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Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, cause and control of
criminal behavior
Others argues that crime can be prevented only through the application of formal
social control, through such measures as mandatory sentences for serious
crimes and even the use of capital punishment as a deterrent to murder
Mandatory sentences are a statutory requirement that a certain penalty
shall be carried out in all cases of conviction for a specified offense or
series of offenses
Capital punishment is the execution of criminal offenders; the death
penalty
Classical Criminology
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) was one of the first scholars to develop a
systematic understanding of why people commit crimes. Believed that
Choosing their behavior, people act in their own self interests; they want
to achieve pleasure and void paint
People will commit crime when the potential pleasure and reward they
believe they can achieve from illegal acts outweigh the threat of future
punishment
To deter crime, punishment must be sufficient – no more, no less – to
counterbalance the lure of criminal gain
The writing of Beccaria and his followers form the core of what today is referred
to as classic criminology. It involved several basic elements:
People have free will to choose criminal or lawful solutions to meet their
needs or settle their problems
Crime is attractive when it promises great benefits with little effort
Crime may be controlled by the fear of punishment
Punishment that is (or is perceived to be) severe, certain and swift will
deter criminal behavior
Positivist Criminology
Auguste Comte (1798-1857), considered the founder of sociology, argues that
societies pass through stages that can be grouped on the basis of how people try
to understand the world in which they live
Positivism is the branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the
natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social,
biological, psychological or economic forces that can be empirically measured.
Sociological Criminology
Sociological criminology explores the relationship between social factors and
crime
Durkheim wrote about the consequences of the shift from a small, rural society,
to the more modern “organic” society with a large urban population. From the
resulting structural changes flowed anomie
Anomie is a lack of norms or clear social standards
Because of rapidly shifting moral values, the individual has few guides to
what is socially acceptable
People who suffer anomie may become confused and rebellious
Chicago school (early 1900s) is a group of urban sociologists who studied the
relationship between environmental conditions and crime
Reaction to inadequate environment
Crime reduced by improving social and economic conditions
Conflict Theory
The view that human behaviour is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that
those who maintain social power will use it to further their own ends
Karl Marx (1800s) - oppression of the working class by the owners of
production
Critical criminology (1960s) is the view that crime is a product of the
capitalist system
Developmental Criminology
Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck integrated biological, social, and psychological
elements. It suggested that the initiation and continuity of a criminal career was
a developmental process influences by both internal and external situations,
conditions, and circumstances
Contemporary Criminology
Classical theory has evolved into modern rational choice theory
The view that crime is a function of decision-making process in which the
would-be offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act
Definitions of Crime
Consensus view is the belief that the majority of citizens in a society share
common values and agree on what behaviors should be defined as criminal.
Where the criminal law – the written code that defined crimes and their
punishments – reflects the values, beliefs and opinions of society’s mainstream
The law defines crime
Agreement exists on outlawed behaviour
Laws apply to all citizens equally
Conflict view is the belief that criminal behaviour is defined by those in power
In such a way as to protect and advance their own self-interest
The law is a tool of the ruling class
Crime is a politically defined concept
“Real crimes” such as racism, sexism, and classism are not outlawed
The law is used to control the underclass
Interactionist view is the belief that those with social power are able to impost
their values on society as a whole, and these values then define criminal
behaviour
Most entrepreneurs define crime
Acts become crimes because society defines them that way
Criminal labels are life-transforming events
Considering these differences, we can take elements from each school of thought
to formulate an integrated definition of crime;
“Crime” is a violation of societal rules of behaviour as interpreted and
expressed by the criminal law, which reflects public opinion, traditional
values, and the viewpoint of people currently holding social and political
power. Individuals who violate these rules are subject to sanctions by
state authority, social stigma, and loss of status
Physiological measures
Observations
Archival data is data that has already been collected from other sources - can’t
be used in experimental research
Qualitative data
Deals with descriptions
Data can be observed but not measured
Gender, SES
Quantitative data
Deals with numbers
Data which can be measured
Height, weight
The population refers to the group of people you are interested in studying
Sampling techniques
Random sampling is a sample of the population in which everyone has equal
chance of being chosen for the study
Cluster sampling is when geographic area divided into sections and participants
randomly selected from sections
Systematic sampling is not entirely random and systematically selects
participants from random starting point (need to avoid patterns)
Ethical principles
Protection from harm
Privacy
Informed concent
Debreifing
Respect rights, dignity and worth
Administrative data is data drawn from the administrative records of the police
ABS reports the national figures on crimes reported or detected by police
each year for the period 1st Janunary through 31st December
Crime statistics
Correctional services
Courts data
Observational studies
Victimisation surveys provide information about known offenses that are not
reported
Less useful in providing information about some forms of crime, such as
fraud, where victims may be unaware of the victimisation, as well as other
'victimless' crimes like illicit drug use and prostitution.
Social structure theory is the view that disadvantaged economic class position
is a primary cause of crime. These theories view the cause of crime through the
lens of poverty, income inequality, hopelessness and despair: social and
economic forces operating in deteriorated lower-class areas push many of their
residents into criminal behaviour patterns – it seems logical that if crime rates
are higher in lower-class urban centres than in middle-class suburbs, social
forces must influence or control behaviour
Social disorganization theory was popularized by Shaw and McKay who linked
life in transitional slum areas to the inclination to commit crime. They explained
crime and delinquency within the context of the changing urban environment
and ecological development of the city. They saw that Chicago had developed into
distinct neighbourhoods (natural areas), some affluent and others wracked by
extreme poverty – transitional neighbourhood
An area undergoing a shift in population and structure, usually from
middle-class residential to lower-class mixed-use
These areas suffered:
o High rates of population turnover
o High unemployment
o Low income levels
o High dropout rates
o High number of single parent households
o Deteriorating housing
o Young people more likely to join gangs
Strain Theory
Inhabitants of a disorganized inner-city area feel isolated, frustrated, ostracized
from the economic mainstream, hopeless and eventually angry. Strain theorists
view crime as direct results of frustration and anger among the lower
socioeconomic classes
These legitimate means to acquire wealth are stratified across class and status
line. Those with little formal education and few economic resources soon find
that they are denied the ability to legally acquire wealth and may develop
criminal or delinquent solutions to the problem of attaining goals
Points out how competition for success creates conflict and crime
Suggests that social conditions, and not personality can account for crime
Explains high lower-class crime rates
Focused on frustration, anomie and effects of failure to achieve goals
Social adaptions – Merton argues that each person has his or her own concept
of society’s goals and his or her own degree of access to the means to attain
them. Some people have inadequate means of attaining success, others, who have
means, reject societal goals. This results in a variety of social adaptations:
General strain theory (GST) is the view that multiple sources of strain interact
with an individual’s emotional traits and responses to produce criminality
Identifies the complexities of strain in modern society
Expands on anomie theory
Shows the influence of social events on behaviour over the life course
Explains middle-class crimes
Focused on strain, inequality, negative affective states and influence of
negative and positive stimuli
Influences
Family relations are considered a major determinant of behaviour. Parenting
factors, such as the ability to communicate and to provide proper discipline, may
play a critical role in determining whether people misbehave as children and
even later as adults
Parental efficacy refers to the ability of parents to be supportive and
effectively control their children in a non-coercive way leading them to be
more likely to refrain from delinquency
Children who grow up in homes where parents use overly strict discipline
become prone to antisocial behaviour
Abused kids also suffer more from other social problems, such as
depression, suicide attempts and self-injurious behaviours which can
continue across their lifespan
Education experience
The education process and adolescent school achievement have been linked to
criminality – children who do poorly in school, lack educational motivation and
feel alienated are the most likely to engage in criminal acts
Children who fail in school offend more frequently than those who
succeed
Education problems may lead students to leave school and drop out due
to things such as
o Poor grades
o Lack of interest
o Bullied
o Racial problems
Peer relations
Criminologists have recognised that peer group relations have a powerful effect
on human conduct and can dramatically influence decision making and
behaviour choices – kids who have lots of friends and a variety of peer group
networks tend to be less delinquent than their less popular mates although both
may have problems
Joining a gang or deviant group may help members increase their social
standing and popularity
Delinquent peers sustain individual offending patterns
Delinquent friends may help kids neutralize the fear of punishment
Differential association theory is the view that people commit crime when
their social learning leads them to perceive more definitions favouring crime
than favouring conventional behaviour
In sum, differential association theory holds that people learn criminal attitudes
and behaviour during their adolescence from close, trusted friends or relatives –
criminal behaviour is leaned in a process that is similar to learning any other
human behaviour
Neutralization techniques
People develop a distinct set of justifications for their law-violating behaviour.
Several observations form the basis of their theoretical model:
Criminals sometimes voice guilt over their illegal acts
Offenders frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding persons
Criminals define whom they can victimize
Criminals are not immune to the demands of conformity
Criminals must first neutralize accepted social values before they are free to
commit crimes; they do so by learning a set of techniques that allow them to
counteract the moral dilemmas posed by illegal behaviour
Denial of responsibility
Denial of injury
Denial of the victim
Condemnation of the condemners
Appeal to higher loyalties
They argue that people obey the law because internal and external forces control
behaviours and passions. Some individuals have self-control – a strong moral
sense that renders a person incapable of hurting others or violating social norms
– other people have been socialized to have a commitment to conformity – a
strong personal investment in conventional institutions, individuals, and
processes that prevent people from engaging in behaviour that might jeopardize
their reputations and achievements (the stronger the commitment the less likely
they are to commit crime)
Consequences of labelling
Although labelling may be a function of rumour, innuendo or unfounded
suspicion its adverse impact can be immense. If a devalued status in discussed by
a significant other – a teacher, police officer, parent or valued peer – the negative
label may permanently harm the target
The degree to which a person is perceived as a social deviant may affect
his or her treatment at home, at work, at school and in other social
situations
Children may also find that their parents view them as a bad influence on
younger brothers and sisters
School officials may limit them to classes reserved for people with
behavioural problems
Adults may find it difficult to become employed
Prevention of Crime
Social process theories have greatly influences social policy. They have been
applied in treatment orientations as well as community action policies. Some
programs teach kids conventional attitudes and behaviours. Others are designed
to improve the social bond. Those based on social reaction theory attempt to
shield people from criminal labels by diverting them from the system in order to
avoid stigma
Diversion programs are programs of rehabilitation that remove
offenders from the normal channels of the criminal justice process, thus
enabling them to avoid the stigma of a criminal label
Restitution is permitting an offender to repay the victim or do useful
work in the community rather than facing the stigma of a formal trial and
a court-ordered sentence
Critical criminology is based on the view that crime is a function of the conflict
that exists in society. Critical theorists suggest that crime in any society is caused
by economic and class conflict – laws are created by those in power to protect
their own rights and to serve their own interests – criminal law is designed to
protect the wealthy and powerful and to control the poor
The poor commit crimes because of their frustration, anger and need. The
wealthy engage is illegal acts because they are used to competition and because
they must do so to maintain their position in society. Therefore, Crime would
disappear if equality rather than discrimination were the norm
Critical criminologists view themselves as social critics who dig beneath the
surface of society to uncover its inequities. They consider acts of racism, sexism,
imperialism, and unsafe working conditions as tolls of foreign policy to be the
“true crimes”
Structural theorists believe that law is not the exclusive domain of the rich;
rather, it is used to maintain the long-term interests of the capitalist system and
to control members of any class who threaten its existence
Cause of Crime
Critical thinkers believe that the key crime-producing element of modern
corporate capitalism is the effort to create surplus value – the excess profits that
are produced by the labouring classes and accrued by business owners – as the
rate of surplus value increases, more people are displaced from productive
relationships and the size of the marginal population swells. Displaced workers
are forced into service jobs at minimum wage and more people are thrust outside
the economic mainstream, a condition referred to as marginalisation, and
forced to live in areas conducive to crime
Globalization
Globalization refers to the process of creating transitional markets and political
and legal systems – began when large companies decided to establish themselves
in foreign markets by adapting their products or services to the local culture.
Globalisation disproportionately benefits wealthy and powerful organisations
and individuals and impoverishes indigenous people. As the influence and impact
of international finical institutions increase, there is a related relative decline in
power of local or state-based institution, resulting in the recent unrest in world
financial systems. With money and power to spare, global criminal enterprise
groups can recruit new members, bribe government officials and even fund
private armies
State Crime
Illegal domestic surveillance Occurs when government agents
listen in on telephone
conversations or intercept emails
without proper approval in order to
stifle dissent and monitor political
opponents
Human rights violations Some governments, such as Iran,
routinely deny their citizens basic
civil rights, holding them without
trial and using “disappearances”
and summary executions to ride
themselves of political dissidents
Left Realism
Left realism is an approach that is left leaning but realistic in its appraisal of
crime and its cases. Crime is seen as class conflict in an advanced industrial
society. Left realists view the cause of serious violent crime as a function of
economic inequality, community deprivation and lack of supportive institutions
that characterize today’s postmodern society
Left realists believe that community-based efforts hold the greatest promise of
crime control – they believe it is possible for community organisation efforts to
eliminate or reduce crime before police involvement becomes necessary, a
process they call preemptive deterrence – efforts to precent crime through
community organization and youth involvement
Jennifer Gibbs applied the basic concepts of left realism to explain the motivation
for terrorist activity – she finds four key elements of left realism that should, if
valid, underpin terrorist involvement
People are recruited into terrorist organizations because of relative
deprivation
Terrorist organizations are subcultures that provide peer support
Victims/targets are selected based on opportunities/routine activities
Get-tough policies that create a police state may backfire
Patriarchy
Patriarchal refers to a system of society or government controlled by men
Critical feminists link criminal behaviour patterns to the gender conflict created
by the economic and social struggles common in post-industrial societies.
Capitalists control the labour of workings, and men control women both
economically and biologically. This “double marginality” explains why females in
a capitalist society commit fewer crimes than males. Because they are isolated in
the family, they have fewer opportunities to engage in elite deviance (white-collar
and economic crimes). Although powerful females as well as males will commit
white-collar crimes, the female crime rate is restricted because of the patriarchal
nature of the capitalist system. Women also are denied access to male-dominated
street crimes. Because capitalism renders lower-class women powerless, they
are forced to commit less serious, nonviolent, self-destructive crimes, such as
abusing drugs. Powerlessness also increased the likelihood hat women will
because targets of violent acts. When lower-class males are shut out of the
economic opportunity structure, they try to build their self-image through acts of
machismo; such acts may involve violent abuse of women
In nations where the status of women is generally high, sexual violence rates are
significantly lower than in nations where women do not enjoy similar
educational and occupational opportunities – women’s victimization rates
decline as they are empowered socially, economically and legally
Masculinity
According to the concept of hegemonic masculinity – the belief in the existence
of a culturally normative ideal of male behaviour – each culture creates as ideal
vision of male behaviour. In US culture, there is a hierarchy of masculine
behaviour that glorifies competiveness and reflects a tendency for males to seek
to dominate other males, to be homophobic and to subordinate females
Exploitation
According to the feminist view, exploitation triggers the onset of female
delinquent and deviant behaviour. When female victims run away and abuse
substances they may be reacting to abuse they have suffered at home or at
school. Boys who get in trouble are labelled “overzealous” kids who went to far
but in contrast, girls will be labelled as a threat to acceptable images of femineity;
their behaviour is considered even more unusual and dangerous than male
delinquency
Power-Control Theory
Peacemaker Criminology
According to the peacemaking movement, the main purpose of criminology is to
promote a peaceful, just society. Rather than standing on empirical analysis of
data, peacemaking draws its inspiration from religious and philosophical
teachings ranging from Quakerism to Zen
A key avenue for preventing crime is, in the short run, diminishing the suffering
poverty causes and, in the long run, embracing social policies that reduce the
prevalence of economic suffering in contemporary society
Restorative Justice
Restorative justice refers to a view of justice that focuses on the needs of victims,
the community and offenders, and focuses on non-punishing strategies to heal
the wounds caused by crime
Reintegrative shaming refers to the concept that people can be reformed if they
understand the harm they have caused and are brought back into the social
mainstream
community or group from which the conflict originated, In other words, most
conflicts are better settled in the community than in a court
Restoration programs
In some Native American communities, people accused of breaking the law meet
with community members, victims (if any), village elders and agents of the
justice system in a sentencing circle – a method of dispensing justice involving
discussion between offenders, victims and members of the community. Each
member of the circle expresses his or her feelings about the act that was
committed and raises questions or concerns. The accused can express regret
about his or her actions and a desire to change the harmful behaviour and people
may suggest ways the offender can make things up to the community and those
harmed
Reconciliation
Restoration has also been used as a national policy to heal internal rifts. Rather
than seeking vengeance for a crime, a government agency may investigate the
atrocities with the mandate of granting amnesty to those individuals who
confessed their roles in the act and could prove that their actions served some
political motive rather than being based of personal factors such as greed or
jealousy
In sum, restoration can be or has been used at the following stages of justice:
As a form of final warning to young offenders
As a tool for school officials
As a method of handling complaints to police
As a diversion from prosecution
As a presentencing, post conviction add-on to the sentencing process
As a supplement to a community sentence (probation)
As a preparation for release from long-term imprisonment
Structuring criminality
Because crime is offender-specific, a number of personal factors and conditions
must be evaluated before someone decided to choose criminality
Economic need/opportunity – deciding whether they need the money
Evaluating personal traits and experience – learning the limitations of
their powers; when to take a chance and when to be cautious
Criminal expertise – people consider the skills they bring to the table
before deciding to commit a crime
Structuring crime
According to the rational choice approach, the decision to commit crime,
regardless of its substance, is structured by (a) where it occurs and (b) the
characteristics of the target
Choosing the place of crime – decide where they will commit their crime
Choosing targets – decide on the victim or target of their crime
Creating scripts – create a behaviour script that guide their interactions
with victims
Hidden Benefits
When efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another, it is
known as diffusion. Video cameras set up in a mall to reduce shoplifting
can also reduce property damage, because would-be vandals fear they are
being caught on camera
Discouragement occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular
locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations
Hidden costs
Displacement occurs when crime control efforts in one location simply
move, or redirect, offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets.
Beefed-up police patrols may appear to reduce crime but in reality merely
shift it to a more vulnerable neighbourhood
General deterrence
According to rational choice view, because human beings are self-interested,
rational and reasoning they will violate the law if they d bit fear the
consequences. Therefore, increasing the real or perceived threat of criminal
punishment can control crime; this is the concept of general deterrence, which
refers to a crime control policy that depends on the fear of potential law violator
that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits
Specific deterrence
Specific deterrence holds that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that
known criminals will never repeat their criminal acts. According to this view, the
drunk driver whose sentence is a substantial fine and a week in the county jail
should be convinced that the price to be paid for drinking and driving is too great
to consider future violations. In principle, punishment words when a connection
can be established between the planned action and memories of its consequence;
if these recollections are adequately intense, the action is unlikely to occur again.
The theory supposes that people can “learn from their mistakes” and that those
who are caught and punished will perceive greater risk than those who have
escaped detection
Incapacitation
It stands to reason hat if more criminals are sent to prison, the crime rate should
go down. Because most people ago out of the crime the duration of a criminal
career is limited. Placing offenders behind bars during the prime crime years
should reduce their lifetime opportunity to commit crime. The shorter the span
of opportunity, the fewer offenses they can commit during their lives; hence,
crime is reduces. Incapacitation effect refers to the idea that keeping offenders
in confinement will eliminate the risk of their committing further offenses
Studies have shown that both violent criminals and substance abusers have
impairment in the prefrontal lobe, thalamus, medial temporal lobe, and
superior parietal and left angular gyrus areas of the brain. Such damage may
be associated with a reduction in executive functioning (EF) a condition that
refers to impairment of the cognitive processes that facilitate the planning and
regulation of goal-oriented behaviour (such as abstract reasoning and problem
solving). Impairments in EF have been implicated in a range of development
disorders (such as attention deficit hyperactive disorder, autism and Tourette
syndrome)
There is a suspected link between brain dysfunction and conduct disorder (CD),
which is considered a precursor of long-term chronic offending. Children
with CD lie, steal, bully other children, get into fights frequently and break school’
and parents; rules; many are callous and lack empathy and/or guilt
Brain structure – Guido Frank finds that aggressive teen behaviour may
be linked to the amygdala, an area of the brain that process information
regarding threats and fear and to a lessening of activity in the frontal lobe,
a brain region linked to decision-making and impulse control
Attention deficit hyperactive disorder – symptoms include a
developmentally inappropriate lack of attention, along with impulsivity
and hyperactivity. The condition has been associated with poor school
performance, retention for another year in the same grade, placement in
classes for those with special needs, bullying, stubbornness and lack of
response to discipline
Brain chemistry – chemical compounds called neurotransmitters
influence or activate brain functions. Those studied in relation to
aggression and other antisocial behaviours include dopamine,
norepinephrine, serotonin, MAO and GABA. Evidence exists that abnormal
levels of these chemicals are associated with aggression
Arousal theory – the view that people seek to maintain a preferred level
of arousal but vary in how they process sensory input. A need for high
levels of environmental stimulation may lead to aggressive, violent
behaviour patterns
accumulate more than others were the most likely to breed successfully, have
more offspring and dominate the species
Social learning theorists suggest that the following factors may contribute to
violent or aggressive behaviour:
An event that heightens arousal – for example, a person may frustrate
or provoke another through physical assault or verbal abuse
Aggressive skills – learning aggressive responses picked up from
observing others, either personally or through the media
Expected outcomes – the belief that aggression will somehow be
rewarded
Consistency of behaviour with values – the belief, gained from
observing others, that aggression is justified and appropriate, given the
circumstances of the current situation
Cognitive theory
Cognitive theorists focus on the mental processes by which people perceive and
represent the world around them and solve problems
Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener
One reasons for this faulty reasoning is that people may be relying on mental
scripts leaned in childhood that tell them how to interpret events, what to expect
and how they should react and what the outcome of the interaction should be
Psychopathic personality
Some people lack affect, cannot empathize with others, and are shortsighted and
hedonistic. These traits make them prone to problems ranging from
psychopathology to drug abuse, sexual promiscuity and violence. As a group,
people whom share these traits are believed to have a character defect referred
to as sociopathic, psychopathic, or antisocial personality
In contrast, nurture theory holds the view that intelligence is not inherited but
is largely a product of environment. Low IQ scores do not cause crime but may
result from the same environmental factors
Some have been diagnosed with some form of mood disorder – a condition in
which the prevailing emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to the
circumstances. Children with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) experience
an ongoing pattern of uncooperative, defiant, and hostile behaviour toward
author figures that seriously interferes with day-to-day functioning. Symptoms
may include frequent loss of temper, constant arguing with adults, defying adults
or refusing adult requests or rules, deliberately annoying others, blaming others
for mistakes or misbehaviour, being angry and resentful, being spiteful or
vindictive, swearing or using obscene language, or having a low opinion of
oneself
Contemporary trait theorist maintain that some people carry the potential to
be violent or antisocial, and antisocial behaviour occurs when these pre-existing
tendencies are triggered by environmental conditions
One element of life course theory is that criminality may be best understood as
one of many social problems faced by people. This is referred to as problem
behaviour syndrome (PBS), which typically involved family dysfunction, sexual
and physical abuse, substance abuse, smoking, precocious sexuality and early
pregnancy, educational underachievement, suicide attempts, sensation seeking
and unemployment
General theory of crime argues that the propensity to commit antisocial acts is
tied directly to a person’s level of self-control – refers to a person’s ability to
exercise restraint and control over his or her feelings, emotions, reactions and
behaviours. Those with limited self-control tend to be impulsive – they are
insensitive to other people’s feelings, physical (rather than mental), risk taskers,
shortsighted and nonverbal
Trajectory theory
Suggests there are a number of pathways to a criminal career:
The authority conflict pathway begins at an early age with stubborn
behaviour. This leads to defiance (doing things one’s own way,
disobedience) and then to author avoidance (staying out late, truancy,
running away)
The covert pathway begins with minor, underhanded behaviour (lying,
shoplifting) that leads to property damage (setting nuisance fires,
damaging property). This behaviour eventually escalated to more serious
forms of criminality, ranging from joyriding, pocket picking, larceny and
fencing to passing bad checked, using stolen credit cards, stealing cars,
dealing rugs and breaking and entering
The overt pathway escalated to aggressive acts beginning with
aggression (annoying others, bullying), leading to physical (and hang)
fighting, and then to violent (attacking someone, forced theft)
According to Terrie Moffitt, most young offenders follow one of two paths:
Adolescent-limited offenders – kids who get into minor scrapes as
youth but whose misbehaviour ends when they enter adulthood
Abstainers are adolescents who do not engage in any deviant behaviour, a path
that places them outside the norm for their age group
Causes of violence
Personal traits
Research has shown that a significant number of people involved in violent
episodes may be suffering from mental abnormalities. Young people convicted of
murder have been shown to suffer from signs of neurological impairment such as
abnormal electroencephalograms, multiple psychomotor impairments, and
severe seizures; low intelligence as measures on standard IQ tests; psychotic
close relatives; psychotic symptoms such as paranoia, illogical thinking,
hallucinations; mental impairments and intellectual dysfunction; and animal
cruelty
Ineffective families
Abused kids suffer from long-term mental, cognitive and social dysfunctions.
They are more likely to physically abuse a sibling and later to engage in spouse
abuse and other forms of criminal violence. In what is called cycle of violence,
kids who have been abused are also more likely to engage in persisted violent
offending
Human instinct
Some anthropologists trace the roots of violence back to our prehistory, when
out ancestors lived in social groups and fought for dominance
Freud believed that human aggression and violence are produced by instinctual
drives. Freud maintained that humans possess two opposing instinctual drives
that interact to control behaviour:
Eros – the life instinct, which drives people toward self-fulfilment and
enjoyment
Exposure to violence
Kids who are constantly exposed to violence at home, at school or in the
environment may adopt violent methods themselves
Substance abuse
Substance abusers have higher rates of violence than nonusers- neighbourhoods
with high levels of drug and alcohol usage have higher than average violence
rates
Firearm availability
Although firearm availability alone does not cause violence – it may be a
facilitating factor – a petty argument can escalate into a fatal encounter if one
party has a handgun
Cultural values
In urban areas, neighbourhoods that experience violence seem to cluster
together. Subculture of violence refers to a segment of society which violence
has become legitimized by the custom and norms of that group.
National values
Two possible explanations for this:
High violence nations embrace value structures that support violence
which others that have a strong communitarian spirit and an emphasis on
forgiveness and restorative justice have low violence rates
Nations with high violence rates also have negative structural factors such
as high level of poverty, income inequality, illiteracy and alcohol
consumption level and it is the presence of these components, rather than
a regional culture of violence that procures high crime rates
Rape
The common-law definition of rape is “the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly
and against or will”
Incidence of rape
Population density influences the rape rate. Rape is a warm-weather crime –
most incidents occur during July and August, with the lowest rates occurring
during December, January and February. Many victims fail to report rape because
they are embarrassed, think it a personal matter, believe nothing can be done or
blame themselves and some victims of sexual assault may even question whether
they have really been raped – thus rape maybe significantly underreported
Types of rape
Date rape – a rape that involves people who are in some form of courting
relationship
Martial rape – Many spousal rapes are accompanied by brutal, sadistic
beatings and have little to do with normal sexual interests
o Marital exemption – traditionally, a legally married husband
could not be charged with raping his wife
Statutory rape – sexual relations between an underage minor female and
an adult male where the young female is incapable of giving formal
consent
Causes of rape
Evolutionary – suggests that rape may be instinctual, developed over the
ages as a means of perpetuating the species
Male socialization – rape is a function of socialization – some men have
been socialized to be aggressive with women and believe that the use of
violence or force is legitimate if their sexual advanced are rebuffed
(“women like to play hard to get and expect to be forced to have sex”)
Psychological abnormality – rapists may suffer from some type of
personality disorder or mental illness. Research shows that a significant
percentage of incarcerated rapists exhibit psychotic tendencies and many
others have hostile, sadistic feelings toward women
o There is evidence linking rape proclivity with narcissistic
personality disorder – a pattern of traits and behaviours
indicating infatuation and fixation with one’s self to the exclusion
of all others, along with the egotistic and ruthless pursuit of one’s
own gratification, dominance and ambition
Blue-collar crimes
Traditional common-law theft crimes such as larceny, burglary and arson
Larceny refers to taking for one’s own use the property of another, by means
other than force or threats on the victim or forcibly breaking into a person’s
home or workplace; theft. Grand larceny is the theft of money or property as a
felony
A snitch is an amateur shoplifter who does not self-identify as a thief but who
systematically steals merchandise for personal use. A booster is a professional
shoplifter who steals with the intention of reselling stolen merchandise
Merchant privilege laws refer to legislation that protects retailers and their
employees from lawsuits if they arrest and detain a suspected shoplifter on
reasonable grounds
Naive check forgers are amateurs who cash bad checks because of some
financial crisis but have little identification with a criminal subculture.
Systematic forgers are professionals who make a living by passing bad checks
White-collar crimes
Economic crimes that involve business enterprise such as embezzlement, price
fixing and bribery
Donald Cressey found that the door to solving personal financial problems
through criminal means is opened by the rationalizations people develop for
white-collar crime
Payola refers to the practice of record companies bribing radio stations to play
songs without making listeners aware of the payment
Interest in corporate crime first emerged in the early 1900s, when a group of
writers known as muckrakers targeted the monopolistic business practices of
John D. Rockefeller and other corporate business leaders
Green-collar crimes
Violations of laws designed to protect the environment. There are three
independent views of green-collar crimes