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The combustion of gasoline and diesel fuel organic compounds and nitrogen oxides [NOx]),
in vehicle engines produces emissions of several fine particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 (particles
potentially harmful substances. These emissions < 10 μm and < 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diam-
are not solely the result of the combustion process, eter, respectively), and nitrogen dioxide. The
nor do they come only from the tailpipe of the air toxics emitted from motor vehicles include
vehicle; rather, they result from a combination aldehydes (acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and
of the engine design and the fuel characteristics. others), benzene, 1,3-butadiene, a large number
Also apparent is that evaporative emissions from of substances identified as polycyclic organic
refuelling, spills onto heated engine parts, and matter (including polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
so on can equal emissions from the tailpipe. In bons [PAHs]), and metals.
addition, analyses have indicated that a signifi- The various emissions from motor vehicles are
cant source of emissions from vehicles is abra- also released by other sources, such as industrial
sion and wear of tyres and metallic components, processes, electric power generation, and home
resulting in emissions of a variety of metals and heating. As a result, the contributions of motor
carbon compounds. vehicle emissions to ambient levels of major air
The primary emissions from motor vehicles pollutants vary among pollutants (Table 5.1).
come in two predominant forms: major gaseous For most pollutants, motor vehicles contribute
and particulate air pollutants, which can be found 25–40% of the ambient levels, although in a
in relatively high amounts in the atmosphere, few cases (e.g. CO, ultrafine particles [PM0.1],
and so-called air toxics, which usually are found 1,3-butadiene) motor vehicle contributions are
in lower amounts in the atmosphere but can have noticeably higher.
important health implications. The gaseous and Location and season play a role in the amount
particulate pollutants to which motor vehicles of motor vehicle emissions. For example, in the
contribute include carbon monoxide (CO), ozone USA the estimated contribution of vehicles to
(through its atmospheric precursors volatile ambient PM can vary substantially according to
1Daniel S. Greenbaum is the president of the Health Effects Institute (HEI), which conducts research worldwide on the
health effects of air pollution. HEI’s core funding comes in equal part from the United States Environmental Protection
Agency and the manufacturers of motor vehicles for sale in the USA.
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Table 5.1 Estimated average contributions of motor vehicle emissions to ambient levels of major
air pollutants in developed countries
Fig 5.1 Sources of PM2.5 in typical western and eastern cities in the USA.
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Air pollution and cancer
Fig 5.2 The on-road and nonroad contribution to PM2.5 in the United Kingdom.
region and depends on the relative contributions analysis. Figure 5.5, for example, illustrates a
of other sources such as coal-burning utilities source apportionment for Denver, Colorado,
and their contribution of sulfates (Figure 5.1). USA, which suggests that gasoline vehicles,
Contributions also differ between the USA and especially older, poorly maintained vehicles, are
Europe (e.g. the United Kingdom; Figure 5.2). In a larger contributor to levels of ambient parti-
developing countries where biomass burning is cles than are diesel vehicles. Other analyses
often a substantial contributor and overall traffic (Schauer et al., 1996), however, have found that
contributes 20–35%, the contribution of vehicle in Los Angeles, California, USA, close to 90% of
emissions also varies (Figure 5.3). Seasonal vari- the vehicle contribution to particles comes from
ation can affect the contributions, as illustrated diesel.
in Figure 5.4 in the case of three Indian cities.
The relative contributions of diesel and gaso-
line vehicles can also differ depending on loca-
tion and the method of source apportionment
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Fig 5.3 Motor vehicles can contribute 25–35% of particulate matter in Asian countries.
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Source: HEI (2010a); reproduced with permission from the Health Effects Institute.
Air pollution and cancer
Table 5.2 Contribution of motor vehicle primary emissions to ambient PM2.5 in the Los Angeles,
California, USA, metropolitan area
Location Diesel contribution (%) Gasoline contribution (%) Total vehicle contribution (%)
Pasadena 18.8 5.7 24.5
Downtown Los Angeles 35.7 6.5 42.2
West Los Angeles 18.0 5.7 23.7
Rubidoux 12.8 0.7 13.5
Compiled from Schauer et al. (1996).
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Fig 5.5 PM2.5 and total carbon source contribution estimates in Denver, Colorado, USA.
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Source: Northern Front Range Air Quality Study (1998); reproduced with permission from Colorado State University and the Desert Research Institute.
Air pollution and cancer
Fig 5.6 Proximity to traffic (60, 90, and 300 m). While PM2.5 varies very little (5–10%), ultrafine
particles, black carbon (BC), and carbon monoxide (CO) decrease within 100 m to < 20%.
Source: Zhu et al. (2002); reproduced with permission from Taylor & Francis.
is true in general, there is one instance – the Exposure to high concentrations of these
case of ozone – where urban levels are generally pollutants can have important acute and chronic
lower than those found outside cities, the result health implications, particularly for individ-
of scavenging of the ambient ozone by high levels uals who live long-term in areas with congested
of ambient NOx.) For example, Table 5.2 presents traffic. This exposure pattern is of special concern
data from the Los Angeles metropolitan area that in developing countries where large numbers of
suggest a 3-fold difference in vehicle contributions people from the lowest socioeconomic strata live
to PM2.5 levels across the basin. These exposures on or near roadsides in housing that offers little
can be especially high in microenvironments, filtering of outside air.
such as roadside locations where concentrations
of certain pollutants (e.g. CO and ultrafine parti-
cles) can be elevated because of fresh emissions
Trends and the future
(Figure 5.6). A comprehensive review of the A series of measures have been implemented
literature on traffic exposure identified the area to reduce components of gasoline and diesel fuels
within 300–500 m of a major road as the most that can lead directly or indirectly to harmful
affected by traffic emissions (HEI, 2010b). health effects caused by vehicle emissions. These
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Fig 5.8 Reduction in ambient SO2 levels in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR)
after required reduction in fuel sulfur levels.
Hong Kong SAR air pollutant concentrations 1988–1995
(Half yearly mean levels)
80
PM10 Fuel restriction on sulfur
60 NO2
O3
20
No change in
other pollutants
0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Year
Source: Hedley et al. (2002); adapted with permission from Elsevier.
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Air pollution and cancer
Fig 5.9 Transition in USA, European, and Japanese rules for heavy-duty diesel engines, 1975–2010.
actions include the elimination of lead from fuel from diesel vehicles, for instance (Figure 5.10).
in much of the world, substantial reductions in These new efforts are projected to provide
benzene content (resulting, for example, in a considerable reductions in emissions in coming
nearly 50% reduction in ambient levels in the decades as new model engines are phased into
USA; Figure 5.7), and efforts to reduce sulfur the fleet (Figure 5.11). Comprehensive testing of
in fuel, which can substantially reduce sulfur the newest diesel technology (Figure 5.12) has
dioxide (SO2) ambient levels (e.g. Hong Kong demonstrated a > 90% reduction in PM emis-
Special Administrative Region; Figure 5.8). In sions (Khalek et al., 2011). However, in the USA,
addition to direct reductions of emissions, fuel the wide-ranging benefits of the newest stand-
changes can also facilitate the introduction of ards are not expected to be realized until 2030.
advanced emission control technologies (e.g. Figure 5.9 also illustrates that the European
particle filters). Union and Japan are on a similar path, which is
In 1999, the United States Environmental expected to substantially reduce emissions over
Protection Agency took steps to further improve the 20 years beginning in 2015. Developing coun-
fuel formulation and reduce emissions of light- tries, especially in Asia and Latin America, have
duty vehicles and, in 2000 and 2004, to impose also adopted earlier versions of United States or
stringent new fuel and emissions standards European vehicle emissions and fuel standards,
for on-road and nonroad heavy-duty vehicles and, in some cases, are progressively instituting
(Figure 5.9). Earlier such actions have resulted the later, more stringent stages of those rules
in substantial reductions in on-road emissions (Figure 5.13).
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Fig 5.10 On-road diesel reductions in the Tuscarora Tunnel, Pennsylvania, USA, 1975–2000.
Source: HEI (2002); reproduced with permission from the Health Effects Institute.
This progress in standards for new vehicles, process), and hydrogen. Also, advanced and new
however, is only possible in countries where the vehicle technologies, which include natural gas
quality of fuel has been improved enough to vehicles, electric and electric hybrid vehicles, and
implement the cleanest technologies (e.g. ultra- fuel cell vehicles, are in development or begin-
low-sulfur diesel). In most developing coun- ning to appear on the market.
tries, that progress has slowed significantly as While these fuels and technologies may
refineries, often government-owned, struggle have certain air quality advantages, they have
with the costs of substantially reducing sulfur. not all been subjected to rigorous assessment
This will inevitably slow the introduction of the of their emissions benefits. For example, claims
newest, cleanest technologies (now available in of emissions benefits for biodiesel have thus
the USA and soon to be available in Europe) and far exceeded the supporting data, and new
will result in continued and growing use of older health-related questions are emerging (e.g. the
diesel and gasoline technologies and the accom- use of methanol to produce the hydrogen to
panying significant exposures. power fuel cells). In emissions characterization
In addition to standards for fuels and vehicle tests of advanced diesel and natural gas bus
emissions using existing technologies, increasing technologies, conducted by the California Air
attention has focused on use of alternative fuels, Resources Board, the newest diesel technologies
such as ethanol and other plant sources (e.g. have appeared to have emissions characteristics
biodiesel), natural gas, alternative diesel fuels that are comparable to, and in some cases better
converting gas to liquid (e.g. the Fischer–Tropsch than, those of natural gas buses (Holmén and
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Air pollution and cancer
Fig 5.11 Projected reductions in diesel emissions of PM2.5 from the United States Environmental
Protection Agency’s on-road and nonroad diesel rules.
C1, commercial marine engines < 5 liters/cylinder; C2, commercial marine engines 5–30 liters/cylinder; C3, commercial marine engines > 30
liters/cylinder. Reproduced from EPA (2012).
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Fig 5.12 Substantial reductions in the mass and number of particles emitted from 2007-compliant
heavy-duty diesel engines.
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Air pollution and cancer
Fig 5.13 Current and planned requirements for light-duty vehicle emission standards in Asia and
worldwide.
Ayala, 2002). These new fuels and technologies Congestion Charging Scheme, alternate day
are also subject to the challenges of introducing driving plans in European and Latin American
a substantially different commodity. With a few cities, development of rapid transit systems (e.g.
exceptions – hybrids, natural gas (in urban areas), in Bangkok and Delhi), and efforts at growth
and ethanol – these new fuels and technologies planning and management to minimize vehicle
are not currently in widespread use and are likely travel (e.g. Portland, Oregon, USA, and several
to take a long time to develop. European cities).
Even as emissions from conventional tech- In conclusion, the emissions of a variety of
nologies have declined and more efficient tech- pollutants from vehicles account for approx-
nologies are being developed, continued growth imately 20–40% of the ambient levels of air
in travel is expected to offset a portion of these pollution (depending on the pollutant), with
reductions (Greenbaum, 1997). As a result, higher contributions in some microenviron-
reducing emissions will remain a priority and ments. These pollutants have been demonstrated
will likely come about in three ways: to have a measurable negative effect on public
1. Financing, economic incentives, and some health. As a result, the long-term trend towards
regulatory efforts to accelerate replacement and/ reducing emissions from motor vehicles is likely
or retrofitting of existing fleets of vehicles, espe- to continue, albeit at a slower pace in developing
cially older diesel vehicles; countries where fuel quality is a barrier to imple-
2. Continued tightening of fuel and emissions menting the cleanest technologies now available
standards for petrol and diesel vehicles, espe- elsewhere. In addition, continued growth in
cially in developing countries; and vehicle travel is likely to offset a portion of the
3. Policies to discourage growth in personal expected reductions, suggesting the need for
automobile use – potentially the most impor- continued research on viable alternatives and
tant and challenging future direction. Recent strategies to reduce the emissions and their
efforts in this area have included the London impact on public health.
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