Reincarnation research - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Reincarnation_research
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation_research

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Reincarnation research is a branch of parapsychology concerning reincarnation, specifically the study of

"cases of the reincarnation type", that is, cases in which a young child "spontaneously makes remarks about a
previous life he would have led before his birth",[1] about a person with whom the child identifies himself.[2]
Psychiatrist Ian Stevenson, from the University of Virginia School of Medicine, investigated many reports of
young children who claimed to remember a past life. He conducted more than 2,500 case studies over a period
of 40 years and published twelve books, including Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation and Where
Reincarnation and Biology Intersect. Stevenson retired in 2002, and psychiatrist Jim B. Tucker took over his
work and wrote Life Before Life. Other people who have undertaken research on reincarnation include Satwant
Pasricha, Godwin Samararatne, Antonia Mills, and Erlendur Haraldsson. Research methods have involved
analysis of childhood memories, corresponding birthmarks, and psychological/cultural characteristics.

No line of research has conclusively demonstrated the existence of reincarnation. The scientific community in
general considers reincarnation research to be pseudoscientific.[3][4] Some parapsychologists advocate
developing protocols to guide, sort, compare, and evaluate cases studies.[5]

1 Researchers
2 Methods
2.1 Children's memories
2.2 Corresponding birthmarks
2.3 Psychological and cultural characteristics
2.4 Independent replication
2.5 Reviews
2.6 Research protocols
3 Criticism
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links

Several researchers are examining cases of early childhood past life memories and birthmarks at the University
of Virginia Division of Perceptual Studies in the School of Medicine. Two of the best known researchers at
Virginia are the psychiatrists Jim B. Tucker (Bonner-Lowry Associate Professor of Personality Studies) and Ian
Stevenson (Professor of psychiatry and head of the Division of Perceptual Studies until his retirement in 2002)
and between them they have published many books and dozens of research papers in peer-reviewed journals.[6]

Other people who have undertaken research on reincarnation include Satwant Pasricha, Antonia Mills, Godwin
Samararatne, Erlendur Haraldsson and H. H. Jürgen Keil. Pasricha is the head of the Department of Clinical
Psychology at the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences in India.[7] In 2008, she wrote the

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book Can the Mind Survive Beyond Death?: Reincarnation Research.[8] Mills is an anthropologist and
professor of First Nation Studies at University of Northern British Columbia, specializing in First Nations
peoples' reincarnation beliefs and cases.[9] In 1994, she co-edited (with Richard Slobodin) Amerindian Rebirth:
Reincarnation Belief Among North American Indians and Inuit. Haraldsson is Professor Emeritus of
psychology at the Faculty of social science at the University of Iceland.[citation needed]

Mills, Haraldsson and Keil conducted independent replication studies of Stevenson's reincarnation research from
1987 to 1994[2] and subsequently continued independent research in the field.

Children's memories

Ian Stevenson, a Canadian biochemist and professor of psychiatry, investigated many reports of young children
who claimed to remember a past life with events that occurred during a previous life, ultimately conducting
more than 2,500 case studies over the course of his lifetime and publishing twelve books. Stevenson undertook
reincarnation research throughout the world, including North and South America, Europe, Africa and Asia.[10]

According to Stevenson, childhood memories ostensibly related to reincarnation normally occur between the
ages of three and seven years then fade shortly afterwards. He compared the memories with reports of people
known to the deceased, attempting to do so before any contact between the child and the deceased's family had
occurred.[11]

Stevenson found that the vast majority of cases investigated involved people who had met some sort of violent
or untimely death.[11][12]

Corresponding birthmarks

Some 35 percent of the subjects examined by Stevenson had birthmarks or birth defects. Stevenson reported
that in the majority of these cases "the subject's marks or defects correspond to injuries or illness experienced by
the deceased person who the subject remembers; and medical documents have confirmed this correspondence in
more than forty cases".[13] Many of the birthmarks are not just small discolourations. They are "often unusual in
shape or size and are often puckered or raised rather than simply being flat. Some can be quite dramatic and
unusual in appearance."[14] Stevenson believed that the existence of birth marks and deformities on children,
when they occurred at the location of fatal wounds in the deceased, provided the best evidence for
reincarnation.[12] and he subsequently wrote Reincarnation and Biology: A Contribution to the Etiology of
Birthmarks and Birth Defects.[15]

Psychological and cultural characteristics

Erlendur Haraldsson and colleagues conducted several studies of the personality, abilities and psychological
characteristics of children who claim memories of a previous life, comparing them with paired children who did
not.[16][17][18] The objective of these studies was to determine the role certain psychological characteristics the
children might have as possible explanations for their past-life memories, such as, fantasy, suggestibility, social
isolation, dissociation and attention seeking. In a study of 23 children pairs in Sri Lanka, those claiming
memories of a previous life had greater verbal skills and better memory than their peers, performed much better
in school, and were more socially active, but were not more suggestible.[16] In a further study of 27 children

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pairs in Sri Lanka, one evaluation checklist revealed that the target children exhibited more behavioral
problems, including oppositional traits, and obsessional and perfectionistic characteristics, and a dissociation
instrument showed them to have dissociative tendencies such as rapid changes in personality and frequent
daydreaming.[17] In a later study of 30 children pairs from Lebanon, children claiming memories of a previous
life tested higher for daydreaming, attention seeking and dissociation but not for suggestibility and social
isolation. The level of dissociation was much lower than cases of multiple personality and was not clinically
relevant. There was some evidence of post-traumatic stress disorder-like symptoms; eighty percent of the
children spoke of memories of a violent death, mostly from accidents but also war-related deaths and murders. It
is possible the repeated appearance of this imagery serves as a stressor.[18]

Antonia Mills reported an on-going longitudinal study of Hindu and Muslim children who reported memories of
a previous life, both with and without a shift in religion, from Hindu to Muslim or vice versa.[19] The objective is
to evaluate the later effect of the children's experience as young adults, how it impacts their attitude toward
efforts at Hindu—Muslim reconciliation, their integration in their communities, and whether they score higher
on dissociative and psychic experience scales than those who have no such memories. These cases of a shift in
religion are very rare. Reincarnation is accepted as a reality by Hindus, yet most of the reported cases entail
someone who died violently and came back quickly. Muslims do not formally accept reincarnation as a
possibility, yet they report about as many cases of children remembering a life in the "other" religion as do the
Hindus.

Independent replication

In further research, Antonia Mills, an anthropologist specializing in First Nations studies, published studies of
reincarnation cases among First Nations peoples, including cases involving birthmarks.[20][21][22] In a summary
of her work,[23] Mills concluded that the numerous cases of the reincarnation type require an explanation for
which reincarnation appears to be the most compelling. However, it is impossible to eliminate other possible
sources of the child's knowledge. Cryptomnesia or amnesia as the source of the information may be present in
some cases but are unlikely to account for most of them. Other paranormal means of communication such as
extrasensory perception (ESP) may account for some elements of some cases, but the evidence for telepathic or
other types of ESP indicate that they alone could not account for the level of knowledge and the personal
characteristics shown in these cases. Mills suggested three criteria be used as guidelines to evaluate whether
reported cases of reincarnation are indicative of more than cultural construction and wishful thinking:[23]

1. Statements made by the child based on knowledge the child could not have learned through normal
means such as the name of the previous personality and the mode of death, and speaking from the point
of view of the previous personality including recognition of people, objects and places.
2. The presence of skills and interests in the child which it cannot be expected to have acquired in the
current life such as speaking a language unknown to the current family and community, the ability to
play a musical instrument, or abnormal philias or phobias.
3. Specific birthmarks or birth defects which correspond to wounds or marks on the previous
personality, comparing them to photographs, medical records or autopsies of the previous personality. In
cases where the mother witnessed the marks or wounds on the previous personality, one cannot eliminate
the possibility that the mother's awareness had an impact on the creation of the birthmark.

Reviews

Old Souls: Scientific Evidence From Children Who Remember Previous Lives is a non-fiction book by
journalist Tom Shroder. An editor at the Washington Post, Shroder traveled extensively with Ian Stevenson, as
he conducted past life and reincarnation research in Lebanon, India and the American South.[24] While

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Stevenson wrote extensively on his reincarnation studies, his work earned limited circulation outside academia.
At the outset, Shroder sees his role not only as observer, but also as skeptic. But as his journey with Stevenson
progresses, Shroder finds it increasingly difficult to reject the possibility of past lives.[25]

Life Before Life: A Scientific Investigation of Children's Memories of Previous Lives is a 2005 book written by
psychiatrist Jim B. Tucker, which presents an overview of more than 40 years of reincarnation research at the
University of Virginia School of Medicine.[26] Life Before Life has been translated into ten languages[27] and
the foreword to the book is written by Ian Stevenson.[28] Psychiatrist Jim Tucker took over Stevenson's work on
his retirement in 2002.

Paul Edwards, a philosopher and skeptic, has analyzed many of accounts of reincarnation, and called them
anecdotal.[29] while also suggesting that claims of evidence for reincarnation originate from selective thinking
and from the false memories that often result from one's own belief system and basic fears, and thus cannot be
counted as empirical evidence.

Research protocols

In 2000, Jim Tucker demonstrated the way in which the University of Virginia has used the ‘strength-of-case
scale’ (SOCS) to sort and classify about 800 cases. The SOCS uses four criteria to evaluate a reincarnation case:
(1) whether it involves birthmarks/defects that correspond to the supposed previous life; (2) the strength of the
statements made about the previous life; (3) the relevant behaviours exhibited, as they relate to the previous
life; and (4) an evaluation of a possible connection between the child reporting a previous life and the supposed
previous life.[30][5]

Antonia Mills used the SOCS scale to re-evaluate the case of Ajendra Singh Chauhan,[31] then assessing what
the score would have been had Ajendra’s father not suspected that his son's statements represented a case of
reincarnation and had not asked him questions. Ajendra made 12 statements spontaneously without questioning
and a further 15 statements in response to his father's questions. The Ajendra case would have had a SOCS
score of 0 and would not have been "solved", had the father not asked questions. As a result of the father's
questions, the case was solved and most of Ajendra's statements were verified with a total SOCS score of 31,
ranking high on the SOCS scale. This result shows how important parental questioning can be in eliciting the
information necessary for solving a case. The case demonstrated the importance of having a written record of
the child’s statements before the case is solved, to prevent possible cultural elaboration. In this case, after-
the-fact embroidery was checked and was found less accurate, as it has been found in other cases, than the
child’s initial statements.

Jonathan Edelmann and William Bernet say that the SOCS is an important tool for studying reincarnation. But
an ideal research protocol would have the sort of evidence and employ the research methods able to “give
substantive weight to a reincarnation hypothesis, even for those who have physicalism as a metaphysical bias
and are therefore highly sceptical of reincarnation case studies”.[5] Edelmann and Bernet go on to say:

In order to have an ideal protocol for reincarnation research, the standards, acceptable practices,
and methods should be carefully outlined and reviewed by professionals in fields as varied as
psychology, psychiatry, parapsychology, forensic science, and anthropology. The group must hold
varying degrees of sympathy and skepticism for the belief in reincarnation so as to add as much
objectivity and balance to the discussion as possible.[5]

Antonia Mills and Steven Lynn[32] noted a number of methodological issues in reincarnation research:

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The need for independent replication of Stevenson and his associates' work. A number of replications
have been carried out by independent researchers, for example Mills, Haraldsson and Keil,[2] who
augmented Stevenson's work with methods such as (1) video-recording children who visit the village and
home of a previous personality for the first time,[33] and (2) assessing the psychological characteristics of
children who appear to remember and act on the basis of experiences from a previous life.[16][17]
Interviewer effects. An interviewer's communications may cause young children to incorporate
misinformation into their accounts and repeat it as actual experience. Thus, researchers' and others'
expectations, communications and suggestions may shape a child's past-life report. It would therefore be
worthwhile to study the role of investigator effects in studies of children's past-life memory reports.
Difficulties with probability assessments. It is difficult to assess whether a child's statements regarding a
past life exceed chance probability. Each case is unique and needs its own assessment of probabilities. For
example, how does one verify the correctness of a detailed statement (e.g., how many people had two
water buffaloes in the village decades earlier) or how much weight does one give to incorrect or invalid
statements (e.g., statements that are self-contradictory)? Stevenson assessed the chance probability to be
very low of having one or more birthmarks on the same regions of the body as the injuries to the previous
personality, for example with bullet entry and exit wounds and the corresponding birthmarks. However,
the assessment of birthmarks is very complex and collaboration with geneticists would be useful. Also,
when a case is "solved" on the basis of corresponding bodily markings, the accuracy of the child's
statements needs to be evaluated, noting whether socializers imparted knowledge to the child consistent
with the reincarnation interpretation.

Antonia Mills and Steven Lynn[32] discussed three explanations that have been offered by various researchers
for spontaneous childhood past-life experiences:

The reincarnation hypothesis, which holds that the reported experiences are veridical.
The ESP hypothesis, which holds that the reported experiences are transmitted telepathically or through
extrasensory perception.
The sociocognitive hypothesis, which holds that the experiences are a cultural construction and
interpretation of behavior.

A fourth explanation, that the experiences are the result of deliberately fraudulent or unconsciously motivated
self-deception driven by a need for notoriety, self-aggrandizement or confirmation of a belief in reincarnation,
was felt by Mills and Lynn to be neither a satisfactory nor plausible explanation for many of the most impressive
and thoroughly investigated cases.[32]

Stevenson never claimed that he had proved the existence of reincarnation, and cautiously referred to his cases
as being "of the reincarnation type" or "suggestive of reincarnation".[34] He concluded that "reincarnation is the
best — even though not the only — explanation for the stronger cases we have investigated".[35] Jim Tucker
recognizes that this may seem to be an "astounding statement," that "memories, emotions and physical injuries
can sometimes carry over from one life to the next".[35] However, he argues that this is no more astounding than
many currently accepted ideas in physics seemed to be when they were originally proposed.[35]

Research on reincarnation has received a mixed response. His methodology was criticized for providing no
conclusive evidence for the existence of past lives.[36] In a book review criticizing one of Stevensons' books, the
reviewer raised the concern that many of Stevenson's examples were gathered in cultures with pre-existing
belief in reincarnation.[37] In order to address this type of concern, Stevenson wrote European Cases of the

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Reincarnation Type (2003) which presented 40 cases he examined in Europe.[38] Stevenson's obituary in the
New York Times stated: "Spurned by most academic scientists, Dr. Stevenson was to his supporters a
misunderstood genius, bravely pushing the boundaries of science. To his detractors, he was earnest, dogged but
ultimately misguided, led astray by gullibility, wishful thinking and a tendency to see science where others saw
superstition".[15]

Deducing from this research the conclusion that reincarnation is a proven fact has been listed as an example of
pseudoscience.[39]

Carl Wickland
List of parapsychology topics
Near-death experience
Society for Psychical Research
Spiritism
Xenoglossy

1. ^ Rivas, Titus (2003). "Three Cases of the
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(http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal
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Exploration 17 (3): 527-532.
http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal
/jse_17_3_rivas.pdf.
2. ^ a b c Mills, A., Haraldsson, E., and Keil, H. H. J.
(1994). Replication studies of cases suggestive of
reincarnation by three independent investigators.
Journal of the American Society for Psychical
Research, 88, 207-219. Reprint
(https://notendur.hi.is/erlendur/english
/cort/Replication_Studies_of_Cases.pdf) .
3. ^ Kurtz P. (2006). "Two Sources of Unreason in
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(http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal
/119242621/abstract) . Annals of the New York
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4. ^ Smith, Jonathan C (2009). Pseudoscience and
Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical
Thinker's Toolkit. New York: Wiley Blackwell.
p. 241. ISBN 978-1-4051-8123-5.
5. ^ a b c d Jonathan Edelmann and William Bernet
(2007). "Setting Criteria for Ideal Reincarnation
Research" (http://www.imprint.co.uk
/pdf/Edelman.pdf) . Journal of Consciousness
Studies, 14, No. 12. p. 92–101.
http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Edelman.pdf.
6. ^ "Publications — School of Medicine at the
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(http://www.medicine.virginia.edu/clinical
/departments/psychiatry/sections/cspp/dops
/publications-page#Reincar-articles) .
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7. ^ Sekar K et al.. "Tsunami: Psychosocial care for
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web/63%20TSUNAMI_DISASTER_Psycho_social_
care.pdf) (pdf). www.tn.gov.in. http://www.tn.gov.in
/tsunami/digitallibrary/ebooks-
web/63%20TSUNAMI_DISASTER_Psycho_social_
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8. ^ Satwant Pasricha (2008). Can the Mind Survive
Beyond Death?: Reincarnation Research, 184 pages.
9. ^ "University of Northern British Columbia: First
Nations Studies Faculty" (http://www.unbc.ca
/firstnations/faculty.html) . http://www.unbc.ca
/firstnations/faculty.html. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
"First Nations ... reincarnation beliefs and cases are
[among] her current research interests."
10. ^ Cordón LA (2005). Popular psychology: an
encyclopedia. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.

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pp. 183–5. ISBN 0-313-32457-3.
11. ^ a b Tucker, Jim (2005). Life before life: a scientific
investigation of children's memories of previous
lives. New York: St. Martin's Press.
ISBN 0-312-32137-6.
12. ^ a b Cadoret, R (2005). "Book Forum: Ethics,
Values, and Religion - European Cases of the
Reincarnation Type" (http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org
/cgi/content/full/162/4/823) . The American Journal
of Psychiatry 162 (4): 823–4.
doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.4.823 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.162.4.823) .
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/162
/4/823.
13. ^ Jane Henry (2005). Parapsychology: research on
exceptional experiences (http://books.google.com.au
/books?id=EaIhapm-4UgC&pg=PP5&lpg=PP5&
dq=%22Parapsychology:+Research+on+Exceptional
+Experiences%22+%22Jane+Henry%22&
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Routledge, p. 224.
14. ^ Tucker, 2005, p.10
15. ^ a b Margalit Fox (February 18, 2007). "Ian
Pretyman Stevenson, 88; Studied Claims of Past
Lives" (http://query.nytimes.com
/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C02E4DD153EF93BA25751
C0A9619C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all) .
New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com
/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C02E4DD153EF93BA25751
C0A9619C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all.
16. ^ a b c Haraldsson, E. (1995). Personality and
Abilities of Children Claiming Previous-Life
Memories, Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease,
183(7), 445-451.
17. ^ a b c Haraldsson, Erlendur, Patrick Fowler &
Vimala Periyannanpillai (2000). Psychological
Characteristics of Children Who Speak of a Previous
Life: A Further Field Study in Sri Lanka.
Transcultural Psychiatry, 37, 525-544. Reprint
(https://notendur.hi.is/~erlendur/english
/cort/transcult.pdf)
18. ^ a b Haraldsson, Erlendur (2003). Children who
speak of past-life experiences: Is there a
psychological explanation? Psychology and
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 76,
55-67. Reprint (https://notendur.hi.is/erlendur/english
/cort/explain.pdf)
19. ^ Mills, Antonia (2006). Back from Death: Young
Adults in Northern India Who as Children Were Said
to Remember a Previous Life, with or without a Shift
in Religion (Hindu to Moslem or Vice Versa).
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141–156.
20. ^ Mills, A. (1994). Rebirth and Identity: Three
Gitksan cases of pierced-ear birthmarks. In Antonia
Mills and Richard Slobodin (Eds.), Amerindian
Rebrith: Reincarnation belief among North
American Indians and Inuit (pp. 211-241), Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1994.
21. ^ Mills, A. (1988). A Preliminary Investigation of
Cases of Reincarnation among the Beaver and
Gitksan Indians, Anthropologica, Vol. 30, No. 1, p.
23-59.
22. ^ Mills, A. C. (1988). A comparison of Wet'suwet'en
cases of the reincarnation type with Gitksan and
Beaver, Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol.
44, No. 4, pp. 385-415.
23. ^ a b Mills, Antonia (1994). Making a scientific
investigation of ethnographic cases suggestive of
reincarnation. In David E. Young and Jean-Guy
Goulet, Being Changed by Cross-cultural
Encounters: The anthropology of extraordinary
experience (pp. 237-270). Peterborough, Ontario:
Broadview Press, 1994.
24. ^ "Searching out Old Souls" (http://news.google.com
/newspapers?id=fh4cAAAAIBAJ&
sjid=530EAAAAIBAJ&pg=4574,4095009) , by
Karen R. Long, Sarasota Herald-Tribune, August 19,
1999, page 5E. Online at Google News. Retrieved
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25. ^ Kenny, Thane (January 10, 2000). "Little Johnny
Just Isn't Himself Today" (http://weeklywire.com
/ww/01-10-00/alibi_bookreview.html) . Weekly Wire.
http://weeklywire.com/ww/01-10-00
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26. ^ Butziger, R. "A Scientific Look at Reincarnation",
PsycCRITIQUES, 51(22), May 31, 2006, p. 282.
27. ^ Cedar Creek Institute Board Members: Jim B.
Tucker (http://cedarcreekinst.org
/html/board_members.html)
28. ^ Jim B. Tucker (2005). Life Before Life: A
scientific Investigation of Children's Memories of
Previous Lives (http://books.google.com.au
/books?id=dhTJzv_K5A0C&
dq=%22life+before+life%22+book&source=bl&
ots=y9N6kXkuge&
sig=veonzeQNCneMQOSldwrXOyBAcN8&hl=en&
ei=D5B9TP7SOIGgvQP9oKXJAg&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&
ved=0CEYQ6AEwBg) , St. Martin's Press, New
York, 256pp. ISBN 0-312-32137-6.
29. ^ Rockley, Richard. Book Review: Children who
remember previous lives
(http://www.skepticreport.com/newage
/stevensonbook.htm)
30. ^ Tucker, Jim B. (2000). A Scale to Measure the
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Strength of Children’s Claims of Previous Lives: sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&

Methodology and Initial Findings. Journal of
Scientific Exploration, Vol. 14, No. 4, 571–581.
Reprint (http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal
/jse_14_4_tucker.pdf)
31. ^ Mills, Antonia (2004). Inferences from the Case of
Ajendra Singh Chauhan: The Effect of Parental
Questioning, of Meeting the "Previous Life" Family,
an Aborted Attempt to Quantify Probabilities, and
the Impact on His Life as a Young Adult. Journal of
Scientific Exploration, Vol. 18, No. 4, 609–641.
Reprint (http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal
/jse_18_4_mills.pdf)
32. ^ a b c Mills, Antonia, and Lynn, Steven Jay (2000).
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Anomalous Experience: Examining the scientific
evidence, (pp. 283-313). Washington, DC: American
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33. ^ Mills, Antonia (2003). Are Children with
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Previous Lives Cross-Culturally Comparable
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34. ^ Harvey J. Irwin (2004). An introduction to
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McFarland, p. 218.
35. ^ a b c Jim B. Tucker (2005). Life Before Life: A
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36. ^ Edelmann, J.; Bernet, W. (2007). "Setting Criteria
for Ideal Reincarnation Research"
(http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Edelman.pdf) .
Journal of Consciousness Studies 14 (12): 92.
http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Edelman.pdf.
37. ^ Rockley, R (2002-11-01). "Book Review: Children
who remember previous lives, A question of
reincarnation, Ian Stevenson"
(http://skepticreport.com/sr/?p=482) . Skeptic
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38. ^ K. Farcnik. European Cases of the Reincarnation
Type, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Volume
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Division of Perceptual Studies, University of Virginia School of Medicine

(http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/personalitystudies/)
Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (http://csicop.org/) Organization formed in 1976 to promote scientific
skepticism and encourage the critical investigation of paranormal claims and parapsychology.
Parapsychological Association (http://www.parapsych.org/index.html) An organization of scientists and
scholars engaged in the study of psychic phenomena, affiliated with the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1969.

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