DEO 1603

Signals and Systems

(訊號與系統)
Lecture 1
 Course Outline
Lecturer : Prof. CHOW Chi Wai (鄒志偉)
Email : cwchow@faculty.nctu.edu.tw
TA: Chia-Hsuan Wang (王家軒)
Email : shoutclose@gmail.com

Course assessment :
45% Homework, 25% Quiz & 30% Final Exam
Lecture homepage: www.cc.nctu.edu.tw/~cwchow/
 Course Outline
Text:
z Signals and Systems, 2003, 2nd Ed. Simon Haykin
and Barry Van Vee, Wiley
z Signals and Systems, 1997, 2nd Ed. by
Oppenheim and Willsky, Prentice Hall

Office hours: Tuesday 2pm to 4pm or by appointment

Lecture: Tuesday (10:10am-12:00noon) and

Thursday (3:40pm-4:30pm) at EO 103
 Course Outline
• The goal is to provide students a basic
understanding of signals and systems

• And to provide a mathematical tools for future

applications on digital signal processing (DSP)

• Possible topics to be covered include time and

frequency domain representations of a signal,
communication systems, Fourier Series, Fourier
Transform, Laplace Transform, z Transform
• Ch. 1 Introduction
• Ch. 2 Time-Domain Representation of Linear Time-
Invariant Systems
• Ch. 2 Convolution Sum and Convolution integral
• Ch. 3 Fourier Representations of Signals and Linear
Time-Invariant Systems
• Ch. 3 Discrete-time Fourier series, Fourier series,
Discrete-time Fourier transform, and Fourier transform
• Ch. 4 Applications of Fourier Representations to Mixed
Signal Classes
• Ch. 5 Application to Communication Systems
• Ch. 6 Representing Signals by Using Continuous-Time
Complex Exponentials: the Laplace Transform
• Ch. 7 Representing Signals by Using Discrete-Time
Complex Exponentials: the z-Transform
 Why Study Signals and Systems?

• A very elementary course for other courses

like:
– Digital Communication
• Optical Fiber Communication
• Radio Frequency (RF) Communication
– Digital Signal Processing
• Image Processing (Facial recognition)
• Video Processing
• Speech Processing (Speech recognition)
• Advanced modulation formats in communication
• Signal regeneration and distortion compensation
 Information World

The maximum and minimum daily traffic volume

on the Japan IX backplane in bits per second

Peak data rate > 140 Gb/s = 140,000,000,000 b/s

Communications and Entertainments
Telemedicine and 3D Telemedicine
 Other Examples of Information World
• Impact of such contributions on human society is indeed
highly significant…
• Just a few examples:
– Cheap long-distance and international telephone calls
– E-mails replacing physical mails
– 100-channel CATV and digital cable VOD to the home
– World-wide Internet Access, with unlimited Digital Libraries
– Global information infrastructure for business applications
– Global E-commerce
– Multimedia E-mails with Photo Images, Audio and Video
– “Free” real-time “Video Phones” over the Internet
– HDTV
– 3D-HDTV
– Tele-medicine
– ………
 Signals and Systems
1.1 What is a signal?
A signal is formally defined as a function of one or more variables that
conveys information on the nature of a physical phenomenon (usually time
or frequency).

1.2 What is a system?

A system is formally defined as an entity that manipulates one or more
signals to accomplish a function, thereby yielding new signals (perform
the “transform”).

Figure 1.1 (p. 2)

Block diagram representation of a system.
 Why we need to do the transform

• Much easier to operate in one domain

than the others
Time signal Time signal
transform transform
processing
Frequency signal Frequency signal

MDCCCXCVI - MDCCCXXXIII LXIII

transform
transform
processing
1896-1833 63
 Examples of Systems
★ 1.3.1 Communication systems
Elements of a communication system
1. Analog communication system: modulator + channel + demodulator

◆ Modulation:
2. Digital communication system:
sampling + quantization + coding → transmitter → channel → receiver
◆ Two basic modes of communication:
1. Broadcasting Radio, television
2. Point-to-point communication Telephone, deep-space
communication
(a) Snapshot of Pathfinder
exploring the surface of Mars.
(b) The 70-meter (230-foot)
diameter antenna located at
Canberra, Australia. The
surface of the 70-meter
reflector must remain accurate
within a fraction of the signal’s
wavelength. (Courtesy of Jet
Propulsion Laboratory.)
 Communications

RF
RF

Fiber
optics
Base station A Base station B

• Communication between mobile phone (e.g. 3G or later 4G)

or wireless LAN (e.g. IEEE802.11g), connection between
base stations or servers are using optics
 Mobile RF Communication
• 2G (GSM)
– Carrier frequencies at 900MHz and 1.8GHz
– Data rate at 9.6 kb/s
• 2.5G (General Packet Radio Service-GPRS)
– Carrier frequency at 2.4GHz
– Data rate up to 171.2 kb/s
• 3G (IMT-2000)
– Carrier frequency at 2GHz
– Data rate up to 2000 kb/s (Car: 144 kb/s,
Pedestrian: 384 kb/s, Indoor: 2 Mb/s)
 Sampling

In practice, the channel capacity is

8bits x 8k/s = 64 kbits/s
 Quantization

4 bit = 16 levels
8 bit = 256 levels
16 bit = 65536 levels
32 bit = 4294967296 levels

Digital data: 0010001101000000111011011101

 Modulation
Digital data: 0010001101000000111011011101

Modulation Demodulation
RF signal (suitable for transmission)
Baseband data Tx
1011 Rx Baseband data
1011
e.g. 54Mb/s data on 2.4GHz carrier
2.4GHz Sine wave 2.4GHz Sine wave

Why we need to perform modulation?

 Modulation
m(t) s(t)

c(t)

• Let’s consider in time-domain, for the message signal m(t)

m(t ) = A0 cos(ω0t )
• The carrier wave c(t)

c(t ) = Ac cos(ωc t )
• After the mixer, s(t) is

s(t ) = Ac A0 cos(ωct ) cos(ω0t )

1 1
= Ac A0 cos[(ωc + ω0 )t ] + Ac A0 cos[(ωc − ω0 )t ]
2 2
 Up-conversion

M(jω)

ω
-ω0 ω0

C(jω)

-ωc ωc ω

S(jω)

-ωc ωc
ω
2ω0 2ω0
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Demodulation
Synchronous Demodulation in the Time Domain
 Down-conversion
s(t) LPF v(t)

c(t)=cos(ωct + θ)
1
v(t ) = Ac A0 cos(ωc t ){cos[(ωc + ω0 )t ] + cos[(ωc − ω0 )t ]}
2
1
= Ac A0 {cos[(2ωc + ω0 )t ] + cos(ω0t ) + cos[(2ωc − ω0 )t ] + cos(ω0t )}
4
S(jω)

-ωc ωc
ω
2ω0 2ω0

C(jω)

-ωc ωc ω

V(jω)

-2ωc 2ωc
-ω0 ω0 ω
2ω0 2ω0
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Demultiplexing and Demodulation
Pulse Code Modulation

In practice, the channel capacity is

8bits x 8k/s = 64 kbits/s
 North American PSTN
• Rationale: There are more low-amplitude than high-amplitude
sounds in speech
• Quantization noise is an unavoidable side effect of digitization

• 24 channels x 64 kbit/s
★ 1.3.2 Control systems

Block diagram of a feedback control system. The controller drives the plant,
whose disturbed output drives the sensor(s). The resulting feedback signal
is subtracted from the reference input to produce an error signal e(t), which,
in turn, drives the controller. The feedback loop is thereby closed.
 Analog and Digital Signals
★ 1.3.7 Analog Versus Digital Signal Processing
Digital approach has two advantages over analog approach:
1. Flexibility
2. Repeatability

Analog
 Digital Signal Robust to Noise
Input Voltage Input Eyes
1
Decision 1

0.8
Threshold 0.8

0.6 0.6
V in

V in
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
time (ps) time (ps)
Output Voltage after HPF @ RC=2500ps Output Eyes after HPF @ RC=2500ps
1 1

0.5
0.5
V out

V out
0

0
-0.5

-1
-0.5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
time (ps) time (ps)

Digital
 CT and DT
1.4 Classification of Signals
Parentheses (‧)
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
Continuous-time signals: x(t)
Discrete-time signals: x [ n ] = x( nTs ), n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ....... (1.1) where t = nTs

Brackets [‧]

(a) Continuous-time signal x(t). (b) Representation of x(t) as a discrete-time signal x[n].
CT and DT
Sampling rate not enough
 Even and Odd
2. Even and odd signals Symmetric about vertical axis
Even signals: x( −t ) = x(t ) for all t (1.2)
Odd signals: x( −t ) = − x(t ) for all t (1.3)
Example 1.1 Antisymmetric about origin
Consider the signal
⎧ ⎛πt ⎞
⎪sin ⎜ ⎟ , − T ≤ t ≤ T
x(t ) = ⎨ ⎝ T ⎠
⎪ 0 , otherwise
⎩
Is the signal x(t) an even or an odd function of time?
⎧ ⎛ πt ⎞
⎪sin ⎜ − ⎟ , − T ≤ t ≤ T
x(−t ) = ⎨ ⎝ T ⎠
⎪ 0 , otherwise
⎩
⎧ ⎛πt ⎞ odd function
⎪ − sin ⎜ ⎟, − T ≤ t ≤ T
=⎨ ⎝T ⎠
⎪ 0 , otherwise
⎩
= − x (t ) for all t
 Even and Odd
◆ Even-odd decomposition of x(t): Example 1.2
x ( t ) = xe ( t ) + xo ( t ) Find the even and odd components
of the signal
where xe ( −t ) = xe (t )
x(t ) = e−2t cos t
xo ( − t ) = − xo ( t )
<Sol.>
x ( − t ) = xe ( − t ) + x o ( − t ) x(−t ) = e2t cos(−t )
= xe ( t ) − x o ( t ) =e2t cos(t )
1
[ x(t ) + x(−t )]
Even component:
xe = (1.4)
2 1
xe (t ) = ( e−2t cos t + e2t cos t )
1 2
xo = [ x ( t ) − x ( − t ) ] (1.5)
2 = cosh(2t ) cos t

Odd component:
1
xo (t ) = ( e−2t cos t − e2t cos t ) = −sinh(2t ) cos t
2
 Complex Conjugate
◆ Conjugate symmetric:
A complex-valued signal x(t) is said to be conjugate symmetric if
x(−t ) = x∗ (t ) (1.6)
Let x(t ) = a (t ) + jb(t )
x* (t ) = a (t ) − jb(t ) a( −t ) = a(t )
a(−t ) + jb(−t ) = a (t ) − jb(t ) b( −t ) = −b(t )
 Periodic and Non-periodic
3. Periodic and nonperiodic signals (Continuous-Time Case)
Periodic signals: x(t ) = x(t + T ) for all t (1.7)
T = T0 , 2T0 , 3T0 , ...... and T = T0 ≡ Fundamental period
Fundamental frequency:
1
f = (1.8)
T
Angular frequency:
2π
ω = 2π f = (1.9)
T
◆ Example of periodic and nonperiodic signals:
(a) Square wave
with amplitude A = 1
and period T = 0.2s.
(b) Rectangular
pulse of amplitude A
and duration T1.
 Periodic and Non-periodic
◆ Periodic and nonperiodic signals (Discrete-Time Case)
x [ n ] = x [ n + N ] for integer n (1.10)
Fundamental frequency of x[n]: N = positive integer
2π
Ω= (1.11)
N

◆ Example of periodic and nonperiodic signals:

Discrete-time square
wave alternative
between –1 and +1.

Aperiodic discrete-time signal

consisting of three nonzero samples.
 Energy and Power
4. Deterministic signals and random signals
A deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time.

A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty before it occurs.

5. Energy signals and power signals

Instantaneous power:
v 2 (t ) If R = 1 Ω and x(t) represents a current or a voltage,
p(t ) = (1.12) then the instantaneous power is
R
p (t ) = x 2 (t ) (1.14)
p (t ) = Ri (t )
2
(1.13)

E = Pt
 Energy and Power
The total energy of the continuous-time signal x(t) is ◆ Discrete-time case:
T
∞ Total energy of x[n]:
E = lim ∫ x (t )dt = ∫ x 2 (t )dt
2
−T
2
(1.15)
T →∞ −∞ ∞

∑ x [ n]
2
E= 2
(1.18)
Time-averaged, or average, power is n =−∞
T
1 Average power of x[n]:
P = lim ∫−2T x 2 (t )dt (1.16)
T →∞ T N
1
∑
2
P = lim x 2 [n] (1.19)
For periodic signal, the time-averaged power is n →∞ 2 N
n =− N
T N −1
1 1
P = ∫−2T x 2 (t )dt
T 2
(1.17) P=
N
∑ x [n]
n =0
2

(1.20)
★ Energy signal:
If and only if the total energy of the signal satisfies the condition
0< E <∞
★ Power signal:
If and only if the average power of the signal satisfies the condition
0< P<∞
 Energy and Power
★ Energy signal:
If and only if the total energy of the signal satisfies the condition
0< E <∞
★ Power signal:
If and only if the average power of the signal satisfies the condition
0< P<∞
• Energy and power signals are mutually exclusive
• Periodic and random signals are usually power signals
E∞
P∞ = lim
T →∞ T

• If E∞ <∞, then P=0, according to above equation, for

example, a finite energy signal is a pulse of value =1 for
0≤t ≤1, and 0 otherwise (nonperiodic). E=1 and P=0
• If P>0, then E= ∞, for example, the constant signal x(t)=4
has infinite energy, but average power P=16
 Signal Operations
1.5 Basic Operations on Signals
★ 1.5.1 Operations Performed on dependent Variables c = scaling factor
Amplitude scaling: x(t) y (t ) = cx(t ) (1.21)
Discrete-time case: x[n] y[n] = cx[ n] Performed by amplifier
Addition:
y (t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) (1.22)
Discrete-time case: y[n] = x1[n] + x2 [n]
Multiplication:
Ex. AM modulation
y (t ) = x1 (t ) x2 (t ) (1.23)
y[n] = x1[n]x2 [n]
Differentiation: Inductor with current
d d i(t), inducing voltage
y (t ) = x(t ) (1.24) Inductor: v(t ) = L i (t ) (1.25) v(t) across its
dt dt
terminals.
Integration:
t
y (t ) = ∫ x(τ )dτ (1.26)
−∞
 Time Scaling
1 t
Capacitor: v(t ) =
C ∫−∞
i (τ )dτ (1.27) Capacitor with
voltage v(t) across
★ 1.5.2 Operations Performed on its terminals,
independent Variables inducing current i(t).
Time scaling:
a >1 ⇒ compressed
y (t ) = x(at )
0 < a < 1 ⇒ expanded

Time-scaling operation; (a) continuous-time signal x(t), (b) version of x(t) compressed
by a factor of 2, and (c) version of x(t) expanded by a factor of 2.
 Reflection
Reflection:
y (t ) = x(−t ) The signal y(t) represents a reflected version of x(t) about t = 0.
Ex. 1-3
Consider the triangular pulse x(t). Find the reflected version of x(t) about the
amplitude axis (i.e., the origin).

Operation of reflection: (a) continuous-time signal x(t) and (b) reflected version of x(t)
about the origin.
 Time Shifting
Time shifting: y (t ) = x(t − t0 )
Ex. 1-4 Time Shifting: Fig. 1-23.

Time-shifting operation: (a) continuous-time

signal in the form of a rectangular pulse of
amplitude 1.0 and duration 1.0, symmetric
about the origin; and (b) time-shifted version of
x(t) by 2 time shifts.

Discrete-time case: y[n] = x[n − m] where m is a positive or negative integer

★ 1.5.3 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time Scaling
1. Combination of time shifting and time scaling:
y (t ) = x(at − b) (1.28)
y (0) = x(−b) (1.29)
b
y ( ) = x(0) (1.30) 2. Operation order: To achieve Eq. (1.28),
a
1st step: time shifting v(t ) = x (t − b)
2nd step: time scaling y (t ) = v( at ) = x(at − b)
 Time Shifting
Ex. 1-5 Precedence Rule for Continuous-Time Signal
Consider the rectangular pulse x(t) depicted in (a). Find y(t)=x(2t + 3).
<Sol.> Case 1: Fig. 1-24. ⇒ Shifting first, then scaling
Case 2: Fig. 1-25. ⇒ Scaling first, then shifting
y (t ) = v(t + 3) = x(2(t + 3)) ≠ x(2t + 3)

The proper order in which the operations of time scaling and time shifting should be
applied in the case of the continuous-time signal of Example 1.5. (a) Rectangular
pulse x(t) of amplitude 1.0 and duration 2.0, symmetric about the origin. (b)
Intermediate pulse v(t), representing a time-shifted version of x(t). (c) Desired signal
y(t), resulting from the compression of v(t) by a factor of 2.
Discrete-time case: y[n] = x[kn], k > 0 k = integer Some values lost!

Effect of time scaling on a discrete-time signal: (a) discrete-time signal x[n]

and (b) version of x[n] compressed by a factor of 2, with some values of the
original x[n] lost as a result of the compression.
Ex. 1-6 Precedence Rule for Discrete-Time Signal
A discrete-time signal is defined by
⎧ 1, n = 1,2
⎪
x[n] = ⎨ −1, n = −1, −2
⎪ 0, n = 0 and | n |> 2
⎩
Find y[n] = x[2n + 3].
 Exponential CT
1.6 Elementary Signals B and a are real parameters
★ 1.6.1 Exponential Signals x ( t ) = Be a t (1.31)
1. Decaying exponential, for which a < 0
2. Growing exponential, for which a > 0

(a) Decaying exponential form of continuous-time signal. (b) Growing exponential

form of continuous-time signal.
 Exponential CT

(a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal. (b) Growing

exponential form of discrete-time signal.
 Sinusoidal
★ 1.6.2 Sinusoidal Signals x(t + T ) = A cos(ω (t + T ) + φ )
◆ Continuous-time case: = A cos(ωt + ωT + φ )
x(t ) = A cos(ωt + φ ) (1.35) = A cos(ωt + 2π + φ )
where 2π periodicity
= A cos(ωt + φ )
T=
ω = x(t )

(a) Sinusoidal signal A cos(ω t + Φ) with phase Φ = +π/6 radians.

(b) Sinusoidal signal A sin (ω t + Φ) with phase Φ = +π/6 radians.
Sinusoidal
 Sinusoidal
◆ Discrete-time case :
x[n] = A cos(Ωn + φ ) (1.39)
Periodic condition: x[n + N ] = A cos(Ωn + ΩN + φ ) (1.40)
2π m
ΩN = 2π m or Ω= radians/cycle, integer m, N (1.41)
N
Ex. A discrete-time sinusoidal signal: A = 1, φ = 0, and N = 12.
 Example of DT Frequency
Example
A sinusoidal signal
x1[n] = sin[5π n]

<Sol.>
(a) Angular frequency of x1[n]:
2π m 2π m 2m
Ω = 5π radians/cycle N= = =
Ω 5π 5
This can be only for m = 5, 10, 15, …, which results in N = 2, 4, 6, …
Fundamental period N = 2
Sinusoidal
Interesting things in DT periodic signal
 Euler’s Equation
★ 1.6.3 Relation Between Sinusoidal and Complex Exponential Signals
jω t
1. Euler’s identity: e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ (1.41) Be
Complex exponential signal: B = Ae jφ (1.42) = Ae jφ e jω t
x(t ) = A cos(ωt + φ ) (1.35)
= Ae j (φ +ω t )
A cos(ωt + φ ) = Re{Be jωt } (1.42)
= A cos(ω t + φ ) + jA sin(ω t + φ )

◇ Continuous-time signal in terms of sine function:

x(t ) = A sin(ωt + φ ) (1.44)
A sin(ωt + φ ) = Im{Be jωt } (1.45)

2. Discrete-time case:

A cos(Ωn + φ ) = Re{Be jΩn } (1.46) and A sin(Ωn + φ ) = Im{Be jΩn } (1.47)

 Exponential Damping
★ 1.6.4 Exponential Damped Sinusoidal Signals
x(t ) = Ae −α t sin(ωt + φ ), α > 0 (1.48)
Example for A = 60,
α = 6, and φ = 0:

Exponentially damped
sinusoidal signal Ae −at
sin(ωt), with A = 60 and α
= 6.
 Step Function
★ 1.6.5 Step Function

◆ Continuous-time case: Continuous-time

{
version of the unit-step
1, t > 0
u(t ) = (1.54) function of unit
0, t < 0 amplitude.

x[n]
Discrete-time version
◆ Discrete-time case: of step function of unit 1
u[n] = {1,0, n ≥0 amplitude.
n <0 (1.53) n
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
 Example of Step Function
Consider the rectangular pulse x(t). This pulse has an amplitude A and
duration of 1 second. Express x(t) as a weighted sum of two step functions.

<Sol.>
⎧ A, 0≤ t <0.5
1. Rectangular pulse x(t): x(t ) = ⎨ (1.55)
⎩ 0, t >0.5
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
x (t ) = Au ⎜ t + ⎟ − Au ⎜ t − ⎟ (1.56)
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
 Impulse Function
★ 1.6.6 Impulse Function
Discrete-time form of
◆ Discrete-time case:
impulse.
δ [n] = {
1, n = 0
0, n ≠ 0 (1.58)

δ(t) aδ(t)
Figure 1.41 (p. 46)
Discrete-time form of impulse.

(a) Evolution of a rectangular pulse of unit area into an impulse of unit strength (i.e.,
unit impulse). (b) Graphical symbol for unit impulse.
(c) Representation of an impulse of strength a that results from allowing the duration
Δ of a rectangular pulse of area a to approach zero.
 Impulse Function
◆ Continuous-time case: Dirac delta function
δ (t ) = 0 for t ≠ 0 (1.59)
∞
∫−∞
δ (t )dt = 1 (1.60)
1. As the duration decreases, the rectangular pulse approximates the impulse
more closely.

2. Mathematical relation between impulse and rectangular pulse function:

δ (t ) = lim xΔ (t ) (1.61) 1. xΔ(t): even function of t, Δ = duration.
Δ→0
2. xΔ(t): Unit area.

3. δ(t) is the derivative of u(t): 4. u(t) is the integral of δ(t):

d t
δ (t ) = u (t ) (1.62) u (t ) = ∫ δ (τ )dτ (1.63)
dt −∞

• Physical Meaning: Differential is looking at the transient stage

 Impulse Function
◆ Properties of impulse function:
1. Even function: δ (−t ) = δ (t ) (1.64)
2. Sifting property:
∞
∫−∞
x(t )δ (t − t0 )dt = x(t0 ) (1.65)

3. Time-scaling property:
1
δ (at ) = δ (t ), a > 0 (1.66)
a
 Derivative of Impulse
• Impulse is a form of a rectangular pulse of duration Δ and
amplitude of 1/ Δ
• A rectangular pulse is step function (1/ Δ)u(t+ Δ/2) minus the
step function (1/ Δ)u(t- Δ/2)
• Hence, derivative of impulse is the derivative of two step
functions
1. Doublet:
1
δ (1) (t ) = lim
Δ→ 0 Δ
(δ (t + Δ / 2) − δ (t − Δ / 2) ) (1.70)

2. Fundamental property of the doublet:

∞
∫−∞
δ (1) (t )dt = 0 (1.71)
∞ d
∫−∞
f (t )δ (1) (t − t0 )dt =
dt
f (t ) t =t0 (1.72)

3. Second derivative of impulse:

∂2 d (1) δ (1) (t + Δ / 2) − δ (1) (t − Δ / 2)
δ (t ) = δ (t ) = lim (1.73)
∂t 2 dt Δ→ 0 Δ
 Ramp Function
2. Discrete-time case:
Ramp function of unit
⎧ n, n ≥ 0 slope.
r[ n ] = ⎨ (1.76)
⎩0, n < 0
or
r[n] = nu[n] (1.77)

x[n]
Discrete-time version
of the ramp function. 4

n
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
 Systems
1.7 Systems Viewed as Interconnections of Operations
A system may be viewed as an interconnection of operations that transforms an
input signal into an output signal with properties different from those of the
input signal.
1. Continuous-time case:
y (t ) = H {x(t )} (1.78)
2. Discrete-time case:
y[n] = H {x[n]} (1.79)

Block diagram representation of operator H for (a)

continuous time and (b) discrete time.
 Example of System Representation
Example 1.12 Moving-average system
Consider a discrete-time system whose output signal y[n] is the average of the
three most recent values of the input signal x[n], that is
1
y[n] = ( x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2])
3
Formulate the operator H for this system; hence, develop a block diagram
representation for it.

<Sol.> 1. Discrete-time-shift operator Sk: Fig. 1.50.

1.50
Shifts the input x[n] by k time units to
produce an output equal to x[n − k].
2. Overall operator H for the moving-average Discrete-time-shift operator
system: 1 Sk, operating on the discrete-
H = (1 + S + S 2 ) time signal x[n] to produce
3
x[n – k].
Example of System Representation

Two different (but equivalent) implementations of the

moving-average system: (a) cascade form of
implementation and (b) parallel form of implementation.
 Stability
1.8 Properties of Systems
★ 1.8.1 Stability
1. A system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO)
BIBO stable if and
only if every bounded input results in a bounded output.
2. The operator H is BIBO stable if the output signal y(t) satisfies the condition
y (t ) ≤ M y < ∞ for all t (1.80)
whenever the input signals x(t) satisfy the condition Both Mx and My
represent some finite
x (t ) ≤ M x < ∞ for all t (1.81) positive number
One famous example of an unstable
system:

Dramatic photographs showing the

collapse of the Tacoma Narrows
suspension bridge on November 7, 1940.
(a) Photograph showing the twisting
motion of the bridge’s center span just
before failure.
(b) A few minutes after the first piece of
concrete fell, this second photograph
shows a 600-ft section of the bridge
breaking out of the suspension span and
turning upside down as it crashed in Puget
Sound, Washington. Note the car in the
top right-hand corner of the photograph.

(Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution.)

 Memory
★ 1.8.2 Memory
A system is said to possess memory if its output signal depends on past or
future values of the input signal.
A system is said to possess memoryless if its output signal depends only on
the present values of the input signal.

1
Ex.: Resistor i (t ) = v(t ) Memoryless !
R
1 t
Ex.: Inductor i (t ) = ∫ v(τ )dτ Memory !
L −∞
Ex.: Moving-average system
1
y[n] = ( x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2]) Memory !
3
Ex.: A system described by the input-output relation
y[n] = x 2 [n] Memoryless !
 Causality
★ 1.8.3 Causality
A system is said to be causal if its present value of the output signal depends
only on the present or past values of the input signal.
A system is said to be noncausal if its output signal depends on one or more
future values of the input signal.

Ex.: Moving-average system

1
y[n] = ( x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2]) Causal !
3
Ex.: Moving-average system
1
y[n] = ( x[n + 1] + x[n] + x[n − 1]) Noncausal !
3
♣ A causal system must be capable of operating in real time.
time
 Invertibility
★ 1.8.4 Invertibility
A system is said to be invertible if the
input of the system can be recovered
from the output.
1. Continuous-time system: The notion of system invertibility. The
second operator H inv is the inverse of the
x(t) = input; y(t) = output first operator H. Hence, the input x(t) is
H = first system operator; passed through the cascade correction
H inv = second system operator of H and H inv completely unchanged.

2. Output of the second system:

H inv = inverse
H inv { y (t )} = H inv { H { x(t )}} = H inv H { x(t )} operator

3. Condition for invertible system:

I = identity operator
H inv H = I (1.82)
 Invertibility
Example 1.16 Non-Invertible System
Show that a square-law system described by the input-output relation
y (t ) = x 2 (t )
is not invertible.
<p.f.> Since the distinct inputs x(t) and − x(t) produce the same output y(t).
Accordingly, the square-law system is not invertible.
 Time Invariance
★ 1.8.5 Time Invariance
A system is said to be time invariance if a time delay or time advance of the
input signal leads to an identical time shift in the output signal.
♣ A time-invariant system do not change with time.

The notion of time invariance. (a) Time-shift operator St0 preceding operator H. (b)
Time-shift operator St0 following operator H. These two situations are equivalent,
provided that H is time invariant.
 Linearity
★ 1.8.6 Linearity
A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input (excitation) x(t) and
the system output (response) y(t) if it satisfies the following two properties of
superposition and homogeneity:
1. Superposition:
x(t ) = x1 (t ) y(t ) = y1 (t ) x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t )
x ( t ) = x2 ( t ) y ( t ) = y2 ( t ) y (t ) = y1 (t ) + y2 (t )
2. Homogeneity: a = constant
x(t ) y (t ) ax(t ) ay (t ) factor
♣ Linearity of continuous-time system
1. Operator H represent the continuous-tome system.
2. Input:
N
x1(t), x2(t), …, xN(t) ≡ input signal; a1, a2, …, aN ≡
∑
x(t ) = ai xi (t ) (1.86)
i =1
Corresponding weighted factor

3. Output: N
y (t ) = H {x(t )} = H {∑ ai xi (t )} (1.87)
i =1
 Linearity
N
Superposition and
y (t ) = ∑ ai yi (t ) (1.88) homogeneity
i =1
where
yi (t ) = H {xi ( t )}, i = 1, 2, ..., N . (1.89)

The linearity property of a system. (a) The combined operation of

amplitude scaling and summation precedes the operator H for multiple
inputs. (b) The operator H precedes amplitude scaling for each input; the
resulting outputs are summed to produce the overall output y(t). If these
two configurations produce the same output y(t), the operator H is linear.
 Example
Example 1.20 Nonlinear Continuous-Time System
Consider a continuous-time system described by the input-output relation
y (t ) = x(t ) x(t − 1)
Show that this system is nonlinear.
<p.f.> N
1. Input: x (t ) = ∑ai xi (t )
i =1
2. Output:
N N N N
y (t ) = ∑ ai xi (t )∑ a j x j (t − 1) =∑∑ ai a j xi (t ) x j (t − 1)
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1

y (t ) = ∑ i =1 ai yi (t )
N
Here we cannot write Nonlinear system!
 Matlab Examples
Ex. Obtain the square wave by using MATLAB.
<Sol.> >> A = 1;
>> w0 =10*pi;
>> t = 0:.001:1;
>> sq = A*square(w0*t);
>> plot (t, sq)
>> axis([0 1 -1.1 1.1])

Ex. Obtain the discrete-time square wave by using MATLAB.

<Sol.>
>> A = 1;
>> omega =pi/4;
>> n = -10:10;
>> x = A*square(omega*n);
>> stem(n, x)
 Matlab Examples
Ex. Obtain the waveform shown in Fig. 1.35 by using MATLAB.
<Sol.> >> A = 60;
>> w0 =20*pi;
>> phi = 0;
>> a = 6;
>> t = 0:.001:1;
>> expsin = A*sin(w0*t + phi).*exp(-a*t);
>> plot (t, expsin)

Ex. Obtain the growing exponential signal shown in Fig. 1.28 (b) by using
MATLAB.
<Sol.>
>> B = 1;
>> a = 5;
>> t = 0:0.001:1;
>> x = B*exp(a*t); % growing exponential
>> plot (t, x)