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CAREER THEORIES
Outline:
Theory types
I. Trait and type theories or Theories concerned with the Counseling Process
1. Trait and Factor Theories – Parsons, Williamson
2. Values-based Career Development - Brown
II. Developmental Theories
1. Life Span Theory – Super
2. Psychosocial Development – Erikson
3. Developmental Task Theory – Havighurst
4. Developmental Theory - Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma
5. Self-Development Theory (Individualistic Approach) - Tiedeman
6. Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations – Gottfredson
7. Adult Career Development Theory – Schlossberg
III. Theories of Content
1. Self – Directed Search – Holland
2. Chance Encounter Theory – Bandura
3. Social Cognitive Career Theory – Lent, Brown , and Hackett
4. Learning Theory of Career Counseling – Krumboltz and Nichols
5. Occupational Choice Theory – Roe
6. Composite Theory – Hoppock
7. Theory of Work Adjustment (Person Environment Correspondence Theory) – Dawis
and Lofquist
8. Contextual Career Development – Young , Valach, and Collin
9. Constructivist Theory – Savickas and Peavy
10. Generational Template Theory – Abrenica
* Based on Career Development and Systems Theory by Patton & McMahon (2006)
Theories that explain “the how of career” (how people choose careers)
Also considered as the Trait and Factor theory, which involves matching traits with the
requirements of a specific occupation
Use of assessment instruments is a major resource in this theoretical perspective
o Aptitude
o Achievement
o Interests
o Values
o Personality
1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person, remembering to
include every fact that has bearing on the vocational problem.
2. Self-analysis: a self-examination is done in private and under the instruction of the
counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might impact on the choice of a life work
should be recorded.
3. The client’s own choice and decision: this may show itself in the first two stages.
The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of vocation should be made by the
client, with the counsellor acting as guide.
4. Counsellor’s analysis: the counsellor tests the client’s decision to see if it is in line
with the “main quest”.
5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar with industrial
knowledge such as lists and classifications of industries and vocations, in addition to
locations of training and apprenticeships.
6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with logical and clear
reasoning are critical at this stage.
7. General helpfulness: the counsellor helps the client to fit into the chosen work, and
to reflect on the decision.
Sources:
National Guidance Research Forum, ‘Guidance Practice – Matching Theories
(Trait/Factor)’, accessed December 2008, (www.guidance-research.org).
Although originally vocationally oriented, the approach was modified and soon was seen as a
generic approach to counseling and psychotherapy.
The trait and factor approach involved a series of six steps, which included:
1. Analysis. Gather client information (examining the problem and obtaining available
records and testing on the client)
2. Synthesis. Organize data to gain understanding of client (summarizing and
organizing the information to understand the problem).
3. Diagnosis. Counselor’s statement of client problem (interpreting the problem
depending on:
1. no choice,
2. uncertain choice
3. unwise choice
4. a discrepancy between interests and aptitudes
4. Prognosis. Predict future development of problem
5. Counseling. Counselee is helped to develop insight (aiding the individual in finding
solutions
6. Follow-up. Counselor assist counselee with recurring problems (assuring proper
support after counseling had ended)
Williamson’s (1939) six-stage model of counseling is very practical in school counseling. The
stages offer a rational approach to counseling outcomes and individual decision making.
In addition, this model allows for multiple assessments and multiple sources of information.
Multiple sources of information are vital to the appropriate counseling of ethnic and cultural
minority youths. Trait-and-factor theory has been responsible for at least two major
contributions to career counseling (Isaacson & Brown, 1993).
o First, its emphasis on identifying individual characteristics such as attitude, ability,
interest, and personality has influenced the development of numerous assessment
and appraisal instruments and techniques.
o Second, the emphasis on knowledge and understanding occupational possibilities
has encouraged the development of occupational information.
Brown's values-based career theory emphasizes the central importance of values in career
counseling and occupational choice.
Definition: Values are defined as cognitive structures that are the basis for self-evaluation
and one's evaluation of others. The values system contains all the values held by individuals,
including their cultural values and work values.
Values also have an affective dimension, are the primary basis of goal-directed behavior, and
are the stimulus for the development of behavior related to goal attainment. Values have
been portrayed as more fundamental traits than interests, and it has been suggested that
concerns for values should be the primary consideration in career counseling, without
precluding the use of other constructs. (Encyclopedia of Counseling, 2008)
Brown’s model is based on his own set of seven assumptions. He believed that values with
high priority are the most important factor in decision making, providing that an individual
has more than one choice that will satisfy their values (Brown & Crace, 1996). Culture, sex,
and socioeconomic status influence opportunities and social interaction, resulting in a wide
variation of values in subgroups of society.
Propositions of Values-Based Model (Brown)
1. Making choices that coincide with values is essential to satisfaction.
2. Life satisfaction is the result of role interaction.
3. High-functioning people have well- developed and prioritized values.
4. If the value system matches between worker and occupation, then the worker attains
congruence (happiness)
Eight Steps in Values Based Multicultural Career Counseling
1. Assess cultural variables
2. Communication style and establishing relationships
3. Facilitation and decision making process
4. Identification of career issues (assessment)
5. Selection of culturally appropriate goals and culturally appropriate interventions
(Steps 5 and 6)
6. Implementation and evaluation of interventions used
7. Advocacy
This approach classifies clients into two categories:
1. those making planned decisions
2. those making unplanned decision
First to take on a holistic approach to career planning (“What did you want to be when you
grow up?”). Examined the “occupational stories” of people from many age groups, and
determined that occupational choice is not a one-time decision, but a developmental process
occurring over several stages and sub stages.
In its original formulation, Ginzberg and his colleagues’ theory viewed vocational choice as a
process that passes through some developmental stages in an individual’s life. They stated
that this process of career decision making is usually irreversible, once crystallized. The
resolution of the career choice process is a compromise, according to the theorists.
Basic propositions:
(1) occupational choice is a long-term process
(2) the process becomes increasingly irreversible
(3) the eventual choice represents a compromise between what the individual would ideally
prefer and the available realistic possibilities, and
(4) occupational choice and eventual entry is a process consisting of a series of stages that
the individual will go through.
2. Tentative (11 – 18) – Between the ages of twelve and eighteen, young people are in
the tentative stage, where they begin to say, “I like this” (interests), “I’m good at
this,”(capacity), “This is important to me,” (values), and “I think I might want to move
in this direction,”(tentative choices).
Interest (11 – 12) – the time the individual begins to recognize the
need to identify a career direction. Here, the individual’s choice is based purely
on his interests. But even though interests form the primary basis of choice
here, there is also a rather subtle awareness of the fact that ability is also
necessary
Values (14 – 17) - the stage when individuals undergo marked changes in
their approach to vocational choice. The individual at this stage considers the
value of his service to society before making a choice. He does not choose a
vocation just because everybody else is choosing it or merely because of its
status. For example, an individual may choose to be a teacher (a less paying
job) and not a bank manager because in teaching he will impart knowledge to
society.
Transition (17 – 18) - . The individual at this stage begins to face the necessity
to make immediate, concrete and realistic decisions about his vocational
future and to assume responsibility for the consequences of the choices. The
principal feature of this sub-stage is the integration of interests, capabilities
and values and their utilization in the career decision making process.
3. Realistic (18 – 22 (24) – Ginzberg and associates called the third stage the realistic
stage, where adults begin to zero in and say, “I want to know more about this
(exploration) and “The picture is getting clearer. I seem to be gravitating to this area.”
(crystallization).
* Source: Sedofia, J. (2014) Developmental Approaches: Ginzberg’s Theory of Career Choice and
Development. International Journal of Innovative Education Research 2 (1):20-25.
Key propositions:
Self – Concept changes over time.
Career development is lifelong.
Self-knowledge is key to career choice and job satisfaction.
Career Maturity occurs once the individual is ready to cope with developmental tasks
Source: http://www2.careers.govt.nz/educators-practitioners/career-practice/career-
theory-models/supers-theory
Super's life rainbow (shown above) can be used to help clients understand evolving
interaction among the life roles of child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse,
homemaker, parent, or pensioner. These concepts are especially relevant as adults attempt
to maintain balance in life roles as various work and life changes occur.
Important terms:
Role salience – the relative importance one places on a particular role
Role conflicts, role interference, and role confusions would likely happen when
individuals are constrained in their ability to cope with the demands associated with
their multiple roles.
Mini-cycle – Cycle between cycle transitions; consists of the same stages from growth
to disengagement and would likely take place within each of the stages, particularly
when a person makes transition from one stage to the next. In addition, individuals
would go through a mini-cycle of the stages whenever they have to make expected
and unexpected career transitions such as loss of employment or due to personal or
socioeconomic circumstances
Career maturity - denotes the degree that a person was able to fulfill the vocational
developmental tasks required in each developmental stage.
Stated that the implementation of self-concept is a key factor that influences career
development over the life span. In making a career choice, a person is expressing his/her
self-concept. Hence, people attain career satisfaction by being in work roles where they can
express themselves and implement their self-concept. Self-knowledge is key to career choice
and job satisfaction.
Individuals cycle and recycle through the developmental stages of growth, exploration,
establishment, maintenance, and decline. If the person was able to attain the
characteristic task in each stage, then the person is likely to experience career maturity.
People in varying stages of development may undergo mini-cycles where they enter the life
stages and encounter its accompanying challenges or tasks. Unlike the original theory which
stated that career development starts at birth, the table below highlights that career
development begin in adolescence.
Super was instrumental in developing the international collaborative research work called
Work Importance Study (WIS) aiming to study work role salience and work values across
different cultures. The WIS involved multiple nations in North America, Europe, Africa,
Australia and Asia, and resulted in measures of work roles and work values with similar
structure and constructs.
One's personality, in terms of attitudes towards self and others, is determined by the
degree to which a crisis in each of Erikson's eight stages of development is successfully
mediated.
Adolescent Identity vs Role Tries integrating many roles (child, sibling, student,
Confusion athlete, worker) into a self-image under role model and
peer pressure. Central to the definition of occupational
identity.
Young Adult Intimacy vs Isolation Learns to make personal commitment to another as
spouse, parent or partner
Older Adult Integrity vs Despair Reviews life accomplishments, deals with lossand
preparation for death
The degree of successful resolution of the crisis in one stage affects the ability to resolve
the crisis in the next stage resolution of a crisis is never complete, and issues related to
its resolution may surface any time during the life course.
For Erikson, most crucial stage of development is number 5, during which the crisis is
that of Identity vs. Identity Confusion. This is the transition from childhood to adulthood.
How an individual resolved the crises in the first four stages affects how the crises in this
and subsequent stages will be resolved
Applying Erikson's theory to career counseling: His theory has influenced more
career theorists than any other. In terms of all the psychodynamic theories, this one is
the one most frequently applied to career development and adjustment in counseling.
The counselor should keep the eight stages in mind and listen to the client's narrative for
signs of unsuccessful resolution of particular stages, especially the fifth stage. The client
and counselor should work on achieving resolution where it is indicated.
A life – long process consisting of a six – stage process. Certain tasks need to be mastered
at certain times of ages in order to mature successfully.
A developmental task is that "which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the
individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with
later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the
society, and difficulty with later tasks" (Havighurst 1953, p. 2)
There are other tasks, however, that arise from the unique cultural standards of a given
society and as such, may be observed in different forms in varying societies or,
alternatively, may be observed is some cultures but not in others. One such task would be
preparing oneself for an occupation. An individual who belongs to an agricultural
community, for instance, might make the preparations for an occupation such as
becoming a farmer at an early age, possibly in middle childhood or in adolescence. A
member of an industrialized society, on the other hand, requires longer and more
specialized preparation for an occupation, thus, embarking on this developmental task
sometime during early adulthood. Other culturally-based tasks include achieving gender-
appropriate roles and becoming a responsible citizen.
3. Adolescence – 13 – 17 years
Establishing emotional independence from parents
Equipping self with skills needed for productive occupation
Achieving gender-based social role
Establishing mature relationships with peers of both sexes
Core concepts:
In contrast to the established notion that choice is a process of selection, Gottfredson
theorized that career choice and development could instead be viewed as a process of
elimination or circumscription in which a person progressively eliminates certain
occupational alternatives from further consideration.
Self concept in vocational development is a key factor to career selection. People want
jobs that are compatible with their self-images
4. Compromise (you are limited by job opportunities) – Not all suitable job choices
are accessible, often people make compromises. The theory argues that people
will choose to work in a different field within their social space rather than
compromise either prestige or sex type of work. Accessibility is limited by the
labor market conditions, cost and effort of locating opportunities for education,
training and employment.
2. Stage 2: Orientation to Sex Roles (6 – 8) – Sex role norms and attitudes emerge as
defining aspect of a child’s self-concept. The child evaluates occupations according to
whether they are appropriate to one’s sex, and eliminates further consideration
alternatives that are perceived to be gender-inappropriate (i.e. wrong sex type).
4. Stage 4: Orientation to Unique Internal Self (14 and Above) – Internal and private
aspects of the adolescent’s self-concept, such as personality, interests, skills, and
values, become prominent. The young adolescent considers occupations from the
remaining pool of acceptable occupations according to their suitability or degree of
match with one’s internal self .
* Source: Leung, S. A. (2008). The Big Five Career Theories. International Handbook of Career
Guidance
1. Social expectations
2. Functions of life stages to functioning age
3. Sex differences
4. Identity, intimacy and generativity
3 types:
Four factors that determine how will a client can cope with transition (4S):
1. The situation itself – the timing, the impact, and the amount of control one has in the
situation.
2. Self– personal, demographic & psychological resources
3. Strategies – Coping modes
4. Support – people, agencies, and financial capability
The 6 environments:
4 Assumptions
1. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities,
express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles.
2. Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and environment.
Known to be a “person-environment fit” (PE fit) theory
3. Proposed that persons can be categorized as one of the following: Realistic,
Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising or Conventional.
4. There are six career environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social,
enterprising and conventional.
Key Terms
Consistency - degree of relatedness between types; the closer types are on the
hexagon, the greater the consistency. Types opposite each other are more dissimilar
in terms of personality.
Congruence - the degree of fit between an individual’s personality type and current
or prospective work environment
o High congruence – vocational satisfaction, stability; low congruence –
dissatisfaction, instability
Differentiation – refers to whether high interest and low interest types are clearly
distinguishable in a person’s interest profile.
o Differentiated profile- person has crystallized interests
People arrive at an occupation, more by chance rather than through deliberate planning.
This chance is influenced by, among others: environment, social class, culture, and other
conditions one is born or raised in; opportunities for education; and observation of role
models.
Self-efficacy beliefs are the most influential predictor of career choice.
Self-efficacy – the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of
action required to produce given attainments
Self-efficacy is derived from 4 sources:
1. Personal performance - accomplishments, previous successes or failures
2. Vicarious experience – watching others, modeling, mentoring
3. Verbal persuasion – verbal encouragement or discouragement
4. Physiological and emotional factors – perceptions of stress reactions in the body
1. Genetic influences - sex, race, physical appearance, intelligence, abilities, and talents
4. Task approach skills – skills/values the person have acquired (work habits,
problem-solving)
1. Self-observation
2. Worldview generalizations
3. Learning theory of career counseling (Krumboltz & Nichols)
Express preference for occupations and based upon our learned responses
When positively reinforced (recognition, encouragement), more likely to express a
preference for it.
When negatively or not reinforced (low grades, ridiculed, others unable to find work
in this area), less likely to pursue it
Core part of the theory: unpredicatable social factors, chance events and environmental
factors influence client’s lives.
Counselor role: help client approach these chance events positively. Clients must capitalize
on chance events and turn serendipity to opportunity.
Must foster:
1. Curiosity to explore opportunities
2. Persistence to deal with obstacles
3. Flexibility to address circumstances
4. Optimism to maximize benefits from unplanned events
Argued that there are two basic orientations, either toward or not toward persons. Both of
these are related to early childhood experiences and that they can be related in turn to
occupational choice.
1. Person-oriented
1. Service
2. Business contact
3. Managerial
4. Arts/entertainment
2. Non-person oriented
1. Technology
2. Outdoors
3. Science
PERSON-CENTERED CAREERS
Career Tasks Job titles
1. Service Doing something for others Social worker, GC, helper
2. Business contact Persuading others for profit, sale of Account executives, insurance
commodities, real estate agent, real estate agents
3. Managerial Personalized person to person relations; Executive administrator
organization, efficient functioning
4. General culture Relates to the interest in human Educators, journalists,
activities, preservation and transmission linguists, humanities experts
of cultural heritage
5. Arts & Use of special skills in the creative arts & Movie stars, theater actors,
entertainment entertainment singers
3. Semi-professional Low level of responsibility for others High school or technical degree
& small business
Early childhood experiences play an important role in finding satisfaction in one’s chosen
field.
Theory focused on the possible relationship between occupational behavior (not just
choice), and personality (Roe & Lunneborg, 1990)
Occupations are chosen in the belief that they would best meet the most dominant needs of
the individual.
Once a person becomes aware of other jobs that could satisfy personal needs, then
occupational choices are subject to change.
Job satisfaction depends upon the extent to which the job meets the needs that have been
identified. (Hoppock, 1967).
Propositions:
Highlights the relationship of the person (P) and his environment (E), which results to work
(W).
Job stability and satisfaction are a function of the correspondence between the individual
and the work environment.
Propositions:
views career as a socially constructed process that reflects both individual actions and the
person's interactions with others
Career is built by engaging in activities and then reflecting on the outcomes. Career may be
viewed as an interpretative construct built by a working person. Career is built by engaging
in activities and then reflecting on the outcomes.
The term “decidedness” should replace “engagement” in work (despite uncertainty)
People around us and the environment we live in constantly affect our career choices.
Contextualism is a method of describing events or actions in an individual’s life and
the way as to how counselors understand a client through his environmental
interactions.
Actions refer to the whole context in which a particular behavior was undertaken.
They are manifest behavior, are internal processes, they have social meaning.
The study of actions is the major focus of the contextual viewpoint.
The goal is to address the 21st Century question of how individuals can navigate a lifetime of
career changes without losing their sense of self. It is differential, developmental and
dynamic.
Dynamic point of view: Life Themes – career is constructed based on the
interpretative and interpersonal processes through which individuals find meaning
and direction in their vocational behaviors. The meanings people attach to their
memories, past experiences and future aspirations become life themes.
Career Style Inventory – assessment tool in career construction theory (assesses career
adaptability)
Key concepts:
Socialization - the career or occupation of the parents or others are observed at
close range thus the child is able to develop a mental schema that are imprinted in the
mind.
Zunker asserts that the recent trend in career counseling places greater emphasis on
a humanistic approach designed to expand one's awareness of life, bringing greater
meaning to all aspects of life-style.
"In essence, the more an individual is aware of his or her potential and experience,
the greater the likelihood of self-assertion and direction" (Zunker, 1994, p. 13).
There is always the need for continued research. Current theories need refining and
"new theories must be developed that address the needs of specific populations, such
as females, the gifted and talented, people of color, ethnic minorities, ex-offenders
and persons with disabilities" (ICDM, 1991, p. 4-6).
Career theories, by their very nature, explore in depth and tend to focus on narrow
issues. They play an important role in understanding human nature however, it is
equally important to view the whole picture as the sum of its parts.
Aside from theory, some career programs (systems) are based on philosophy. Richard
Nelson Bolles' life/work planning is such a model. His holistic process evolved over
the last twenty-five years and is continuously expanding. It encompasses the "total
person", taking into consideration physical, intellectual, mental, emotional, and
spiritual needs.
In What Color Is Your Parachute?, Bolles writes about the importance of knowing
your mission, that is, finding purpose in life. He addresses how various life roles fit
into the bigger life/work picture. He says that we need to challenge all assumptions,
paying careful attention on two levels: the human level and the spiritual level. He
speaks to the fulfillment of our psychological needs as well as the importance of
addressing spiritual issues. In essence, there is both the trait and factor approach and
developmental schema in his process.
Using these assumptions, the major strategy of career intervention is to provide learning
events that will develop the individual’s processing abilities. Client’s develop capabilities as
career problem solvers to meet immediate as well as future problems.
The stages of processing information begin with screening, translating, & encoding input
into short-term memory; then storing it in long-term memory; and later activating,
retrieving and transforming input into working memory to arrive at a solution. The
counselor’s principal function is to identify the client’s needs and develop interventions to
help clients acquire the knowledge and skills to address those needs.
The major strategy of career intervention is to provide learning events that will develop the
individual’s processing abilities. In this way clients develop capabilities as career problem
solvers to meet immediate and future problems.
Career problem solving is primarily a cognitive process that can be improved through a
sequential procedure known as CASVE:
Communication (identifying a need)-receiving, encoding, and sending out queries
Analysis (interrelating problem components)- identifying and placing problems in a
conceptual framework)
Synthesis (creating likely alternatives) formulating courses of action
Valuing (prioritizing alternatives) judging each action as to its likelihood of success
and failure and its impact on others
Execution (forming means-ends strategies) implementing strategies to carry out
plans.
This model emphasizes that career information counseling is a learning event. This model is
unique to other social learning theory & cognitive models because the role of cognition is a
mediating force that leads individuals to greater power and control in determining their own
destinies. The client is viewed as one who has a career problem or a gap exists between the
client’s current situation and a future career situation. Counselors are to seek out the
problems and factors involved in this gap.
Once the problems are identified the counselor develops problem-solving interventions.
Problem solving and decision making are valuable skills that can be used throughout the
lifespan. CIP—CASVE—Problem Solving:
2. Careers are no longer gender specific – The entry of women into the workforce creating a
trend on non-exclusiveness. Barriers are eliminated allowing broader opportunities for
individuals of diverse sexual orientation.
3. The workforce has become global – The expansion of business and industries worldwide
created a global workforce that is competitive and profitable.
TYPES OF CAREERS:
1) Steady (expert)
2) Linear
3) Spiral
4) Transitory
CAREER COUNSELING
Career development takes into account the interplay of several factors, among them: social,
physical, emotional, or educational and the application of certain basic principles of human
development. (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003);
Career development should reflect the developmental tasks the different life stages.
Environment plays a key part in career development.
Positive influences should be accentuated while the negative ones should be given
intervention.
• Students must:
• be assisted in developing adequate understanding of themselves and must be
prepared to relate this understanding to both social and personal development and
career educational planning.
• Actual Career Planning and Decision Making - narrow down career possibilities
and make decisions; taking control of one’s career /life