Describe the construction, working principle, pros and cons of the following display

systems

1. CRT

The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube that contains one or more electron guns and
a phosphorescent screen, and is used to display images It modulates, accelerates, and deflects
electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent
electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer monitor), radar targets, or
others. CRTs have also been used as memory devices, in which case the visible light emitted
from the fluorescent material (if any) is not intended to have significant meaning to a visual
observer (though the visible pattern on the tube face may cryptically represent the stored data).

In television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively
and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the
intensity of each of the three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red, green, and
blue) with a video signal as a reference. In all modern CRT monitors and televisions, the beams
are bent by magnetic deflection, a varying magnetic field generated by coils and driven by
electronic circuits around the neck of the tube, although electrostatic deflection is commonly
used in oscilloscopes, a type of electronic test instrument.

Cathode Ray Tubes are well established and form the basis for most displays commonly in use
today. Their broad market acceptance is based upon their long-standing in the marketplace and
low cost. However, CRTs are being replaced in a wide variety of markets because they require a
large physical space in which to operate and comparatively large amounts of power. People who
use CRTs as computer monitors often switch to flat panel displays that have less "flicker" and
give off less harmful electromagnetic radiation despite their higher cost.

Construction

A CRT is constructed from a glass envelope which is large, deep (i.e., long from front screen
face to rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. The interior of a CRT is evacuated to
approximately 0.01 Pato 133 nPa. evacuation being necessary to facilitate the free flight of
electrons from the gun(s) to the tube's face.
That it is evacuated makes handling an intact CRT potentially dangerous due to the risk of
breaking the tube and causing a violent implosion that can hurl shards of glass at great velocity.
As a matter of safety, the face is typically made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-
resistant and to block most X-ray emissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer
product.

Since the late 2000s, CRTs have been largely superseded by newer "flat panel" display
technologies such as LCD, plasma display, and OLED displays, which in the case of LCD and
OLED displays have lower manufacturing costs and power consumption, as well as significantly
less weight and bulk. Flat panel displays can also be made in very large sizes; whereas 38" to 40"
was about the largest size of a CRT television, flat panels are available in 60" and larger sizes

A CRT is an electronic tube designed to display electrical data. The basic CRT consists of four
major components:

 Electron gun used for producing a strain of electrons

 Focusing and Accelerating Anodes used for producing a narrow and sharply focus
beam of electrons
 Horizontal and Vertical Deflection Plates used for controlling the path of the
beam
 Evacuated Glass Envelope has a phosphorescent screen which produces bright
spot when struct by a high velocity electron beam.

The electron gun assembly consists of an indirectly heated cathode(K), a control grid(G), an
accelerated anode A1, focusing anode A2 and accelerating anode A3.
WORKING OF CRT

An electron gun consists of a series of electrodes producing a narrow beam of high-velocity

electrons. Electrons are released from the indirectly heated cathode. The intensity of the beam is
controlled by variation of the negative potential of the cylindrical control grid surrounding the
cathode. This electrode is called the modulator. The control grid has a hole in the front to allow
passage of the electron beam. The electrons are accelerated and focused. The focusing anode
operates at a potential of 1200V and accelerating anode at 2000V to accelerate the electron
beam.

Two or more electrodes at different potentials are used to focus the electron beam. The
electrostatic field set up between the electrodes causes the beam to converge. The focusing effect
is controlled by varying the potential of the focusing electrode. Due to the focusing action
electrons of the gun bombard the screen of the cathode ray tube at the same point.

System of converging and diverging lenses

The deflected and accelerated electron beam strikes a phosphorescent material on the inside face
of the tube. The phosphor glows and the visible glow can be seen at the front of the tube.

So cathodoluminescence is used in cathode ray tubes. Cathodoluminescent efficiency increases

with increasing beam voltage. As a result of the screen bombardment free electrons are knocked
out. To collect these electrons the inside surface of the glass balloon is coated by conducting
aquadag layer. Usually this layer is connected to the accelerating anode.

The screen of the CRT may be coated with aluminium on the inside and this coating is held at
anode potential. Such an aluminized screen prevents the accumulation of charge on the phosphor
and improves its performance increasing the visible output and reducing the effects of ion
bombardment.
The most important characteristics of an oscilloscope tube are deflection sensitivity (deflection
on the screen per volt), bandwidth (or rise time of the step-function response), spot diameter,
useful scan and maximum writing speed.

The high sensitivity and super-wide-band of CRTs are achieved using traveling-wave deflecting
systems. Electrons of the beam in the travelling-wave deflecting system are deflected by the
incident electromagnetic wave propagating along the system with the same velocity as electrons
of the beam.

Electrostatic focusing

Cathode ray tube employing electromagnetic focus and deflection

Advantages

 They operate at any resolution, geometry and aspect ratio without the need for rescaling
the image.
 CRTs run at the highest pixel resolutions generally available.
 Produce a very dark black and the highest contrast levels normally available. Suitable for
use even in dimly lit or dark environments.
 CRTs produce the very best color and gray-scale and are the reference standard for all
professional calibrations. They have a perfectly smooth gray-scale with an infinite
number of intensity levels. Other display technologies are expected to reproduce the
natural power-law Gamma curve of a CRT, but can only do so approximately.
 CRTs have fast response times and no motion artifacts. Best for rapidly moving or
changing images.
 CRTs are less expensive than comparable displays using other display technologies.

Disadvantages

 The CRT's Gaussian beam profile produces images with softer edges that are not as sharp
as an LCD at its native resolution. Imperfect focus and color registration also reduce
sharpness. Generally sharper than LCDs at other than native resolutions.
 All color CRTs produce annoying Moiré patterns. Many monitors include Moiré
reduction, which normally doesn't eliminate the Moiré interference patterns entirely.
 Subject to geometric distortion and screen regulation problems. Also affected by
magnetic fields from other equipment including other CRTs.
 Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very brightly lit
environments.
 Some CRTs have a rounded spherical or cylindrical shape screen. Newer CRTs are flat.
 CRTs give off electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields. There is considerable
controversy as to whether any of these pose a health hazard, particularly magnetic fields.
The most authoritative scientific studies conclude that they are not harmful but some
people remain unconvinced.
  They are large, heavy, and bulky. They consume a lot of electricity and produce a lot of
heat.

Applications of CRT

 Cathode ray oscilloscope

 Televisions
 Computer Monitors
 Display device in Radar

2. FLAT PANEL DISPLAY SYSTEMS

Most flat-panel displays form digits or characters with combination of segments or dots. The
arrangement of these elements is called the display font. The most common format for numeric
display is the seven-segment font. Graphic displays are like very large dot matrices. Each dot in a
graphic display is called picture element, pixel or pel. The capabilities of a graphic display
depend on number of pixels horizontally and vertically.

a) Plasma Display Systems

A plasma display is a computer video display in which each pixel on the screen is illuminated by
a tiny bit of plasma or charged gas, like a tiny neon light. It is a Flat Panel Display (FPD)
technology based on the glow discharge that occurs when ionized gas undergoes recombination.
Electrons are removed from atoms to produce ions, later recombining with the ions to release
energy in the form of light.

Construction

A plasma panel are constructed with two sheets of glass. Between the sheets of glass are spacers

that create individual cells within the two glass sheets. Transparent electrodes are then coated

inside the front and the back pieces of glass (the rear electrode is called the address electrode).
So that there are two electrodes per cell on the front piece of glass and one electrode per cell on

the rear piece of glass. Each cell is the coated with phosphor and filled with a mixture of neon

and xenon gases. The entire structure is sealed so that the gas will not escape. When an electrical

charge is added to the front and back electrodes, a voltage differential is created, adding energy

to the gas mixture and changing the gas to plasma state. Once the gas changes into plasma state,

it releases ultraviolet energy which excites the phosphor coated inside each cell, causing it to

emit visible light. This is how each cell emits light. The plasma display is structured so that three

cells are arrayed side by side in close proximity to each other.

These three cells represent one pixel. Each cell within a pixel is phosphor coated with one of the

three primary colors of red, green and blue.

Working Principle

Two plates of glass are taken between which millions of tiny cells containing gases like xenon

and neon are filled. Electrodes are also placed inside the glass plates in such a way that they are

positioned in front and behind each cell. The rear glass plate has with it the address electrodes in

such a position that they sit behind the cells. The front glass plate has with it the transparent

display electrodes, which are surrounded on all sides by a magnesium oxide layer and also a

dielectric material. They are kept in front of the cell.

When a voltage is applied, the electrodes get charged and cause the ionization of the gas resulting

in plasma. This also includes the collision between the ions and electrons resulting in the emission

of photon light. The state of ionization varies in accordance to color plasma and monochrome

plasma.

For the latter a low voltage is applied between the electrodes. To obtain color plasma, the back of

each cell has to be coated with phosphor. When the photon light is emitted they are ultraviolet in

nature. These UV rays react with phosphor to give a colored light.

Advantages:

 established technology
 proven to be rugged and reliable
 multiple commercial sources
 simplified driving circuit
 simple construction lends itself to low-cost, high-volume production
 color is feasible
 long lifetime

Disadvantages:

 high voltage driver requirements (150-200 volts)

 washout in bright sunlight
 limited gray-scale ability
 More susceptible to “burn in” or “screen burn” of static images.
 Requires more power thus more heat produced than LCDs.
 Does not perform as well at higher altitudes.
 Shorter display life span than LCD. This can vary according to other environmental and
use factors.
 b) Liquid Crystal Display

LCDs are, by far, the most commercially important flat panel technology because they are used
in notebook computers. In 1998, around 11 million notebooks were sold. Almost all (over 99
percent) of those notebooks had an LCD in it.

LCDs exhibit some properties of a liquid and some associated with a crystal. They flow like
liquids and share much of a liquid's dependence upon temperature, stress, electric fields, and
chemical environment.
LCDs can be subdivided into the following types:

 twisted nematic LCDs (TN-LCDs), one form of passive-matrix LCD

 supertwisted nematic LCDs (STN-LCDs), another type of passive-matrix LCD
 thin-film-transistor LCDs (TFT-LCDs), also referred to as active-matrix LCDs
 active-addressed LCDs (AA-LCDs), a hybrid of passive- and active-matrix
technologies

Construction

When making LCD two polarized glass pieces filter are required. The glass which does not have
a polarized film on the surface of it must be rubbed with a special polymer which will create
microscopic grooves on the surface of the polarized glass filter. The grooves must be in the same
direction of the polarized film. Coating of pneumatic liquid phase crystal is the added on one of
the polarized filter of the polarized glass. The microscopic channel cause the first layer molecule
to align with filter orientation. When the right angle appears at the first layer piece, we should
add a second piece of glass with the polarized film. The first filter will be naturally polarized as
the light strikes it at the starting stage.

Thus, the light travels through each layer and guided on the next with the help of molecule. The
molecule tends to change its plane of vibration of the light in order to match their angle. When
the light reaches to the far end of the liquid crystal substance, it vibrates at the same angle as that
of the final layer of the molecule vibrates. The light is allowed to enter into the device only if the
second layer of the polarized glass matches with the final layer of the molecule.
Working Principle

A LCD display consists of many pixels, this is what the resolution stands for, the number of

pixels. Each of these pixels is an LCD panel, and it is seen as a multi-layer sandwich supported

by a fluorescent backlight. At the 2 far ends of the LCD panel are non-alkaline, transparent glass

substrates with smooth surface and free of surface scratches.

The glass substrates are attached to polarizer film that transmits or absorbs a specific component

of polarized light. In between the 2 glass substrates is layer of the nematic phase liquid crystals.

There is also a color filter containing the 3 primary colors (red, green and blue). Each of the

polarized glass is arranged at right angles to each other, so when electric current was passed

through the LCD panel, the liquid crystals are aligned with the first polarized glass encountered

and will make a 90o twist when approaching the other polarized glass at the end. When this

happens, the light from the fluorescent backlight is able to pass through and thus giving us a

lighted pixel on the monitor. When there is no electric current, the liquid crystals will not twist

and thus the light will not pass through and a black pixel will be shown. The reason we see the

colored images are due to the color filter, light passes through the filtered cells creates the colors.
 LCD system

Advantages:

 Produces very bright images due to high peak intensity. Very suitable for environments
that are brightly lit.
 Produce considerably lowerelectric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields than CRT.
 Consume less than 1/3rd the power of a comparable CRT.
 Life span: 50,000 - 100, 000 hours
 Screen size: 13-57 inches
 Power Consumption : Require less power to operate compared to plasma, but more than
OLED TVs
 Viewing Angle : Up to 165°, Picture suffers from the side

Disadvantages:

 The aspect ratio and resolution are fixed.

 Lower contrast than CRTs due to a poor black-level.
 Slow response times and scan rate conversion result in severe motion artifacts and image
degradation for moving or rapidly changing images.
 c) Light Emitting Diodes (LED) Displays

Display applications are classified either as low information content (where a limited amount of
information is being displayed, refresh rates are slow, and the nature of information being
displayed is predictable), or as high information content (where the opposite conditions apply).
Broadly speaking LEDs, ELs, and VFDs are best suited to the former, while plasma and all types
of LCDs are appropriate for the latter.

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are the most widely used semiconductor diodes among all the
different types of semiconductor diodes available today. Light emitting diodes emit either visible
light or invisible infrared light when forward biased. The LEDs which emit invisible infrared
light are used for remote controls.

A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits light when voltage is
applied. In other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy
into light energy.

A LED pixel module is made up of 4+ LEDs of RGB. LED displays are made up of many such
modules. • Several wires run to each LED module, so there are a lot of wires running behind the
screen. • Turning on a jumbo screen can use a lot of power.
Construction

LED is made by depositing three layers of semiconductor material on a substrate. These three

semiconductor material layers are made three regions which are called a P-type region which is

top one, active region which is middle one and N-type region which is bottom one. The figure

below shows the three semiconductor material regions.

P-type region have the holes, N-type region have the elections and active region have both

electron and holes. In normal condition when there are no any voltages are applied at anode and

cathode then all the holes and electrons are present at their places but when the voltages are

applied at this light LED then it is forward biased. Then the holes from p-type region and

electrons from n-type region are pushed up towards the active region, which is also called the

depletion region. Because the holes have positive charge and electron have negative charge then

the light is produced by the recombination of these opposite polarity charges.

Working Principle

The light LED works on the same principle of simple PN junction diode means when the anode

is connected to positive terminal of dc supply and cathode is connected to the negative terminal

of dc supply then the PN junction is forward biased. When the PN junction is forward biased

then the holes’ form P-type region and electrons from N-type region are recombined then the

conduction band is formed for emitting the light energy in the form of light energy photons. This

whole phenomenon is called electroluminescence phenomena and this light energy depends upon

the amount of current absorbed by the LED. In other words, this light energy is directly

proportional to the absorbing current means when it absorbs more current then the light would be

high similarly when it absorbs low current then the light would be low. All the absorbing current

not converted into light energy some of the portion of this current is converted into heat which is

dissipated by the light emitting diode during light emitting into external environment. This heat

is known as electron dissipate energy and this dissipate energy also depends upon the

semiconductor material of light emitting diode.

Advantages

 Temperature Range: It can be operated over a wide range of temperature ranging from 00C -700C

 Switching Time: The Switching time of LEDs is in order of 1ns. Thus, they are useful in dynamic

operations where a large number of arrays are used.

 Low Power Consumption: They consume less power and they can be used even if the dc power

supplied is low.

 Better Controlling: The radiant power of LEDs is the function of the current flowing in it. Thus, the

light intensity of LED can be controlled easily.

 Economical and Reliable: LEDs are cheap and they possess a high degree of reliability.

 Small Size and Portability: They are small in size and can be stacked together for the formation of

alphanumeric displays.

 Higher Efficiency: The efficiency of LEDs to convert power to light energy is 10-50 times greater

than that of the tungsten lamp. The response time of LED is 0.1ms while in the case of tungsten lamp

it is in tens or hundreds of milliseconds.

Disadvantages

 Overvoltage or Overcurrent: The LEDs may get damaged when the current is increased beyond a

certain limit.

 Overheating due to radiant power: It gets overheated with an excessive increase in radiant power.

This may lead to damage of LED.

 Restriction to only 16 hexadecimal figures.

 Low quality LEDs may cause pollution to environment.

 May result in more e-wastes

REFERENCES

http://www.ele.uri.edu/courses/ele432/spring08/LEDs.pdf

http://cs.haifa.ac.il/hagit/courses/ist/Lectures/IST08_Displaysx4.pdf

https://www.fh-muenster.de/ciw/downloads/personal/juestel/juestel/Em.andnon-

em.RGBDisplays_DierkesHuebner_.pdf

http://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-circuits/semiconductor-

diodes/lightemittingdiodeledconstructionworking.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube

http://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-circuits/semiconductor-

diodes/lightemittingdiodeledconstructionworking.html

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-7062-8_7