BIOLOGY

For more information on Biology see the ENVIRONMENTAL „ Organismal Growth in Batch Culture
ENGINEERING section.
106
CELLULAR BIOLOGY
♦
PERIPLASMIC STATIONARY
SPACE PHASE

BACTERIAL NUMBERS
3µm
OUTER
MEMBRANE
105 DEATH
PHASE

1µm
LOG GROWTH PHASE
SEX PILUS
104
LAG
RIBOSOMES
PHASE ACCELERATED GROWTH
FLAGELLA PEPTIDOGLYCAN
CYTOPLASMIC PHASE
CHROMOSOME
INNER OR CYTOPLASMIC 103
COMMON PILUS MEMBRANE 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
TIME (h)

Exponential (log) growth with constant specific growth

10µm 20µm
rate, µ
CELL WALL
STARCH GRANULES
MITOCHONDRIA
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ dx ⎞
µ=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
PLASMA
MEMBRANE ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
NUCLEUS
ENDOPLASMIC CHLOROPLAST
where,
RETICULUM
x = the cell/organism number or cell/organism
TONOPLAST
concentration
CENTRAL t = time (hr)
VACUOLE
µ the specific growth rate (time–1) while in the
GOLGI
LYSOSOME COMPLEX =
ROUGH exponential growth phase.
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM

ANIMAL PLANT Logistic Growth–Batch Growth including initial into

stationary phase
dx ⎛ x ⎞
= kx ⎜1 − ⎟
dt ⎝ x∞ ⎠
• Primary subdivisions of biological organisms
xo e kt
x=
x
( )
Cell
Group Properties Constituent groups
1 − o 1 − e kt
structure

Eucaryotes Eucaryotic Multicellular; extensive

differentiation of cells
Plants (seed plants, ferns,
mosses)
x∞
and tissues Animals (vertebrates,
Unicellular, coenocytic or
mycelial; little or no
invertebrates)
Protists (algae, fungi,
where,
tissue differentiation protozoa)
k = logistic growth constant (h–1),
Eubacteria Procaryotic Cell chemistry similar to Most bacteria
eucaryotes xo = initial concentration (g/l)
Archaebacteria Procaryotic Distinctive cell chemistry Methanogens, halophiles,
thermoacidophiles

x∞ = carrying capacity (g/l).

♦ Shuler, Michael L., & Fikret Kargi, Bioprocess Engineering Basic Concepts, Prentice Hall PTR, New
Jersey, 1992.

• Stanier, Roger; Adelberg, Edward A; Wheelis, Mark L; Decastells; Painter, Page R; Ingraham, John
L; The Microbial World, 5th ed., 1986. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ.
„ Davis, M.L., Principles of Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2004. Used with
permission.

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 BIOLOGY (continued)

Characteristics of selected microbial cells

Gram Morphological
Organism genus or type Type Metabolism1
reaction2 characteristics3
Rod–may or may not be
Escherichia Bacteria Chemoorganotroph-facultative Negative motile, variable extracellular
material
Rod–motile; significant
Enterobacter Bacteria Chemoorganotroph-facultative Negative
extracellular material
Rod–usually motile; spore;
Bacillus Bacteria Chemoorganotroph-aerobic Positive can be significant extracellular
material
Rod–chains–usually
Lactobacillus Bacteria Chemoorganotroph-facultative Variable nonmotile; little extracellular
material
Cocci–nonmotile; moderate
Staphylococcus Bacteria Chemoorganotroph-facultative Positive
extracellular material
Chemoautotroph-aerobic; can use Short rod–usually nonmotile;
Nitrobacter Bacteria Negative
nitrite as electron donor little extracellular material
Chemoorganotroph-aerobic; nitrogen Rods–motile; copious
Rhizobium Bacteria Negative
fixing extracellular slime
Chemoorganotroph-aerobic and some
Rods–motile; little
Pseudomonas Bacteria chemolithotroph facultative (using Negative
extracellular slime
NO3 as electron acceptor)
Rods–motile; little
Thiobacillus Bacteria Chemoautotroph-facultative Negative
extracellular slime
Rods–usually motile; spore;
Clostridium Bacteria Chemoorganotroph-anaerobic Positive
some extracellular slime
Rods or cocci–motility
Methanobacterium Bacteria Chemoautotroph-anaerobic Unknown unknown; some extracellular
slime
Rods–motile; some
Chromatium Bacteria Photoautotroph-anaerobic N/A
extracellular material
Rod/filaments; little
Spirogyra Alga Photoautotroph-aerobic N/A
extracellular material
Filamentous fan-like or
Chemoorganotroph-aerobic and
Aspergillus Mold -- cylindrical conidia and various
facultative
spores
Usually oval, but can form
Chemoorganotroph-aerobic and
Candida Yeast -- elongated cells, mycelia and
facultative
various spores
Spherical or ellipsoidal;
Saccharomyces Yeast Chemoorganotroph-facultative -- reproduced by budding; can
form various spores
1
Aerobic – requires or can use oxygen as an electron receptor.
Facultative – can vary the electron receptor from oxygen to organic materials.
Anaerobic – organic or inorganics other than oxygen serve as electron acceptor.
Chemoorganotrophs – derive energy and carbon from organic materials.
Chemoautotrophs – derive energy from organic carbons and carbon from carbon dioxide. Some species can also derive energy from inorganic sources.
Photolithotrophs – derive energy from light and carbon from CO2. May be aerobic or anaerobic.
2
Gram negative indicates a complex cell wall with a lipopolychaccharide outer layer; Gram positive indicates a less complicated cell wall with a
peptide-based outer layer.
3
Extracellular material production usually increases with reduced oxygen levels (e.g., facultative). Carbon source also affects production; extracellular
material may be polysaccharides and/or proteins; statements above are to be understood as general in nature.

Pelczar, M.J., R.D. Reid, and E.C.S. Chan, Microbiology. McGraw-Hill, 1977.

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 BIOLOGY (continued)

Stoichiometry of Selected Biological Systems Aerobic Biodegradation of Glucose with No Product,

Aerobic Production of Biomass and a Single Extracellular Ammonia Nitrogen Source, Cell Production Only, RQ = 1.1
Product C6H12O6 + aO2 + bNH3 → cCH1.8O0.5N0.2 + dCO2 + eH2O
CHmOn + aO2 + bNH3 → cCHαOβNδ + dCHxOyNz + eH2O + fCO2 Substrate Cells
Substrate Biomass Product
Degrees of Reduction (available electrons per unit of For the above conditions, one finds that:
carbon) a = 1.94
γs = 4 + m – 2n b = 0.77
γb = 4 + α – 2β – 3δ c = 3.88
γp = 4 + x – 2y – 3z d = 2.13
Subscripts refer to substrate (s), biomass (b) or product (p). e = 3.68
A high degree of reduction denotes a low degree of The c coefficient represents a theoretical maximum yield
oxidation coefficient, which may be reduced by a yield factor.
Carbon balance Anaerobic Biodegradation of Organic Wastes, Incomplete
c+d+f=1 Stabilization
Nitrogen balance CaHbOcNd→nCwHxOyNz + mCH4 + sCO2 + rH2O +
cδ + dz = b (d – nx)NH3
Electron balance s = a – nw – m
cγb + bγp = γs – 4a r = c – ny – 2s
Energy Balance Knowledge of product composition, yield coefficient and a
QoCγb + Qodγp = Qoγs – Qo4a, methane/CO2 ratio is needed.
Qo = heat evolved per equivalent of available electrons Anaerobic Biodegradation of Organic Wastes, Complete
Qo ≅ 26.95 k cal/gm of electron Stabilization
Respiratory quotient (RQ) is the CO2 produced per unit of O2 CaHbOcNd + rH2O → mCH4 + sCO2 + dNH3
f 4a − b − 2c + 3d 4a + b − 2c − 3d
RQ = r= m=
a 4 8
Yield coefficient = c (grams of cells per gram substrate, YX/S) 4a − b + 2c + 3d
s=
or =d (grams of product per gram substrate, YX/XP) 8
Satisfying the carbon, nitrogen and electron balances plus
knowledge of the respiratory coefficient and a yield
coefficient is sufficient to solve for a, b, c, d and f
coefficients.
Composition data for biomass and selected organic
compounds
DEGREE OF
COMPOUND MOLECULAR FORMULA REDUCTION, γ WEIGHT, m

BIOMASS CH1 64N0 16O0,52 4.17 (NH3) 24.5

P0.0054S0.005a 4.65 (N3)
5.45 (HNO3)
METHANE CH4 8 16.0
n-ALKANE C4H32 6.13 14.1
METHANOL CH4O 6.0 32.0
ETHANOL C2H6O 6.0 23.0
GLYCEROL C2H6O3 4.67 30.7
MANNITOL C6H14O6 4.33 30.3
ACETIC ACID C2H4O2 4.0 30.0
LACTIC ACID C3H6O3 4.0 30.0
GLUCOSE C6H12O6 4.0 30.0
FORMALDEHYDE CH2O 4.0 30.0
GLUCONIC ACID C6H12O7 3.67 32.7
SUCCINIC ACID C4H6O4 3.50 29.5
CITRIC ACID C6H8O7 3.0 32.0
MALIC ACID C4H6O5 3.0 33.5
FORMIC ACID CH2O2 2.0 46.0
OXALIC ACID C2H2O4 1.0 45.0

B. Atkinson and F. Mavitona, Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology Handbook, Macmillan, Inc.,
1983. Used with permission of Nature Publishing Group (www.nature.com).

76
 BIOLOGY (continued)

Transfer Across Membrane Barriers

Mechanisms
Passive diffusion – affected by lipid solubility (high solubility
increases transport), molecular size (decreased with
molecular size), and ionization (decreased with ionization).
Passive diffusion is influenced by:
1. Partition coefficient (indicates lipid solubility; high lipid
solubility characterizes materials that easily penetrate
skin and other membranes).
2. Molecular size is important in that small molecules tend
to transport much easier than do large molecules.
3. Degree of ionization is important because, in most cases,
only unionized forms of materials transport easily
through membranes. Ionization is described by the
following relationships:
Acids

pK a − pH = log10
⎡ nonioinized form ⎤ = log HA
⎣⎢ ionized form ⎦⎥
10
A

Base
+
pK a − pH = log10
⎡ ionized form ⎤ = log HB
⎣⎢ nonionized form ⎦⎥
10
B

Facilitated diffusion – requires participation of a protein

carrier molecule. This mode of transport is highly compound
dependent.
Active diffusion – requires protein carrier and energy and is
similarly affected by ionization and is highly compound
dependent.
Other – includes the specialized mechanisms occurring in
lungs, liver, and spleen.

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