Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:673–678
DOI 10.1007/s10706-007-9139-2
DISCUSSION
Design of Inclined Covers with Capillary Barrier Effect
by S.-E. Parent and A. Cabral
B. Bussière Æ M. Aubertin Æ G. Zhan
Received: 10 April 2007 / Accepted: 11 July 2007 / Published online: 28 August 2007

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007
1 Discussion
The paper was read with interest by the discussers,
who have been working on the behavior of cover
systems for many years, analyzing their response
under a variety of conditions using experimental,
numerical, and in situ monitoring tools (e.g. Aubertin
et al. 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2006; Bussière 1999;
Bussière et al. 1995, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2003a, b;
Zhan et al. 2001a, b, 2006). The Authors are
attempting to develop an approach to design an
optimal inclined ‘‘Covers with capillary barrier
effect—CCBE’’ (a term coined by the discussers
over 10 years ago) to limit water infiltration, based in
part on the analytical solution proposed by Ross
Paper published in vol 24, pp 689–710 (2006) Discussion
submitted April 2007.
B. Bussière (&)
Department of Applied Sciences, Université du Québec en
Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT), 445 boul. de
l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada J9X 5E4
e-mail: bruno.bussiere@uqat.ca
M. Aubertin
Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering,
École Polytechnique de Montréal, Stn. Centre-ville,
P.O. Box 6079, Montreal, QC, Canada H3C 3A7
G. Zhan
Barrick Gold Corporation, Salt Lake City,
UT 84111, USA
(1990). Their treatment of the topic has raised many
questions, and some of the major concerns are
presented below. More specifically, the following
points are discussed herein: (i) the limitations of
analytical solutions, (ii) the transient nature (and
time-dependency) of the diversion capacity of
inclined CCBEs, and (iii) the steps needed to define
a more appropriate design methodology for inclined
CCBEs.
2 Limitations of Ross’s Solution and Comparison
with other Analytical Solutions
There are now quite a few analytical solutions that
have been proposed to evaluate the diversion capacity
(in terms of flux) and the diversion length (in terms of
horizontal distance) of idealized sloping CCBEs,
including important ones not mentioned by the
Authors (such as Steenhuis et al. 1991; Morel-
Seytoux 1994; Stormont 1995; Warrick et al. 1997).
Although these solutions share many common fea-
tures, they nevertheless often lead to different results
because of specific assumptions adopted for their
development. To illustrate the differences that exist
between Ross (1990) solution and other mathematical
expressions that have been proposed, three analytical
solutions are presented in Table 1; these are: the
original Ross (1990) model, the modified Ross model
proposed by Steenhuis et al. (1991), and the Morel-
Seytoux (1994) model. These three solutions were
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Table 1 Mathematical
Ross (1990) 
as2 =as1 
expressions of analytical
a
solutions developed for Qmax ¼ ksat2 tan
as2
P
ksat1
P
 ksat2 (1)
inclined homogenous a: Slope angle
CCBEs (indices 1 and 2 in ksat: Saturated hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
the equations refer to the
coarse and the fine material as: Sorptive number related to the pore size distribution (Philip 1969)
respectively); modified P: Vertical water flux (m/s)
from Bussière et al. (1998) Ross (1990) modified by Steenhuis
h
 et al. (1991)
i
Qmax ¼ ksat2 tan a a1
s2 1  P
ksat2 þ wa2  ww1 wa2  ww1 (2)
wa: Air entry value (sometime called air entry pressure) (m of water)
ww1: Water entry pressure of the coarse material (m of water)
Morel-Seytoux (1994)


M1 =p1 
Qmax ¼ ksat2 tan a wc2  waM1 kqsat1P (3)
wc: Effective capillary drive (Morel-Seytoux and Khanji 1974) (m of water)
waM: Air entry value from the wetting curve (m of water)
q*: Transmitted fraction (1 at the DDL point)
M: Brooks and Corey (1964) parameter used to describe the water retention curve (Morel-Seytoux
et al. 1996)
p: Brooks and Corey (1964) parameter used to describe the permeability function. p was
calculated using the following relationship: p = 3 + 2M (Morel-Seytoux et al. 1996)

basically developed for the same simplified condi-
tions and with many (but not all) of the same
hypotheses (similar to those used by the Authors in
their paper). The main difference between the Ross
(1990) model and the modified solution proposed by
Steenhuis et al. (1991) is the use by the latter of the
water entry value (WEV) parameter ww (or h
w ) of the
coarse-grained material layer, which is a critical
parameter to determine the diversion capacity and the
water diversion length of an inclined CCBE (e.g.
Bussière 1999; Aubertin et al. 2006). Also, the
original Ross’ model uses an overly simplified
expression (proposed by Gardner 1958) to represent
the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity ku function of
the top moisture-retaining layer (MRL). Instead, the
modified version proposed by Steenhuis et al. (1991)
uses the more versatile Rijtema (1965) equation to
represent the ku function. The Authors have used the
van Genuchten (1980) model to represent the ku
functions in the Ross (1990) model.
The approach proposed by Morel-Seytoux (1994)
is somewhat different from the two others mentioned
above. It uses the effective capillary drive parameter
wc-a parameter that characterizes the unsaturated
behavior and corresponds to the area under the
relative permeability curve (kr vs. w; see Morel-
Seytoux and Khanji 1974, for more details) and the
Brooks and Corey (1964) equation to describe the
unsaturated functions. Also, this solution uses the air
entry value (AEV) defined on the wetting curve
(instead of the drying curve) for the coarse-grained
soil. Another interesting particularity of this solution
is the integration of the transmitted fraction q* as a
model parameter, which allows an evaluation of the
water diversion capacity of an inclined CCBE at a
given percentage of percolation (q* is equal to 1 at
the Down Dip Limit or DDL point where full
infiltration is supposed to occur). The Morel-Seytoux
(1994) equation is more general and more represen-
tative of realistic conditions than the Ross (1990)
solution and the modified Ross (Steenhuis et al.
1991) equation which are valid only for q* equal to 1
(Bussière 1999). More details on the comparison with
the Ross equation are given in Morel-Seytoux (1994).
Although the three analytical solutions given in
Table 1 share the same objectives and are based on
many of the same fundamental assumptions, their
evaluations of the diversion length (and capacity)
under an idealized steady state condition can lead to
significantly different estimates. To illustrate this
point, let us consider a sample case representing an
inclined CCBE made of two relatively thick layers: a
coarse sand material used as the capillary break layer
(CBL), and a silty material serving as MRL. The
main hydraulic properties of these two materials are
summarized in Table 2. The sand has a saturated

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Table 2 Main hydraulic properties of the simulated inclined CCBE and calculated effective length of the capillary barrier (L) for the
three analytical solutions of Table 1
Brooks and Corey (1964)
M P
Sand (1) 0.7 2.8
Silt (2) 3.5 8 0.45
Effective length of the
capillary barrier L (m) (L = Qmax/P)
Angle Morel-Seytoux (1994)
5 22
14 63
20 92
30 145
hydraulic conductivity ksat of about 2.5 · 10–4 m/s,
while the silty material has a ksat of 2.9 · 10–7 m/s.
The AEV wa (expressed as a pressure head) of these
two soils are respectively 0.17 m and 2.8 m of water
(or about 1.7 kPa and 28 kPa). In this case, the
contrast between the hydraulic properties of the soils
has been selected to induce the required capillary
barrier effect in the two-layer system. The diversion
length (or effective length) of the capillary barrier L
is estimated for a constant infiltration rate of
3.17 · 10–9 m/s (10 cm/year). Calculations are made
for four slope angles: 5, 14, 20 and 30.
The calculation results presented in Table 2 shows
that there are important differences between the three
solutions, with the length obtained by the Ross (1990)
equation being systematically lower than the two
others. For instance, for a CCBE inclined at 4H:1V
(or &14, an angle used by the Authors in their
paper), the calculated diversion length L is 51 m with
the Ross (1990) solution, 91 m for the modified
solution proposed by Steenhuis et al. (1991), and
63 m for the Morel-Seytoux (1994) solution. Other
comparisons are given in Bussière et al. (1998) to
illustrate the variety of responses that can be obtained
from such analytical solutions.
It is also equally important to underline here that
these three solutions significantly underestimate the
diversion length of inclined CCBEs when they are
applied to realistic situations, based on numerical and
physical modeling results (Bussière 1999). Even if
the Authors have partially validated their results
obtained with the Ross (1990) model using SEEP/W
675
Gardner (1958) and Rijtema (1965) ksat
–1
as (m ) wa (m of water) wr (m of water) (m/s)
6 0.17 1 2.5 · 10–4
2.8 25 2.9 · 10–7
Ross (1990) Ross modified by
Steenhuis et al. (1991)
18 32
51 91
74 134
117 212
(for only one case of inclined CCBE, with a relatively
crude modeling approach), it is the Discussers’
opinion that a proper validation should include
comparisons with physical modeling results (already
available in the literature; e.g. Stormont 1996;
Bussière et al. 1998; Morris and Stormont 1998;
Kämpf et al. 2003; Tami et al. 2004) and more
representative simulations that better reflect the
actual field behavior of covers (e.g. Zhan et al.
2001a, 2006; Bussière et al. 2003a).
3 Transient Effects
The behavior of inclined layered systems has been
analyzed in detail by various groups in recent years
(e.g. Stormont 1995; Kämpf et al. 2003; Tami et al.
2004). In this regard, the Discussers (and collabora-
tors) have used numerical modeling results (Bussière
et al. 1995, 2000, 2003a, b; Aubertin et al. 1996,
2006; Zhan et al. 2001b; Cifuentes et al. 2006) to
assess how such inclined covers may behave under a
variety of situations. These calculations have been
complemented by laboratory experiments (Bussière
et al. 1998) and validated using monitoring data
obtained from in situ cover systems (e.g. Bussière
1999; Bussière et al. 2003a; Zhan et al. 2001a, 2006).
The results obtained through these studies have
shown that the behavior of inclined CCBEs is
intrinsically dynamic. In fact, the diversion length is
not a constant but varies in time depending on the
local climatic conditions (affected by slope and
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aspect), cover geometry and configuration, and mate-
rial properties (see Bussière et al. 2003b; Cifuentes
et al. 2006; Zhan et al. 2006). This general behavior,
observed in the lab, in the field, and through numerical
modeling, strongly suggests that the analysis and
design of inclined CCBEs should not be based on
(pseudo) steady-state conditions, which in practice do
not exist. It is particularly important to take the time-
dependent behavior of CCBE into account at all
stages, because results show that their response is
highly dependent on long-term (under both dry or wet)
climatic conditions and specific events that will
ultimately control their efficiency (or performance
failure). Based on their own experience, the Discuss-
ers do not believe that the Authors’ method, which
partly relies on the steady-state analytical solution
proposed by Ross (1990), is a proper engineering
approach to evaluate the diversion capacity and length
of inclined CCBE, and even less so to arrive at an
‘‘optimal design’’ of a layered cover system.
4 A More Appropriate Design Methodology
As stated above, analytical solutions such as the one
proposed by Ross (1990) should not be used on their
own for the engineered design of an inclined CCBE.
Past experience gained by the Discussers (and by
many other researchers and practitioners) strongly
indicates that the design of an inclined CCBE must
involve transient numerical analysis that integrates
representative soil properties and cover configuration,
with realistic boundary conditions. The latter should
include the sequence of precipitation (and evapora-
tion) based on average site conditions, as a base case
to initiate the evaluation. In the analysis and design
process, representative unsaturated soil properties
must be integrated into the numerical model, with the
critical climatic conditions (short- and long-term
conditions), and (if applicable) the vegetative data. A
parametric numerical study should then be performed
to optimize factors such as layers thicknesses and
bench length, considering the possible variations of
the site conditions (see Bussière et al. 2003b; Cifu-
entes et al. 2006 for examples of parametric studies).
The anticipated variability of soil properties should
be included in the assessment. The evaluation must
consider the worst-case scenarios (for a conservative
cumulative probability of occurrence), in terms of
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Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:673–678
material properties, climatic events, and possible
malfunctions of the protective components of the
layered system. In this design process, it is particu-
larly important that the boundary conditions be varied
from average expected values to extreme conditions
(i.e. extreme precipitation in the case of water-
infiltration reduction) that are based on conservative
return periods, with a small occurrence probability
(e.g. Zhan et al. 2001b). The uncertainty due to
climate changes experienced worldwide should be
taken into account here by decreasing the acceptable
cumulative probability of occurrence. The main
objective of this exercise, leading to the optimum
CCBE design, is to verify that there will be minimal
water infiltration through the inclined cover even
for long period and short extreme precipitation
conditions.
It is equally important to validate the calculation
results before proceeding to the large scale construc-
tion. The Discussers have proposed and used
systematically physical modeling (in the lab and in
the field) to validate the design of CCBEs (Aubertin
et al. 1995, 2006; Bussière 1999). Once the in situ
behavior has been successfully compared with
numerical calculation results, complementary numer-
ical analysis with the validated model can be used to
refine the final configuration of the cover. Successful
examples of the application of this design approach
include the Barrick Goldstrike mine AA heap leach
pad cover, for a semi-arid climate (e.g. Zhan et al.
2001a, b, 2006) and the Barrick LTA site, for a humid
climate, where the CCBE is mainly used as an
oxygen barrier (Ricard et al. 1997; Bussière et al.
2006).
5 Concluding Remarks
The behavior of inclined CCBEs can be fairly
complex, so designing this type of cover should not
be overly simplified. In general, the process requires a
more thorough approach than what is proposed by the
Authors. Even at the pre-feasibility stage of a project,
where the simplified analytical solutions may help
initiate the design process, expressions such as those
presented in Table 1 must be used with great care as
these are based on hypotheses that are far from being
representative of real conditions. The Discussers’
investigations and professional experience show that
Geotech Geol Eng (2007) 25:673–678
the design of an inclined CCBE must be based on
site-specific conditions that include the actual geom-
etry of the site, average and extreme climatic
conditions, representative material properties, and
realistic configurations based on the project con-
straints. As emphasized above, the representative data
must be integrated into transient numerical modeling.
The calculations can then be used by engineers to
define an optimal configuration of the cover. The
latter should be assessed with in situ monitoring of
experimental test plots submitted to natural and
extreme conditions before the actual cover is built.
This latter step is important to insure that the
numerical tool is able to capture the complex
dynamic behavior involve in an inclined CCBE. A
minimum margin of error (or factor of safety) should
also be integrated in the final design of the cover.
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