = b, and for some number N, if x > N, then f (x) 6= b;
x→+∞
(ii) lim f (x) = b, and for some number N, if x < N, then f (x) 6= b.
x→−∞
Limit at Infinity
Example
Find the horizontal asymptotes of the graph of the function defined by
x
f (x) = √ .
x2 +1
Limit at Infinity
Definition (Oblique Asymptote)

The graph of f of the function has the line y = mx + b as an asymptote if
either of the following statements is true:
(i) lim [f (x) − (mx + b)] = 0, and for some number M > 0,
x→+∞
f (x) 6= mx + b whenever x > M;
(ii) lim [f (x) − (mx + b)] = 0, and for some number M < 0,
x→−∞
f (x) 6= mx + b whenever x < M.
Limit at Infinity
Example
Given
x2 + 3
h(x) = .
x−1
Find the asymptotes of the graph of h.
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
Continuity
Introduction
Most of the techniques of calculus require that functions be continuous.
In mathematics, the term continuous has much the same meaning as it
has in everyday usage.
Intuitively, a function is continuous if you can draw it in one motion
without picking up your pencil. That is, a function is continuous if its
graph has no breaks or jumps.
Continuity
Continuity at a Point
Informally, to say that a function f is continuous at x = c means that there is
no interruption in the graph of f at c. That is the graph is unbroken at c, and
there are no holes, gaps, or jumps. Three conditions exist for which the graph
of f is not continuous at c.
Continuity
Continuity at a Point
In the figure above, it appears that continuity at x = c can be destroyed by any
one of the three conditions.
1 The function is not defined at x = c.
2 The limit of f (x) does not exist.
3 The limit of f (x) exists at x = c, but is not equal to f (c).
If none of these three conditions is true, then the function f is called
continuous at c.
Continuity
Definition (Continuous Function at a Number c)

The function f is said to be continuous at the number a if and only if the
following conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (c) exists;
(ii) lim f (x) exists;
x→c
(iii) lim f (x) = f (c).
x→c
If one ore more of these three conditions fails to hold at c, the function f is
said to be discontinuous at c
Continuity
Definition (Continuous on an Open Interval)

A function is continuous on an open interval (a, b) when the function is
continuous at each point in the interval. A function that is continuous on the
entire real number line (−∞, ∞) is everywhere continuous.
Continuity
Type of Discontinuity
Discontinuities fall into two categories:
1 removable discontinuity
2 nonremovable or essential discontinuity
jump discontinuity
infinite discontinuity
Continuity
Continuity
Example
Discuss the continuity of each of the following functions.
(
2x + 3 if x 6= 1
1 f (x) =
2 if x = 1.
1
2 h(x) =
x−2
(
3 + x if x ≤ 1
3 f (x) =
3 − x if x > 1.
(
|x − 3| if x 6= 3
4 F(x) =
2 if x = 3.
√
x
5 f (x) =
x−4
Continuity
Theorem
If f and g are two functions continuous at the number c, then
(i) f + g is continuous at c;
(ii) f − g is continuous at c;
(iii) f · g is continuous at c;
(iv) f /g is continuous at c, provided that g(c) 6= 0.
Continuity
Theorem
1 A polynomial is continuous at every number.
2 A rational function is continuous at every number in its domain.
3 If n is a positive integer and
√
n
f (x) = n
then
(i) if n is odd, f is everywhere continuous,
(ii) if n is even, f is continuous at every positive number.
4 If the function g is continuous at c and the function f is continuous at
g(c), then the composite function f ◦ g is continuous at c.
Continuity
Definition (Right-hand Continuity)

The function f is said to be continuous from the right at the number c if
and only if the following three conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (c) exists;
x→c+
x→c+
Continuity
Definition (Left-hand Continuity)

The function f is said to be continuous from the left at the number c if and
only if the following three conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (c) exists;
x→c−
x→c−
Continuity
Definition (Continuity on a Closed Interval)

A function whose domain includes the closed interval [a, b] is said to be
continuous on [a, b] if and only if it is continuous on the open interval (a, b),
as well as continuous from the right at a and continuous from the left at b.
Continuity
Exercise
1 By observing where there is a break in the graph, determine the number
at which the function is discontinuous. State the reason.
( 
x2 +x−6 2
(a) g(x) = x+3 , if x 6= −3 t − 4
 if t < 2
1, if x = −3 (c) g(t) = 4 if t = 2

4 − t2 if t > 2.

5
(b) h(x) = |x|
x−4 (d) f (x) =
x
2 Determine the numbers at which the function is continuous and state the
reason.
(
1
(a) f (t) = t3 (t − 3)2 x+1 if x ≤ 1
x (d) f (x) = 1
(b) g(x) = if 1 < x
x−3 ( 3−x √
t3 + 7 x+ 3x if x < 0
(c) f (t) = 2 (e) h(x) = √
t −4 x− x if 0 ≤ x
Continuity
Exercise
1 Define f ◦ g and determine the numbers at which f ◦ g is continuous.
1 √
(a) f (x) = ; g(x) = x
x√− 2
4 − x2
(b) f (x) = ; g(x) = |x|
x−1
2 Determine for each of the indicated intervals whether the function is
continuous on that interval.
t
(a) f (t) = 2−1
; (0, 1), (−1, 1), [0, 1], (−1, 0], (−∞, −1], (1, +∞)
tp
(b) g(x) = x2 − 9; (−∞, −3), (−∞, −3], (3, +∞), [3, +∞), (−3, 3)
|t − 1|
(c) f (t) = ; (−∞, 1), (−∞, 1], [−1, 1], (−1, +∞, (1, +∞)
t−1
Outline

Limit Theorems
One-sided Limits
Infinite Limits
Limit at Infinity
4 Continuity
The Squeeze Theorem
Theorem
Suppose that the functions f , g, and h are defined on some open interval I
containing c except possibly at c itself, and that f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x
in I for which x 6= a. Also, suppose that
lim f (x) and lim h(x)

x→c x→c
both exist and are equal to L. Then lim g(x) exists and
x→c
lim g(x) = L.
x→c
The Squeeze Theorem
Example
Given |g(x) − 2| ≤ 3(x − 1)2 for all x. Use the Squeeze Theorem to find
lim g(x).
x→1
pause
Example
Use Squeeze theorem to prove that

1
lim x sin = 0.

x→0 x
Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions
Theorem
sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
Theorem
1 − cos t
lim =0
x→0 t
Theorem
The sine function is continuous at 0.
Theorem
The cosine function is continuous at 0.
Example
sin 3x
1 lim
x→0 sin 5x
1 − cos x
2 lim
x→0 sin x
2 tan2 x
3 lim
x→0 x2
Theorem
The sine and cosine functions are continuous at every real number.
Theorem
The tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are continuous on
their domains.
For Further Reading I
[1] Larson, Ron and Edwards, Bruce H., Calculus, 9th ed., CENGAGE
Learning, USA, 2010.
[2] Liethold, Louis, The Calculus 7, Harper Collins, 1996.
[3] Stewart, James, Calculus, Early Transcendentals, 8th ed., CENGAGE

Learning, USA, 2016.
[4] An Intuitive Introduction to Limits. Retreived from

https://betterexplained.com/articles/an-intuitive-introduction-to-
limits/ on August
2017.
End of Presentation
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Functions, Limits and Continuity

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr.

Department of Mathematics and Physics

August 29, 2017

1 Functions ans their Representations

2 Functions as Mathematical Models

3 Limit and Continuity

5 Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions and the Squeeze Theorem

1 Functions ans their Representations

2 Functions as Mathematical Models

3 Limit and Continuity

5 Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions and the Squeeze Theorem

denotes the particular value of y that corresponds to the value of x. The

1 f (3) and g(3) 5 f (t + 1) and f (x + 1)

evaluate each of the following.

Determining the Domain and Range of Functions

There are four possible ways to represent a function:

Vertical Line Test

Greatest Integer Function

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);

(ii) their difference, denoted by f − g, is the function defined by

(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x);

(iii) their product, denoted by f · g, is the function defined by

(f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x);

(iv) their quotient, denoted by f /g, is the function defined by

(f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x), g(x) 6= 0.

Even and Odd Function

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0

(i) Constant function f (x) = c, where c is a constant

(x3 − 2x2 + 5)7

1 Functions ans their Representations

2 Functions as Mathematical Models

3 Limit and Continuity

5 Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions and the Squeeze Theorem

In applications of calculus, we need to express a real-world situation in terms

3 In a lake, a large fish feeds on a medium-size fish, and the population of

1 Functions ans their Representations

2 Functions as Mathematical Models

3 Limit and Continuity

5 Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions and the Squeeze Theorem

1 Functions ans their Representations

2 Functions as Mathematical Models

3 Limit and Continuity

5 Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions and the Squeeze Theorem

If we refer to the polygon as an n-gon, where n is the number of sides we can

The symbolic statement is:

Finding π “experimentally” is tough: bust out a string and a ruler?

An Informal Description of Limit

Graphical Introduction to Limits of Functions

Graphical Introduction to Limits of Functions

let us examine what happens near x = 2 through the following chart:

Graphical Introduction to Limits of Functions

Graphical Introduction to Limits of Functions

Making the Definition Readable

1 Functions ans their Representations

2 Functions as Mathematical Models

3 Limit and Continuity

5 Continuity of the Trigonometric Functions and the Squeeze Theorem

Theorem (Limit of a Linear Function)

Theorem (Limit of a Constant)

Theorem (Limit of an Identity Function)

Theorem (Limit of the Sum and Difference of Two Functions)

lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± M.

if x > N then |f (x) − L| < .

if x < N then |f (x) − L| < .