Soil physical characteristics -

review
Week 1
15/09/2014
 Introduction
• One of primary tasks of a geotechnical engineer is to
collect, classify, and investigate the engineering
properties of soils for geotechnical engineering
practice.

• In this topic you will review and learn:

1) some basic descriptions of soils
2) some fundamental physical soil properties
3) tests to determine the physical properties of soils
4) soil classification
 Learning outcomes
In this topic you will review and learn how to:
1. Determine the basic properties of soils
(using phase relationships)
2. Understand how water changes the states
of fine-grained soils
3. Determine the index properties of soils
4. Classify soils according to the USCS and
Australian systems
• Part 1 – Main constituents of soils and phase
relationships
 Key terms
• Water content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to
the weight of solids.
• Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space
to the volume of solids.
• Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of void to the
total volume of soil.
• Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of
water to the volume of void.
• Bulk unit weight (γ) is the weight density, that is, the
weight of a soil per unit volume.
• Saturated unit weight (γsat) is the weight of a saturated
soil per unit volume.
 Key terms
• Dry unit weight (γd) is the weight of a dry soil per
unit volume.
• Effective unit weight (γ') is the weight of soil
solids in a submerged soil per unit volume.
• Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifies
the degree of packing between the loosest and
densest state of coarse-grained soils.
• Swell factor (SF) is the ratio of the volume of
excavated material to the volume of in situ
material (sometimes called borrow pit material or
bank material).
Phase relationships
Typical values of unit weight of soil

Soil type 𝛾𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛾𝑑

(kN/m3) (kN/m3)

Gravel 20–22 15–17

Sand 18–20 13–16
Silt 18–20 14–18
Clay 16–22 14–21
 Relative density and porosity

Dr (%) Porosity, n (%) Description

0–20 100–80 Very loose
20–40 80–60 Loose
40–70 60–30 Medium dense or firm
70–85 30–15 Dense
85–100 < 15 Very dense
 Specific gravity of soil

• The specific gravity, • A values of Gs = 2.7

Gs, for soil minerals is representative of
varies between 2.2 most soils.
and 2.9 • It is the default
• For most soils, Gs = value for this
2.6 to 2.8. course.
 Quiz 1

The wet mass of a soil is 120 grams. Its dry mass is 100 grams.
The water content (%) is
1. 16.7
2. 20
3. 83.3
 Quiz 2

The volume of a block of soil is 1 m3. The volume of solids is

0.8 m3. The void ratio is

1. 0.80
2. 0.20
3. 0.25
 Quiz 3

The volume of a block of soil is 1 m3. The volume of solids is

0.8 m3. The porosity is

1. 0.80
2. 0.20
3. 0.25
Example – calculation of void ratio and
porosity

• A container of volume 2.83 x 10-3 m3 weighs

9.8 N. Dry sand was poured to fill the
container. The container and the sand weigh
52.3 N. Calculate (a) the void ratio and (b) the
porosity. Describe the condition of the soil
(loose or dense). Assume Gs = 2.7.
 Example – calculation of void ratio and
porosity
• Step 1: Calculate the weight of dry sand.
Weight of container = 9.8 N 9.8 N

Weight of sand and container = 52.3 N

52.3 N

Weight of dry sand, Ws = 52.3 − 9.8 = 42.5 N = 0.0425 kN

Example – calculation of void ratio and
porosity
• Step 2: Calculate dry unit weight.
Ws 0.0425
γ d= = = 15 kN/m 3

V 2.83 × 10−3

• Step 3: Calculate the void ratio.

Ws Gs
γ d= = γw
V 1+ e

γw 9.8
Solving for e, we get=e Gs =
γd
− 1 2.7 =
15
− 1 0.764
 Example – calculation of void ratio and
porosity

• Step 4: Calculate the porosity. Dr (%)

0–20
Porosity, n (%) Description
100–80 Very loose

e 0.764
=n = = 0.43
= 43% 20–40 80–60
60–30
Loose
Medium dense
1 + e 1 + 0.764 40–70

70–85 30–15 Dense

85–100 < 15 Very dense

• Step 5: Describe the soil.
From table, n = 43%, the sand is medium dense
or firm.
• Part 2 – physical states and index properties of
fine-grained soils
 Key terms
• Liquid limit, LL: water content at which soil
changes from a liquid state to a plastic state.
• Plastic limit, PL: water content at which soil
changes from a plastic state to a semi-solid state.
• Shrinkage limit, SL: water content at which soil
changes from a semi-solid state to a solid state.
• Plasticity index, PI: the range of water content at
which a soil will behave plastically.
• Liquidity index, LI: ratio of the difference in water
content between the natural or in situ water
content of a soil and its plastic limit to its
plasticity index
 Physical states
• The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-
grained soils is linked to four distinct states
– Solid
– Semi-solid
– Plastic
– Liquid
 Physical states
• The range of water
contents over which the
soil deforms plastically is
known as the plasticity
index, PI:
= LL − PL
PI
Soil strength and deformation
parameters have been correlated
to PI.
• The liquidity index, LI, is
the ratio of the difference
in water content between
the natural or in situ water
content of a soil and its
plastic limit to its plasticity
index
w − PL
LI =
PI
LI gives a qualitative measure of
soil strength

When w = PL, LI = 0 ---- high strength

When w = LL, LI = 1 ---- low strength
 Physical states

• Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a

particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is
linearly related to the amount of the clay
fraction. This relationship is called Activity (A)
PI
A=
Clay fraction (%)

As A increases, the water absorption capacity of the soil increases

 Typical values of soil indices and
activity

Soil type LL (%) PL (%) PI (%) Description Activity, A

Sand Nonplastic Inactive < 0.75
Silt 30–40 20–25 10–15 Normal 0.75–1.25
Clay 40–150 25–50 15–100
Active 1.25–2
Very (highly) active >6
Minerals
Kaolinite 50–60 30–40 10–25
(e.g., bentonite)
Illite 95–120 50–60 50–70
Montmorillonite 290–710 50–100 200–660 Minerals
Kaolinite 0.3–0.5
Illite 0.5–1.3
Na-montmorillonite 4–7
Ca-montmorillonite 0.5–2.0
 Quiz 1

A fine-grained soil has a liquid limit of 300% and a plastic limit

of 55%. The natural water content of the soil in the field is 80%
and the clay content is 60%. The plasticity index (%) is

1. 245
2. 355
3. 220
 Quiz 2

A fine-grained soil has a liquid limit of 300% and a plastic limit

of 55%. The natural water content of the soil in the field is 80%
and the clay content is 60%. The liquidity index is

1. 0.1
2. 0.08
3. 0.9
 Quiz 3

A fine-grained soil has a liquid limit of 300% and a plastic limit

of 55%. The natural water content of the soil in the field is 80%
and the clay content is 60%. The activity (A) of the soil is

1. 0.41
2. 1.3
3. 0.9
 Determination of the liquid limit
Liquid limit using the Casagrande Cup
Method—ASTM D 4318
• A dry powder of the soil is mixed with
distilled water into a paste and placed to a
thickness of about 12.5mm in the cup.
• The soil surface is smoothened.
• A groove is cut into the soil using a standard
grooving tool.
• The crank operating the cam is turned at a
rate of 2 revolutions per second and the
number of blows required to close the Apparatus
groove over a length of 12.5mm is counted 1. A semi-spherical brass cup that is
and recorded. repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber
• A specimen of soil within the closed portion base from a height of 10 mm by a cam
is extracted for the determination of the operated mechanism
water content. 2. Grooving tool.
 Determination of the liquid limit

• Data from about 5 tests at

different water contents are
plotted as number of blows
(log scale) versus water
content at which the groove
cut into the soil closed over a
distance of 12.5 mm
• The liquid limit (LL) is defined
as the water content at
corresponding to 25 blows
 Determination of the plastic limit
• The plastic limit is
determined by rolling a small
clay sample into threads and
finding the water content at
which threads approximately
3 mm in diameter will just
start to crumble. Source: http://www.humboldtmfg.com/

• Two or more determinations

are made, and the average
water content is reported as
the plastic limit.
Determination of the liquid limit and plastic limit
• View the video to see how the liquid  View the video to see how the plastic
limit is determined using the limit is determined using rolling method
Casagrande’s cup method –ASTM –ASTM D4318.
D4318.
 Example: calculation of plasticity
index, liquidity index, activity
A fine-grained soil has a liquid limit of 300% and a plastic
limit of 55%. The natural water content of the soil in the
field is 80% and the clay content is 60%.

(a) Determine the plasticity index, the liquidity index,

and the activity.
(b) What is the soil state in the field?
(c) What is the predominant mineral in this soil?
 Example: calculation of plasticity
index, liquidity index, activity
• Step 1: Calculate the plasticity • Step 2: Determine the state of the
index, liquidity index, and soil in the field.
activity. Based on Table 4.4, the soil with
LI = 0.1
PI = LL − PL = 300 − 55 = 245% is at the low end of the plastic
w − PL 80 − 55 state
=LI = = 0.1
PI 245
PI 245
= A = = 4.1
Clay fraction (%) 60

Values of LI Description of soil strength

LI < 0 Semisolid state—high strength, brittle, (sudden) fracture is expected
0 < LI < 1 Plastic state—intermediate strength, soil deforms like a plastic material
LI > 1 Liquid state—low strength, soil deforms like a viscous fluid
 Example: calculation of plasticity
index, liquidity index, activity
Soil type LL (%) PL (%) PI (%) Description Activity, A
Sand Nonplastic
Inactive < 0.75
Silt 30–40 20–25 10–15
Normal 0.75–1.25
Clay 40–150 25–50 15–100
Active 1.25–2
Minerals Very (highly) active >6
Kaolinite 50–60 30–40 10–25 (e.g., bentonite)
Illite 95–120 50–60 50–70
Montmorillonite 290–710 50–100 200–660 Minerals
Kaolinite 0.3–0.5
• Step 3: Determine the predominant
Illite 0.5–1.3
mineral.
Na-montmorillonite 4–7
Ca-montmorillonite 0.5–2.0
From Tables 4.5 and 4.6, the
predominant mineral is
montmorillonite (most likely, Na-
montmorillonite).
• Part 3 – soil classification
 Soil classification systems
• A classification scheme provides a method of
identifying soils in a particular group that would
likely exhibit similar characteristics.
• Many classification systems exist, e.g.:
– Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
– American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM
D2487)
– American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
– British Soil Classification System (BS 5930)
– Australian Soil Classification (AS1726)
 Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
• USCS is neither too elaborate nor too
simplistic.
USCS – coarse-grained soils

Coefficient of uniformity
D60
CU =
D10

Coefficient of curvature

D302
CC =
D60 D10
USCS – fine-grained soils
USCS – coarse-grained soils
(ASTM D2487)
USCS – fine-grained soils
(ASTM D2487)
 Example: soil classification
A sieve analysis was conducted on a soil sample and the results
are as follows.
Percent of particles greater than 0.075 mm 80
Gravel fraction (%) 60
Sand fraction (%) 20
Silt fraction (%) 15
Clay fraction (%) 5

Classify the soil according to USCS.

• Step 1: Determine if soil is fine-grained or coarse-grained.

Since more than 50% of the particles are greater than 0.075
mm, then the soil is coarse-grained.

• Step 2: Use the flow chart for coarse-grained soils to classify

the soil GM (silty gravel)
Soil classification according to AS1726
Soil classification according to AS1726
(cont’d)
In the British soil classification system, the boundary between silt
and sand is 0.06 mm
 Plasticity chart
• Experimental results from soils
tested from different parts of
the world were plotted on a
graph of plasticity index
(ordinate) versus liquid limit
(abscissa).

• Clays, silts, and organic soils lie

in distinct regions of the graph.

• If the results of your soil tests

fall above the U-line, repeat the
tests.
 Engineering use chart

Soil classification is a useful engineering tool to assess qualitatively the behaviour of a soil
and its use as a construction material
 Further study
• Read book sections 4.0 – 4.7
• Watch videos for the plastic limit and
liquid limit tests
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
xD1LxWWdc1c
• Visit the student companion site:
http://bcs.wiley.com/he-
bcs/Books?action=index&itemId=047
0556846&bcsId=6154 and try the
quizzes and interactive problem
solving exercises