In a Hartley oscillator the oscillation frequency is determined by a tank circuit comprising of two inductors and one

capacitor. The inductors are connected in series and the capacitor is connected across them in parallel. Hartley oscillators
are commonly used in radio frequency (RF) oscillator applications and the recommended frequency range is from 20KHz to
30MHz. Hartley oscillators can be operated at frequencies lower than 20KHz, but for lower frequencies the inductor value
need to be high and it has a practical limit. The circuit diagram of a typical Hartley oscillator is shown in the figure below.

In the circuit diagram resistors R1 and R2 give a potential divider bias for the transistor Q1. Re is the emitter resistor,
whose job is to provide thermal stability for the transistor. Ce is the emitter by pass capacitors, which by-passes the
amplified AC signals. If the emitter by-pass capacitor not there, the amplified ac voltages will drop across Re and it will get
added on to the base-emitter voltage of Q1 and will disrupt the biasing conditions. Cin is the input DC decoupling capacitor
while Cout is the output DC decoupling capacitor. The task of a DC decoupling capacitor is to prevent DC voltages from
reaching the succeeding stage. Inductor L1, L2 and capacitor C1 forms the tank circuit.

When the power supply is switched ON the transistor starts conducting and the collector current increases. As a result the
capcitor C1 starts charging and when the capacitor C1 is fully charged it starts discharging through coil L1. This charging
and discharging creates a series of damped oscillations in the tank circuit and it is the key.

The oscillations produced in the tank circuit is coupled (fed back) to the base of Q1 and it appears in the amplified form
across the collector and emitter of the transistor. The output voltage of the transistor (voltage across collector and emitter)
will be in phase with the voltage across inductor L1. Since the junction of two inductors is grounded, the voltage across L2
will be 180° out of phase to that of the voltage across L1. The voltage across L2 is actually fed back to the base of Q1. From
this we can see that, the feed back voltage is 180° out of phase with the transistor and also the transistor itself will create
another 180° phase difference. So the total phase difference between input and output is 360° and it is very important
condition for creating sustained oscillations.

frequency of the Hartley oscillator.

The frequency “F” of a Hartley oscillator can be expressed using the equation;

C is the capacitance of the capacitor C1 in the tank circuit.

L = L1+L2, the effective series inductance of the inductors L1 and L2 in the tank circuit.

Here the coils L1 and L2 are assumed to be winded on different cores. If they are winded on a single core then
L=L1+L2+2M where M is the mutual inductance between the two coils.

Hartley oscillator using opamp.

The typical arrangement of a Hartley oscillator using opamp in shown in the figure above. The main advantage of using
opamp is that the gain of the oscillator can be individually adjusted using the feedback resistor (Rf) and input resistor
(R1). The opamp is arranged in inverting mode and the gain can be expressed by the equation A=-Rf/R1. In transistorized
versions the gain will be equal to or faintly greater than the ratio of L1 and L2. In opamp version the gain is less dependent
on the tank circuit elements and so it provides better frequency stability. The working principle and frequency equation of
the opamp version is alike to that of the transistor version

Class B push pull amplifier.

The Class B push pull amplifier is almost similar to the Class A push pull amplifier and the only difference is that there is no
biasing resistors for a Class B push pull amplifier. This means that the two transistors are biased at the cut off point.The
Class B configuration can provide better power output and has higher efficiency(up to 78.5%). Since the transistor are
biased at the cutoff point, they consumes no power during idle condition and this adds to the efficiency. The advantages of
Class B push pull amplifiers are, ability to work in limited power supply conditions (due to the higher efficiency), absence of
even harmonics in the output, simple circuitry when compared to the Class A configuration etc. The disadvantages are
higher percentage of harmonic distortion when compared to the Class A, cancellation of power supply ripples is not as
efficient as in Class A push pull amplifier and which results in the need of a well regulated power supply.The circuit diagram
of a classic Class B push pull amplifier is shown in the diagram below.

The circuit arrangement of the Class B push pull amplifier is similar to the Class A push pull amplifier except for the
absence of the biasing resistors. T1 is the input coupling capacitor and the input signal is applied to its primary. Q1 and Q2
are two identical transistors and their emitter terminals are connected together. Center tap of the input coupling
transformer and the negative end of the voltage source is connected to the junction point of the emitter terminals. Positive
end of the voltage source is connected to the center tap of the output coupling transformer. Collector terminals of each
transistor are connected to the respective ends of the primary of the output coupling transformer T2. Load RL is
connected across the secondary of T2.

The input signal is converted into two similar but phase opposite signals by the input transformer T1. One out of these two
signals is applied to the base of the upper transistor while the other one is applied to the base of the other transistor. You
can understand this from the circuit diagram. When transistor Q1 is driven to the positive side using the positive half of its
input signal, the reverse happens in the transistor Q2. That means when the collector current of Q1 is going in the
increasing direction, the collector current of Q2 goes in the decreasing direction. Anyway the current flow through the
respective halves of the primary of the T2 will be in same direction. Have a look at the figure for better understanding. This
current flow through the T2 primary results in a wave form induced across its secondary. The wave form induced across
the secondary is similar to the original input signal but amplified in terms of magnitude.

Darlington Amplifier:

It consists of two emitter followers in cascaded mode as shown in fig. . The overall gain is close to unity. The main
advantage of Darlington amplifier is very large increase in input impedence and an equal decrease in output impedance .

DC Analysis:

The first transistor has one VBE drop and second transistor has second VBE drop. The voltage divider produces VTH to the
input base. The dc emitter current of the second stage is

IE2 = (VTH – 2 vBE ) / (RE )

The dc emitter current of the first stage that is the base current of second stage is given by

IE1 » IE2 / b2

If r'e(2) is neglected then input impedance of second stage is

Zin (2) = b2 RE

This is the impedance seen by the first transistor. If r'e(1) is also neglected then the input impedance of 1 becomes.

Zin (1) = b1 b2 RE

which is extremely high because of the products of two betas, so the approximate input impedance of Darlington amplifier
is

Zin = R1 || R2

Output impedance:

The Thevenin impedance at the input is given by

RTH = RS || R1 || R2
Similar to single stage common collector amplifier, the output impedance of the two stages z out(1) and zout(2) are given by.

Therefore, t he output impedance of the amplifier is very small.

A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a regenerative comparator circuit. The circuit is designed with a positive feedback and
hence will have a regenerative action which will make the output switch levels. Also, the use of positive voltage feedback
instead of a negative feedback, aids the feedback voltage to the input voltage, instead of opposing it. The use of a
regenerative circuit is to remove the difficulties in a zero-crossing detector circuit due to low frequency signals and input
noise voltages.

Shown below is the circuit diagram of a Schmitt trigger. It is basically an inverting comparator circuit with a positive
feedback. The purpose of the Schmitt trigger is to convert any regular or irregular shaped input waveform into a square
wave output voltage or pulse. Thus, it can also be called a squaring circuit.

As shown in the circuit diagram, a voltage divider with resistors Rdiv1 and Rdiv2 is set in the positive feedback of the 741 IC
op-amp. The same values of Rdiv1 and Rdiv2 are used to get the resistance value Rpar = Rdiv1||Rdiv2 which is connected
in series with the input voltage. Rpar is used to minimize the offset problems. The voltage across R1 is fedback to the non-
inverting input. The input voltage Vi triggers or changes the state of output Vout every time it exceeds its voltage levels
above a certain threshold value called Upper Threshold Voltage (Vupt) and Lower Threshold Voltage (Vlpt).

Let us assume that the inverting input voltage has a slight positive value. This will cause a negative value in the output. This
negative voltage is fedback to the non-inverting terminal (+) of the op-amp through the voltage divider. Thus, the value of
the negative voltage that is fedback to the positive terminal becomes higher. The value of the negative voltage becomes
again higher until the circuit is driven into negative saturation (-Vsat). Now, let us assume that the inverting input voltage
has a slight negative value. This will cause a positive value in the output. This positive voltage is fedback to the non-
inverting terminal (+) of the op-amp through the voltage divider. Thus, the value of the positive voltage that is fedback to
the positive terminal becomes higher. The value of the positive voltage becomes again higher until the circuit is driven into
positive saturation (+Vsat). This is why the circuit is also named a regenerative comparator circuit.

Applications of Schmitt Trigger

Schmitt trigger is mostly used to convert a very slowly varying input voltage into an output having abruptly varying
waveform occurring precisely at certain predetermined value of input voltage. Schmitt trigger may be used for all
applications for which a general comparator is used. Any type of input voltage can be converted into its corresponding
square signal wave. The only condition is that the input signal must have large enough excursion to carry the input voltage
beyond the limits of the hysteresis range. The amplitude of the square wave is independent of the peak-to-peak value of
the input waveform.

OP-AMP

An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp is a voltage amplifying device designed to be used with external feedback
components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and input terminals. It is a high-gain electronic voltage
amplifier with a differential input and usually a single-ended output. 5 Ideal characters of an Op Amp:

1. Open Loop gain

Open loop gain is the gain of the Op Amp without a positive or negative feedback. An ideal OP Amp should have an infinite
open loop gain but typically it range between 20,000 and 2, 00000.

2. Input impedance
It is the ratio of the input voltage to input current. It should be infinite without any leakage of current from the supply to
the inputs. But there will be a few Pico ampere current leakages in most Op Amps.

3. Output impedance
The ideal Op Amp should have zero output impedance without any internal resistance. So that it can supply full current to
the load connected to the output.

4. Band width
The ideal Op Amp should have an infinite frequency response so that it can amplify any frequency from DC signals to the
highest AC frequencies. But most Op Amps have limited bandwidth.

5. Offset
The output of the Op Amp should be zero when the voltage difference between the inputs is zero. But in most Op Amps,
the output will not be zero when off but there will be a minute voltage from it.

Clipper circuit.
An electronic circuit that is used to alter the positive peak or negative peak of the input signal to a definite value by shifting
the entire signal up or down to obtain the output signal peaks at desired level is called as Clamper circuit.
There are different types of clipper and clamper circuits as discussed below.

Working of Clipper Circuit

The clipper circuit can be designed by utilizing both the linear and nonlinear elements such as resistors, diodes
or transistors. As these circuits are used only for clipping input waveform as per the requirement and for transmitting the
waveform, they do not contain any energy storing element like a capacitor.
In general, clippers are classified into two types: Series Clippers and Shunt Clippers.

1. Series Clippers

Series clippers are again classified into series negative clippers and series positive clippers which are as follows:

a. Series Negative Clipper

Series Negative Clipper

The above figure shows a series negative clipper with its output waveforms. During the positive half cycle the diode
(considered as ideal diode) appears in the forward biased and conducts such that the entire positive half half cycle of input
appears across the resistor connected in parallel as output waveform. During the negative half cycle the diode is in reverse
biased. No output appears across the resistor. Thus, it clips the negative half cycle of the input waveform, and therefore, it
is called as a series negative clipper.

b. Series Positive Clipper

Series Positive Clipper

The series positive clipper circuit is connected as shown in the figure. During the positive half cycle, diode becomes reverse
biased, and no output is generated across the resistor, and during the negative half cycle, the diode conducts and the
entire input appears as output across the resistor.

Shunt Clippers

Shunt clippers are classified into two types: shunt negative clippers and shunt positive clippers.

a. Shunt Negative Clipper

Shunt Negative Clipper

Shunt negative clipper is connected as shown in the above figure. During the positive half cycle, the entire input is the
output, and during the negative half cycle, the diode conducts causing no output to be generated from the input.

Shunt Positive Clipper

Shunt Positive Clipper

During the positive half cycle the diode is in conduction mode and no output is generated; and during the negative half
cycle; entire input appears as output as the diode is in reverse bias as shown in the above figure.
Working of Clamper Circuit

The positive or negative peak of a signal can be positioned at the desired level by using the clamping circuits. As we can
shift the levels of peaks of the signal by using a clamper, hence, it is also called as level shifter.

The clamper circuit consists of a capacitor and diode connected in parallel across the load. The clamper circuit depends on
the change in the time constant of the capacitor. The capacitor must be chosen such that, during the conduction of the
diode, the capacitor must be sufficient to charge quickly and during the nonconducting period of diode, the capacitor
should not discharge drastically. The clampers are classified as positive and negative clampers based on the clamping
method.
1. Negative Clamper

Negative Clamper

During the positive half cycle, the input diode is in forward bias- and as the diode conducts-capacitor gets charged (up to
peak value of input supply). During the negative half cycle, reverse does not conduct and the output voltage become equal
to the sum of the input voltage and the voltage stored across the capacitor.

Positive Clamper

Positive Clamper

It is almost similar to the negative clamper circuit, but the diode is connected in the opposite direction. During the positive
half cycle, the voltage across the output terminals becomes equal to the sum of the input voltage and capacitor voltage
(considering the capacitor as initially fully charged). During the negative half cycle of the input, the diode starts conducting
and charges the capacitor rapidly to its peak input value. Thus the waveforms are clamped towards the positive direction
as shown above.

Design RC phase shift oscillator to produce sinusoidal output of 5KHz.

Figure 1 show the circuit diagram of RC phase shift oscillator.
The frequency of oscillation fOfO is given by,
fo=12π6–√RC=0.065RC……….(1)fo=12π6RC=0.065RC……….(1)

Let C=0.01uF so equation (1) becomes,

fOfO = 5KHz……Given
R=0.0655X103X0.001X10−6R=0.0655X103X0.001X10−6

R=1.3KΩR=1.3KΩ

To prevent the loading of the amplifier because of RC networks, it is necessary that R1R1 ≥ 10R.
Therefore R1R1 = 10(1.3KΩ) = 13KΩ
|RFR1|=29|RFR1|=29

Or RFRF = 29RFRF
RF=29(13kΩ)RF=29(13kΩ)

RF=377kΩRF=377kΩ

Use RFRF = 390KΩ potentiometer.

Figure 2 shows designed circuit diagram.
Designed Circuit Diagram: