Adiao, Angelo Von N.

CE161P/B1

2014101188

1. Geological Engineering and Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil

engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth

materials. Geotechnical engineering is important in civil

engineering, but also has applications in military, mining,

petroleum and other engineering disciplines that are

concerned with construction occurring on the surface or

within the ground. Geotechnical engineering uses principles

of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to investigate

subsurface conditions and materials; determine the relevant

physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these

materials; evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-

made soil deposits; assess risks posed by site conditions;

design earthworks and structure foundations; and monitor

site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.

Geological engineering involves geology, civil

engineering, and fields such as mining, forestry and

geography. These engineers apply earth sciences to human

problems. Specialty areas include geotechnical site studies

of rock and soil slope stability for projects; environmental

studies and planning for construction sites; groundwater

studies; hazard investigations; and finding fossil fuel and

mineral deposits.

The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering

geology are closely related, and have large areas of overlap.

However, the field of geotechnical engineering is a specialty

of engineering, where the field of engineering geology is a

specialty of geology.

2. Geotechnical Hazards and Prevention

An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of

energy in the earth’s crust that creates seismic waves. At the

earth’s surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking

and sometimes displacement of the ground. Earthquake

shaking or other rapid loading can reduce shear resistance

of soil and cause the soil to behave like liquid, the event

called soil liquefaction. When a large earthquake epicenter

is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers sufficient

displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking in earthquake

can also trigger landslides and occasionally volcanic

activity.

Landslide is a general term used to describe the down-

slope movement of the soil, rock and organic materials

under the influence of gravity. It is a normal landscape

process in mountainous areas, but becomes a problem when

it results in serious damage that oftentimes approach

disaster proportions. As cities and towns grow, roads and

highways and other amenities progressively encroach onto

steeper slopes and mountainsides. Subsequently, these

infrastructures attract further built-up environments.

Landslide hazards become an increasingly serious threat to

life and property. Catastrophic landslides have recently

been increasing in the Philippines even surpassing the

combined effects of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. The

triggers usually take the form of an earthquake, heavy

rainfall and human activities like quarrying and logging.

It is not possible to predict the exact time and location

of the next big natural hazard like earthquake and landslide

but by understanding when, where, why and how it occurs, we

may be able to intervene on time and avoid high risk

situations thereby lessens its impacts to our lives. Mitigation

is the process of lessening the impact of natural hazards

before, during and after their occurrence. Engineering

solutions can be used to temporarily reduce the impact of

natural hazard but each hazard requires specific type of

mitigation. General awareness and having an effective

preparedness plan of the impending disaster are mitigation

forms that work to all kinds of natural hazards. Information

is the key in a crisis. Information is power when it is credible,

timely, locally, relevant and widely accessible to the

population. This section briefly describes some mitigation

measures that can be adopted to reduce risk from various

geotechnical hazards:

Zoning, Mapping and Monitoring - Observations from

previous earthquakes provide a great deal of information

about a area susceptible to geotechnical hazards. It is

important to identify and map areas prone to earthquake

hazards of liquefaction, earthquake-induced landslides and

amplified ground shaking. The outcome of this observation

and assessment is best presented in a zoning map where

locations or zones of different levels of hazard potentials

are identified. Cities and municipalities especially those

highly populated areas are advise to come up with zoning

maps. If you are building a structure and want to find out if

the site is susceptible to liquefaction or landslide, the zoning

map will be very useful for this purpose. Engineering geology

and geotechnical hazard assessment should be required

prior to any development projects especially in landslide-

prone areas. With a deeper understanding and monitoring of

the movements of unstable slopes, one can timely intervene

and apply the necessary mitigation measures.

Strengthening of Structures - It is always advisable to

avoid areas susceptible to earthquake hazards like soil

liquefaction; however, for certain reasons like space

restrictions and favorable locations, construction on these

areas cannot be avoided. It is therefore a must to design the

structure earthquake resistant and its foundation elements

resistant to the effects of liquefaction and ground

settlement. Emphasis of design should always be on safety

over aesthetics and functionality. Odd shaped structures, if

possible, should be avoided. Soft story building failures can

be prevented by proper planning of architectural form of

the building and by emphasizing ductility design of the

columns, walls and beams. To decrease the amount of

damage a structure may suffer in case of an earthquake, a

structure must possess ductility to accommodate large

deformations, adjustable supports for corrections to

differential settlements and having foundation design that

can span soft soils.

Soil improvement technology - Another way of

mitigating earthquake related hazards like liquefaction are

by improving the strength, density and/or drainage

characteristics of soil. This can be done through various

ground improvement techniques.

Slope Protection and Stabilization - Engineering

countermeasures for reducing landslides generally involve

the use of slope stabilization methods such as benching,

improvement of subsurface drainage, construction of

retaining structures, and reinforcement of slopes. Benching

is the practice of transforming one high slope into a series

of lower slopes with horizontal surfaces in between slopes

referred to as benches. The purpose of benching is to reduce

the overall gradient of the slope. Installing proper drainage

minimizes the destabilizing effects of hydrostatic and

seepage forces on a slope, as well as reduces the risk of

erosion and piping.

3. Different Types of Soil

§ Glacial Soil: This type of soil is developed, transported

and deposited by the actions of glaciers. These deposits

consists of rocks fragments, boulders, gravels, sand,

silt and clay in various proportions (i.e., a

heterogeneous mixture of all sizes of particles).

§ Residual Soil: This type of soil is found on nearly flat

rock surfaces were the weathering action has produced

a soil with a little or no tendency to move. Residual soil

also occurs when the rate of weathering is higher than

the rate of removal.

§ Alluvial Soil: The soil transported and deposited by

water is called alluvial soil. As flowing water (stream or

 river) looses velocity, it tends to deposit some of

particles that it was carrying in suspension or by

rolling, sliding or skipping along the river bed. Coarser

or heavier particles are dropped first. Hence on the

higher reaches of a river, gravel and sand are found.

However on the lower parts, silt and clay dominate

where the flow velocity is almost zero or very small.

§ Wind blown Soil or Aeolian Soil: The soil transported by

the geological agent ‘wind’ and subsequently deposited

is known as wind blown soil or Aeolian Soil. Aeolian soil

as two main types namely Dune sand and Loess.

§ a) Dune or Dune Sand: In arid parts of the world,

wind is continually forming sand deposits in the

form of dunes characterized by low hill and ridge

formation. They generally occur in deserts and

comprise of sand particles, which are fairly

rounded and uniform in size. The particles of the

dune sand are coarser than the particles of loess.

Dune material is generally, a good source of sand

for construction purposes.

 § b) Loess: Accumulations of wind blown dust (mainly

siliceous silt or silty clay) laid down in a loose

condition is known as loess. Silt soil in arid regions

have no moisture to bond the particles together

and are very susceptible to the effects of wind and

therefore can be carried great distances by wind

storms. An important engneering property of loess

is its low density and high permeability. Saturated

loess is very weak and always causes foundation

problems e.g., liquefaction.

§ Colluvial Soil: The accumulation formed by the rock

fragments and soil material resulting from the

mechanical weathering of rocks is known as colluvial

soil. This type of soil is formed more or less in site or as

a result of transport by gravity over a short distance.