Basic mechanics of soils http://environment.uwe.ac.uk/geocal/SoilMech/basic/soilbasi.htm#M...

Based on part of the GeotechniCAL reference package

Back to Soil Mechanics
by Prof. John Atkinson, City University, London

Basic mechanics of soils

Analysis of stress and strain
Strength
Stiffness
Material behaviour

Loads from foundations and walls apply stresses in the ground. Settlements are caused by strains in the
ground. To analyse the conditions within a material under loading, we must consider the stress-strain
behaviour. The relationship between a strain and stress is termed stiffness. The maximum value of stress
that may be sustained is termed strength.

Back to Basic mechanics of soils

Analysis of stress and strain

Special stress and strain states

Mohr circle construction
Parameters for stress and strain

Stresses and strains occur in all directions and to do settlement and stability analyses it is often necessary
to relate the stresses in a particular direction to those in other directions.

normal stress normal strain

s = Fn / A e = dz / zo

shear stress shear strain

t = Fs / A g = dh / zo

Note that compressive stresses and strains are positive, counter-clockwise shear stress and strain are
positive, and that these are total stresses (see effective stress).

Special stress and strain states Analysis of stress and strain

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In general, the stresses and strains in the three dimensions

will all be different.

There are three special cases which are important in

ground engineering:
General case princpal stresses

Axially symmetric or triaxial states

Stresses and strains in two dorections are equal.
s'x = s'y and ex = ey
Relevant to conditions near relatively small foundations,
piles, anchors and other concentrated loads.

Plane strain:
Strain in one direction = 0
ey = 0
Relevant to conditions near long foundations,
embankments, retaining walls and other long structures.

One-dimensional compression:
Strain in two directions = 0
ex = ey = 0

Relevant to conditions below wide foundations or

relatively thin compressible soil layers.

Uniaxial compression
s'x = s'y = 0
This is an artifical case which is only possible for soil is
there are negative pore water pressures.

Mohr circle construction Back to Analysis of stress and strain Forward to Parameters

Values of normal stress and shear stress must relate to a

particular plane within an element of soil. In general, the
stresses on another plane will be different.

To visualise the stresses on all the possible planes, a graph

called the Mohr circle is drawn by plotting a (normal stress,
shear stress) point for a plane at every possible angle.

There are special planes on which the shear stress is zero

(i.e. the circle crosses the normal stress axis), and the state
of stress (i.e. the circle) can be described by the normal
stresses acting on these planes; these are called the

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principal stresses s'1 and s'3 .

Parameters for stress and strain Analysis of stress and strain

In common soil tests, cylindrical samples are used in which the axial and radial stresses and strains are
principal stresses and strains. For analysis of test data, and to develop soil mechanics theories, it is usual
to combine these into mean (or normal) components which influence volume changes, and deviator (or
shearing) components which influence shape changes.

stress strain

p' = (s'a + 2s'r) / 3

mean s' = s'a + s'r) / 2 ev = DV/V = (ea + 2er)
en = (ea + er)

q' = (s'a - s'r) es = 2 (ea - er) / 3

deviator
t' = (s'a - s'r) / 2 eg = (ea - er)

In the Mohr circle construction t' is the radius of the circle and s' defines
its centre.

Note: Total and effective stresses are related to pore pressure u:

p' = p - u
s' = s - u
q' = q
t' = t

Strength Back to Basic mechanics of soils

Types of failure
Strength criteria
Typical values of shear strength

The shear strength of a material is most simply described as the maximum shear stress it
can sustain: When the shear stress t is increased, the shear strain g increases; there will be
a limiting condition at which the shear strain becomes very large and the material fails;
the shear stress tf is then the shear strength of the material. The simple type of failure

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shown here is associated with ductile or plastic materials. If the material is brittle (like a piece of chalk),
the failure may be sudden and catastrophic with loss of strength after failure.

Types of failure Back to Strength

Materials can ‘fail’ under different loading conditions. In each case, however, failure is associated with the
limiting radius of the Mohr circle, i.e. the maximum shear stress. The following common examples are
shown in terms of total stresses:

Shearing
Shear strength = tf
snf = normal stress at failure

Uniaxial extension
Tensile strength stf = 2tf

Uniaxial compression
Compressive strength scf = 2tf

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Note:
Water has no strength tf = 0.
Hence vertical and horizontal stresses are equal and the Mohr circle becomes a point.

Strength criteria Back to Strength

A strength criterion is a formula which relates the strength of a material to some other parameters: these
are material parameters and may include other stresses.

For soils there are three important strength criteria: the correct criterion depends on the nature of the soil
and on whether the loading is drained or undrained.

In General, course grained soils will "drain" very quickly (in engineering terms) following loading.
Thefore development of excess pore pressure will not occur; volume change associated with increments of
effective stress will control the behaviour and the Mohr-Coulomb criteria will be valid.

Fine grained saturated soils will respond to loading initially by generating excess pore water pressures
and remaining at constant volume. At this stage the Tresca criteria, which uses total stress to represent
undrained behaviour, should be used. This is the short term or immediate loading response. Once the pore
pressure has dissapated, after a certain time, the effective stresses have incresed and the Mohr-Coulomb
criterion will describe the strength mobilised. This is the long term loading response.

Tresca criterion
Mohr-Coulomb (c’=0) criterion
Mohr-Coulomb (c’>0) criterion

Tresca criterion Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb (c’=0)

The strength is independent of the normal stress since the

response to loading simple increases the pore water pressure
and not the effective stress.

The shear strength tf is a material parameter which is known

as the undrained shear strength su.

tf = (sa - sr) = constant

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Mohr-Coulomb (c'=0) Back to Strength criteria Forward to Mohr-Coulomb

(c’>0)
criterion

The strength increases linearly with increasing normal stress

and is zero when the normal stress is zero.
t'f = s'n tanf'
f' is the angle of friction

In the Mohr-Coulomb criterion the material parameter is the

angle of friction f and materials which meet this criterion are
known as frictional. In soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion
applies when the normal stress is an effective normal stress.

>Mohr-Coulomb (c'>0) criterion Back to Strength criteria

The strength increases linearly with increasing normal stress

and is positive when the normal stress is zero.
t'f = c' + s'n tanf'
f' is the angle of friction
c' is the 'cohesion' intercept

In soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies when the normal

stress is an effective normal stress. In soils, the cohesion in
the effective stress Mohr-Coulomb criterion is not the same
as the cohesion (or undrained strength su) in the Tresca criterion.

Typical values of shear strength Back to Strength

Undrained shear strength su (kPa)

Hard soil su > 150 kPa
Stiff soil su = 75 ~ 150 kPa
Firm soil su = 40 ~ 75 kPa
Soft soil su = 20 ~ 40kPa
Very soft soil su < 20 kPa
Drained shear strength c´ (kPa) f´ (deg)
Compact sands 0 35° - 45°
Loose sands 0 30° - 35°
Unweathered overconsolidated clay
critical state 0 18° ~ 25°

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peak state 10 ~ 25 kPa 20° ~ 28°

residual 0 ~ 5 kPa 8° ~ 15°

Often the value of c' deduced from laboratory test results (in the shear testing apperatus) may appear to
indicate some shar strength at s' = 0. i.e. the particles 'cohereing' together or are 'cemented' in some way.
Often this is due to fitting a c', f' line to the experimental data and an 'apparent' cohesion may be deduced
due to suction or dilatancy.

Produced by Dr. Leslie Davison, University of the West of England, Bristol, May 2000
in association with Prof. Sarah Springman, Swiss Federal Technical Institute, Zurich

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