Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 27:155–163, 2006

Copyright # Taylor & Francis, Inc.

ISSN: 0193-2691 print/1532-2351 online
DOI: 10.1080/01932690500265672

Influence of Oil Content in Paraffins on the Behavior of Wax

Emulsions: Wetting and Rheology
M. A. Rodrı́guez-Valverde, R. Tejera-Garcı́a, M. A. Cabrerizo-Vı́lchez,
and R. Hidalgo-Álvarez
Departamento de Fı́sica Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain

J. Nolla-Anguera, J. Esquena-Moret, and C. Solans-Marsa

Instituto de Investigaciones Quı́micas y Ambientales de Barcelona (IIQAB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas
(CSIC), Barcelona, Spain

R. Mujika-Garai, C. Aguilar-Garcı́a, F. Juárez Arroyo, and I. Covián-Sánchez

RYLESA (Repsol-YPF Lubricantes y Especialidades SA), Madrid, Spain

For decades, paraffin emulsion has been used in chipboard panel manufacturing for the
purpose of making it both water and damp proof. A most important variable when assessing
the effectiveness of the emulsion as a water-resistant agent in the panel is the oil content of the
paraffin. Although this aspect has been dealt with from the manufacturing (Carll, 1996)
approach, there is scarcely any literature that relates the oil content in paraffin to chipboard
panel waterproofing or to the stability of the emulsion. In this article the influence that oil
content exerts on waterproofing capacity is determined using the ADSA technique by
studying the water-vapor-solid interface in a wood substrate coated in paraffin with a drop
of water placed on top. Thus, the water-resistant capacity of a chipboard panel is related to
the paraffin oil content in the emulsion. Furthermore, in this article, paraffin oil content is
also related to the emulsion stability through its rheological behavior in both the fluid and
dynamic patterns.

Keywords Wax emulsions, paraffins, wetting, rheology, emulsion stability

INTRODUCTION capacity is determined by means of a study of surface phenom-

In the chipboard panel manufacturing sector, paraffin oil
content is one of the main quality parameters. However, its
role in the stability of the emulsion and in its water-resistant
capacity has not been entirely ascertained. High oil content is
usually associated with stable emulsions but with a poor water-
proofing capacity, whereas low oil content usually associated
with less stable emulsions but with a high water-resistant
capacity. In any case, there is no limit on the oil content that
might clarify these types of behavior.
Not known either are the actual water-resistant capacity or
its behavior mechanism in the chipboard panel manufacturing
process. In this article, the oil’s actual water-resistant capacity
and the influence it exerts on the paraffin’s water-resistant
Received 24 March 2005; Accepted 8 May 2005.
Address correspondence to R. Hidalgo-Álvarez, Departamento de
Fı́sica Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada,
Granada E-18071, Spain. E-mail: rhidalgo@ugr.es
155
ena in the interface “vapor-water-wood coated with paraffin”
using the axisymmetric drop shop analysis (ADSA) technique
to establish the contact angle. On the other hand, the combi-
nation of the rheological behavior in paraffin emulsions with
differing oil content and the surface tension of these emulsions
subjected to shearing allows the stabilizing mechanism of the
oil in paraffin emulsions to be established to a certain extent.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
The type of paraffin and oil used in this article comes from
direct cuts carried out at a refinery vacuum distillation unit. Ten
emulsions were elaborated from semi-refined paraffin with an
L-cut and oil content of 2.6%. Different amounts of oil from
the same distillation cut were added to paraffin. The surfactant
system is the same for all the emulsions; consequently, the only
variable is the paraffin oil content. Table 1 shows the prepared
emulsions.
156 M. A. RODRÍGUEZ-VALVERDE ET AL.

TABLE 1
Emulsions GR-19 to GR-28 prepared with differing amounts of oil
GR GR GR GR GR GR GR GR GR GR
Emulsions (%) 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Paraffin L-cut (2.6% oil) 57.4 55.9 53.8 50.7 46.6 43.5 38.4 33.3 28.1 0.0
Oil 0.0 1.5 3.6 6.7 10.8 13.9 19 24.1 29.3 57.4
Surfactant 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6
Water 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
Total oil in emulsion 1.5 3 5 8 12 15 20 25 30 57.4
Total oil in paraffin 2.6 5.2 8.7 13.9 20.9 26.1 34.8 43.6 52.3 100.0

Measurement of Waterproofing Capacity in which l ¼ distance traveled by the liquid in time t, Rc ¼

Contact angle is related to numerous interface phenomena,
such as free surface energy (Gindl et al., 2001; Meijer et al.,
2000), wetting and absorption mechanism (Modaressi and
Garnier, 2002; Shi and Gardner, 2000) specifically in wood
substrates (Stehr et al., 2001; Shi et al., 2000) and paraffin-
coated surfaces (Kamusewitz et al., 1999). Contact angle is
defined as the angle formed by the tangent to the liquid and
the horizontal in the contact zone (Rodrı́guez-Valverde,
2002). The waterproofing capacity of the substrate is defined
as the resistance that this substrate exhibits when subjected
to wetting. The wetting process is intimately related to spread-
ing of a liquid on the substrate and is defined as the extension
coefficient (Rosen, 1988):
S ¼
DG/a
in which DG is the variation of Gibbs free energy of the process
and “a” is the wet area produced by the spreading liquid. The
higher the extension coefficient S is, the more extensive the
wetting of the solid substrate will be by the liquid placed on
it. S can be determined using indirect variables according to
the equation:
S ¼ glv ðcos u
1Þ
in which gl/v ¼ surface tension of spreading liquid and u ¼
interface contact angle made by placing a drop of liquid on a
solid substrate.
According to this equation, when a drop of liquid is placed
on a solid substrate, the S value can vary from S ¼ 0 (for
u ¼ 08 and cos u ¼ 1) to S ¼ 22 gl/v (for u ¼ 1808 and cos
u ¼ 21). The nearer the value of S is to S ¼ 0, the more exten-
sive the wetting water absorption through the wood fibers is
one of the main causes of deterioration in chipboard panels.
The absorption mechanism is based on spontaneous pen-
etration of water by capillarity in a porous medium. This
process is described by the Washburn equation (Walinder
et al., 1999):
glv Rc cos u
l2 ¼ t
2h
effective interstitial pore radius, glv ¼ surface tension of the
liquid, cos u ¼ cosine of the angle formed at the interface
vapor-liquid-solid, and h ¼ viscosity of liquid.
However, so that absorption takes place, an initial wetting
phase has to be accomplished in which the contact angle u
attains a pseudo-balancing state at which the volume of the
drop is kept constant. Once this pseudo-balancing situation
has been attained, a second stage begins in which absorption
takes place, and the contact angle u and the drop volume v
fall until a new balance situation is reached. Thus, the water-
proofing capacity can be determined from the angle of
contact at this first stage of pseudo-balance, without taking
water absorption phenomena into account and considering
the water surface tension glv to be constant throughout the
process. Determination of the contact angle is carried out by
the ADSA technique.
The ADSA technique computes the contact angle u and the
surface tension glv using a microscope attached to a CCD
camera. This optical system acquires drop images, which are
subsequently digitalized by a frame grabber and analyzed by
a PC that captures the actual drop shape, digitalizing it and
determining the geometric buckling curve, providing the best
½1 possible fit to the drop shape using an algorithm and, starting
from that, the purely geometric parameters. The ADSA tech-
nique has two fundamental algorithms:
. ADSA P: It uses the drop profile shape and is
applied in well-defined drops with axial
symmetry. It can be carried out starting from a
sessile drop (drop on solid substrate; Figure 1) on
a totally homogeneous substrate with no rough
patches (the ideal substrate) or starting from a
drop hanging from a capillary. It provides values
of surface tension glv as well as values of the
contact angle u in the case of the sessile drop.
. ADSA D: It uses the shape of the drop viewed from
above and is applied to sessile drops on real sub-
strates in which no type of axial symmetry can be
½2
applied. The mathematical-geometrical treatment
 INFLUENCE OF OIL CONTENT IN PARAFFINS 157

FIG. 1. Diagrams of ADSA technique from image acquisition, to processing, to the computation of interfacial quantities. ADSA-P layout (a) and ADSA-D
layout (b) are separately displayed.

of the data is somewhat more complex, and there-
fore it is necessary to know glv and the volume of
the drop in order to determine the contact angle u.
Although various methods of determining glv (Gardner,
1996; Hoffmann, 2003) exist, in our case, it is obtained
applying the pendant drop method ADSA-P, and the contact
angle is obtained by applying the sessile drop method
ADSA-D owing to the high level of heterogeneity (high
porosity and unevenness) in the wood used to make the sub-
strate. In Figure 1, this technique is described in diagrammatic
form.

FIG. 2. Contact angle evolution at the interface vapor-water-wood substrate coated in paraffin from emulsions GR-19 to GR-28, using a drop volume of 3 mL.
158 M. A. RODRÍGUEZ-VALVERDE ET AL.
The measurement of the contact angle is obtained by placing
a drop of water on a reference substrate (young sandpapered
pinewood) with a paraffin surface density of 0.3 g/m2
(Mujika et al., 2005). The paraffin coating of the wood sub-
strates is obtained by adding an emulsion drop to the substrate.
A heat treatment (1808C) was applied to eliminate the water by
evaporation. The contact angle is determined by applying the
ADSA-D (sessile drop) technique and the surface tension by
applying the ADSA-P technique (pendant drop).
Measurement of Emulsion Stability
The stability of the emulsion flowing through pumps and
pipes is determined by means of the development of viscosity
over a period of time at a constant shear rate of 100 s21 and for
a maximum time of one hour. The increase in viscosity over a
period of time in these conditions is indicative of phase separ-
ation owing to the formation of clusters from particles from the
dispersed phase thus, becoming an indication of its stability
(Mujika, 2005). In this way, the flow conditions are established
under which the emulsion remains stable.
The rheological study of emulsions in dynamic mode
provides information about the dominant interactions. By
analogy to Hooke’s law for elastic solids, the following
equation describes the behavior of a viscoelastic solid:
t ¼ jG jg ½3
in which t is the stress, G is the complex rigidity modulus, and
g is the strain. The viscoelastic modulus is defined by:
G ; G0 þ iG00 ½4
where G0 and G00 are respectively the elastic (storage) and
viscous (loss) moduli. The loss modulus is related to the hydro-
dynamic and thermodynamic interactions, and the storage
modulus is related to the surface interactions between the par-
ticles in the dispersed phase or with any type of structuring in
the dispersed phase.
Measurement of Emulsion Stability at Shearing
The paraffin emulsion is a dispersal of paraffin particles in
water that stay in a Brownian balance thanks to the action of
the surfactant system. The surfactant system coats the particles,
forming a steric and electrostatic barrier preventing collisions
between the paraffin particles from becoming effective. The
effective collisions give rise to the formation of clusters of
paraffin particles and, finally, the flocculation of the dispersed
phase. The shearing gives rise to a forced surfactant desorption
from the dispersed phase when dissolving is taking place that
reduces the coating of the particles at the dispersed phase
and facilitates flocculation. The surfactant that goes on to dis-
solving brings about a reduction in the emulsion’s surface
tension that allows a degree of deterioration in the emulsion
as a result of shearing to be determined, at least on a compara-
tive level.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Influence of Oil Content on the Waterproofing Capacity
The coating of wood particles with paraffin initially
produces repulsion to water, defined by the paraffin’s structural
properties. However, with the passage of time, a redissolving
effect of the paraffin takes place, basically depending on the
molecular weight of the hydrocarbons of which the paraffin
is made and that reduce the substrate’s waterproofing
capacity against water. Thus, waterproofing capacity consists
of two components (Mujika, 2005); intrinsic waterproofing
capacity and actual waterproofing capacity or the capacity
with time to construct an anti-humidity barrier. Intrinsic water-
proofing capacity is the capacity to repel water in the paraffin
without taking into account the effects of redissolving the
water placed on the interface. It is paraffin’s waterproofing
capacity at 0 time and is determined by using a drop of water
of a size 3 mL in order to minimize the effect of the paraffin
redissolving. The actual waterproofing capacity is determined
with a 5 mL drop of water so as to take the redissolving
effect into account. This would be paraffin’s waterproofing
capacity at infinite time. In Figure 2, the evolution of the
contact angle at the interface vapor-water-wood substrate
coated in paraffin from the emulsions GR-19 to GR-28 is
shown with differing contents of oil in the paraffin. As can
be observed in the figure, the intrinsic waterproofing capacity
diminishes significantly for a reliable level of 95% as the oil
content is increased.
In Figure 3, the paraffin’s waterproofing capacity is shown
at infinite time against the oil content using a drop volume of
5 mL. In the figure, we observe three stages: an initial stage
up to 8% oil in the emulsion, in which the waterproofing
capacity increases with the increase in the oil content; an inter-
mediate stage from 8% oil in the emulsion up to 25%, in which
the waterproofing capacity diminishes on increasing the oil
content; and in excess of this value up to 57.4% (100% oil in
paraffin), in which the waterproofing capacity is nil. Water-
proofing capacity is considered to be nil when the angle of
contact at the interface is less than 308 (value obtained with
a substrate not treated with paraffin).
The waterproofing capacity of the oil is nil. However, the
addition of oil to paraffin improves its waterproofing capacity
up to a limit, at which point the oil begins to have a clear
presence on the substrate (approximately 8% in the GR-22
emulsion) and its non-waterproofing effect begins to be signifi-
cant. With oil content excess of 25%, the emulsion’s water-
proofing capacity is nil. The increase in oil content in
paraffin diminishes the emulsion’s intrinsic waterproofing
capacity and increases the actual waterproofing capacity at
infinite time up to a level of 8% of oil in the emulsion (14%
 INFLUENCE OF OIL CONTENT IN PARAFFINS 159

FIG. 3. Contact angle of water on wood substrate coated with emulsions GR-19 to GR-28 using drop volumes of 5 mL.

oil in paraffin). In excess of this value, the actual waterproofing
capacity at infinite time is likewise reduced.
Emulsion Stability: Rheological Behavior
In a fluid pattern, the rheological behavior of a non-
Newtonian fluid is predicted by the generalized Equation (l):
n
t ¼ t0 þ happ ðg_ Þg_ ½5
where t is the shear stress, t0 is the yield stress, happ is the
apparent viscosity, ġ is the shear rate and n is the fluidity
rate. This relation also includes Newtonian fluids when
t0 ¼ 0 and n ¼ 1, in which case happ is equal to the viscosity h.
In Figure 4, the function happ(ġ) is shown in the shear rate
range from 0 to 300 s21. As can be seen from this graph,
paraffin emulsions exhibit a pseudo-plastic behavior up to a
shear rate of approximately 100 s21. From this point, the rheo-
logical behavior is Newtonian.
In the newtonian range, the dependence of viscosity on oil
content is described by a quadratic relation with a correlation
index of 0.986:
h ¼
4:10
3 f2 þ 1; 73:10
2 f þ 0; 5093 ðPa  sÞ
ðr ¼ 0:926Þ
where f is the oil content in the emulsion paraffin. The fluidity
rate has a value of n ¼ 0.86 + 0.20 near to unity.
At very low shear rates, the emulsions being studied display
a thixotropic behavior that increases when the oil content is
increased, albeit to a very slight extent and of no practical
importance with regard to industrial application.
Stability in the fluid pattern is established by determining
the emulsion’s viscosity at a shear rate of 100 s21 according
to the time and for a maximum time of one hour. This shear
rate is equivalent to the shearing carried out in mixing,
shaking, and transportation processes through pumps and
pipes, typical of the chipboard panel industry. When the vis-
cosity does not vary with time under these conditions, the
emulsion is considered to be stable. The point at which the

FIG. 4. Viscosity curve against the shear rate of the GR-19 to GR-28 emulsions.
160 M. A. RODRÍGUEZ-VALVERDE ET AL.
FIG. 5. Viscosity variation in the GR-19 to GR-28 emulsions in accordance with time with differing oil content in the paraffin and at a shear rate of 100 s21.
viscosity begins to fluctuate with respect to time is a compara-
tive parameter of the emulsion’s stability. Figure 5 shows the
viscosity obtained according to time with differing oil
content in paraffin and at a shear rate of 100 s21.
As can be seen, the emulsions with oil content of 8% or
more (from GR-22 emulsion upwards) have a slope of 0, and
they are stable throughout the entire trial time duration. The
emulsion GR-19 is unstable (positive slope) from the starting
point, whereas in the emulsions GR-20 and GR-21, the slope
starts to be positive after approximately a half-hour.
In Figures 6(a) –(f) the evolution of the moduli G , G0 and
00
G and the emulsions GR-19 to GR-28 is shown in accordance
with the oil content at temperatures of 20, 30, 40, and 508C for
values of 0.1, 1 and 10 Hz.
The evolution of the elastic modulus G0 is indicative of the
presence of superficial stress between the particles in the dis-
persed phase, which depends on the number of intersections
created and not on the intensity of these intersections
(Ralston et al., 1981). High G0 values indicate that a great
number of these interactions occur.
As can be observed from the graph, in every case the value
of G0 is higher than G00 , indicating that the emulsions have a
mainly elastic behavior from 0.1 to 10 Hz from temperatures
of 20 to 508C. This is obvious if we take into account that
these emulsions have an approximate content of 60% dis-
persed phase, owing to which their elastic constituent must
be great. In general, the high G0 values are accompanied by
significant differences with respect to G00 . Significant differ-
ences between the moduli indicate a predominance of
surface interactions between the particles over the hydrodyn-
amic and thermodynamic interactions that typify Brownian
stable emulsions. According to this criterion, we can establish
two zones as regards the intensity of the surface interactions
between the particles measured as the intensity of the G0
modulus: a moderate intensity zone starting from an oil
content in the emulsion of 21%, emulsion GR-23, in which
the values of G0 and G00 are very similar and a high intensity
zone for oil content in the emulsion of 21% (GR-23 emulsion)
or lower content in which the G0 value increases considerably
and the interactions between the particles begin to be import-
ant. This increase in the surface interactions between the par-
ticles indicates a tendency to flocculation, which becomes
apparent with the formation of clusters in the fluid pattern
for oil content of less than 8% (see Figure 5). As we
observe, the increase in oil content diminishes the tendency
towards the formation of clusters, reducing the intensity
of the surface interactions between the particles at the
dispersed stage.
Emulsion Stability at Shearing: Variation in Surface Tension
The emulsion stability at shearing is determined by subject-
ing the emulsion to the shear stress normal in the industry, con-
sisting of going through a (hydraulic) blade pump for a period
of 15 minutes. After this process, its surface tension is
determined.
In Table 2 the surface tension glv results obtained for the
emulsions GR-19 to GR-28 are compared before and after
passing through the (hydraulic) blade pump for 15 minutes.
In Table 2 the differences obtained in the surface tension glv
can be seen; after this process they decrease as the oil content
increases.
This behavior is shown in Figure 7. As can be seen in the
figure, the differences decrease significantly for a reliable
level of 95% (r ¼ 0.93) as the oil content increases with a
slope m ¼ 20.161 + 0.05 mJ/m2. The decrease in surface
tension glv after passing through the (hydraulic) blade pump
is due to the partial disintegration of the emulsion, freeing
part of the surfactant to the aqueous phase. This variation in
glv decreases as the oil content increases. In the GR-28
emulsion made entirely from oil, the decrease in surface
tension is 0. This indicates that the oil content in paraffin
produces a stabilizing effect on the emulsion, diminishing the
 INFLUENCE OF OIL CONTENT IN PARAFFINS 161

FIG. 6. Illustration of the moduli G0 , G00 y G compared to the oil content in paraffin at 0.1, 1 and 10 Hz according to the temperatures for the emulsions GR-19
to Gr-28. In figures (a), (c) and (e) the moduli G0 y G00 are shown at 0,1, 1 and 10 Hz respectively, and in figures (b), (d) and (f) modulus G is shown at 0.1, 1 and
10 Hz respectively.
162 M. A. RODRÍGUEZ-VALVERDE ET AL.

TABLE 2
Surface tension glv values in the emulsions GR-19 to GR-28 in accordance with recirculation time
through the (hydraulic) blade pump
GR GR GR GR GR GR GR GR GR GR
Emulsions (mJ/m2) 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Surface tension (gl/v) 53.4 54 54.8 53.8 51.5 51.2 51.2 50 48.6 45
Surface tension (gl/v)150 43.3 46.2 — 44.8 44.4 45.4 44.4 47.1 45.2 46.8
Difference 10.1 7.8 6.4 9 7.1 5.8 6.8 2.9 3.4 0

FIG. 7. Maximum decrease in surface tension of emulsions GR-19 to GR-28 owing to recirculation through a (hydraulic) blade pump according to the oil
content for a period of 15 minutes.

forced desorption of the surfactant from the dispersed phase to
the dissolving and reduces the formation of clusters.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Oil has zero waterproofing capacity.
2. Oil content gives rise to a reduction in paraffin’s intrinsic
waterproofing capacity.
3. Oil content gives rise to an increase in paraffin’s water-
proofing capacity in infinite time up to a limit (approxi-
mately 14% in paraffin), at which point this capacity
begins to decrease.
4. Paraffin oil content has a stabilizing effect in paraffin emul-
sions, reducing the surface interactions between the par-
ticles at the dispersed phase.
5. Paraffin oil content has a stabilizing effect when the emul-
sions are sheared, reducing the forced desorption of the sur-
factant from the dispersed phase to the dissolving.
REFERENCES
Carll, Ch.G. (1996) Review of Thickness Swell in Hardboard Siding:
Effect of processing variables. U. S. Department of Agriculture;
Forest Services, Forest Products Laboratory: Madison, Wisc.:
FPL-GTR-96.
Gardner, D.J. (1996) Application of the Lifshitz-Van der Waals acid-
base approach to determine wood surface tension components.
Wood Fiber Sci., 28 (4): 422– 428.
Gindl, M., Sinn, G., Gindl, W., Reiterer, A., and Tschegg, S.A. (2001)
Comparison of different methods to calculate the surface free
energy of wood using contact angle measurements. Colloids
Surf., 181: 279– 287.
Hoffmann, A. (2003) The scientific background to tensiometric
measurements. LabPlus Int., June 18 – 21.
Kamusewitz, H., Possart, W., and Paul, D. (1999) The
relation between Young’s equilibrium contact angle and the hys-
teresis on rough paraffin wax surfaces. Colloid Surf., 156:
271– 279.
Meijer, M., Haemers, S., Cobben, W., and Militz, H. (2000) Surface
energy determination of wood: Comparison of methods and
wood species. Langmuir, 16: 9352– 9359.
Modaressi, H. and Garnier, G. (2002) Mechanism of wetting and
absorption of water droplets on sized paper: Effects of chemical
and physical heterogeneity. Langmuir, 18: 642– 649.
Mujika, R., Covian, I., Tejera-Garcı́a, R., Rodrı́guez-Valverde, M.A.,
Cabrerizo-Vı́lchez, M.A., and Hidalgo-Álvarez, R. (2005) Study
on the effect of raw material composition on water-resistant
capacity of paraffin wax emulsions on wood. J. Dispers. Sci.
Technol., 1: 9 – 18.
Mujika, R. (2005) Humectabilidad de superficies reales: Factores que
influyen en la impermeabilización de tableros de aglomerado por
emulsiones de parafina. Departamento de Fı́sica Aplicada, Univer-
sidad de Granada, Ph. D. diss.
Ralston, J., Van Vliet, T., and Lyklema, J. (1981) Inference on ion
binding to polyelectrolytes from emulsion rheology. J. Colloid
Interface Sci., 82 (1): 53 –60.
 INFLUENCE OF OIL CONTENT IN PARAFFINS
Rodrı́guez Valverde, M.A. (2002) Caracterización interfacial
de la adhesión de emulsiones de interés tecnológico. Ph.D.
diss, Departamento de Fı́sica Aplicada, Universidad de
Granada.
Rosen, M.J. (1988) Surfactants and Interfacial Phenomena, 2nd ed.;
John Wiley: New York.
Shi, S.H. and Gardner, D.J. (2000) A new model to determine contact
angles on swelling polymer particles by column wicking method.
J. Adhes. Sci. Technol., 14: 301– 314.
163
Shi, S.H., Gardner, D.J., and Wang, J.Z. (2000) Estimating maximum
water absorption of wood fiber/polymer fluff composites. Wood
Fiber Sci., 32 (3): 269– 277.
Stehr, M., Gardner, D.J., and Walinder, M.E.P. (2001) Dynamic wett-
ability of different machined wood surfaces. J. Adhes. Sci.
Technol., 76: 185– 200.
Walinder, M.E.P. and Gardner, D.J. (1999) Factors influencing
contact angle measurements on wood particles by column
wicking. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol., 13 (12): 1363– 1374.