Steinar Kvale

InterViews
An Introduction
to Qualitative
Research
Interviewing

®SAGE Publications
lnternational Educational and Protessional Publisher
Thousand Oaks London New Delhi
 7
lt
The Interview Situation
In the interview, knowlcdge is created inter thc points of vicv.' oí the
interviewcr and the interviewce. The interviews with thc subjccts are
thc n1ost cngaging stage of an intervicw inquiry. The personal contaci
and thc continually new insights into thc subjccts' liveJ world makc
intcrvicwing an exciting anJ enriching expcriencc. [)iffercnt forn1s uf
intcrvicw conversations werc discussed in Chaptcr 2 a.n<l the n1ode uf
understanding in the qualitative research intcrview describcd. In this
chaptcr 1 outlinc in n1orc detail sorne guidclines and tcchniqucs for
carrying out intcrvicws and givc au illustration \vith an intervie\V on
grading.

Tite Intcrview Convcrsation

'fhc purpose of a qualitativc research intervicw was dcscribecl

carlier as obtaining qualitative descriptions of the life world of the
suhjcct vvith rr.spect to intcrprctation of thcir n1caning. ·rhe intcrvievv
forn1 trcated here is a scrnistructured ínterview: It has a scqucncc of
thc1r1e.s to be covered, as wcll as suggcsted qucstions. Yet at thc sanie
time therc is an openness to changes of sequence and forn1s of
qucstions in order to follo\v up the ans\vers given and thc storics told
by thc subjccrs. I will discuss thc interview interaction in linc v.,.rirh thc
n1odc of understanding depictcd carlicr with respec( to 12 aspccts of
thc intcrview: life world, meaning, qualitativc, descriptive, spccificityi
dclibcratc nai'vcté, focus, arnbiguity, change, sensitivity, interpersonal
situation, and a positivc cxpcricliCl' (scc Box 2.1 in c:haptt:r 2.).

124
 The Interview Situation 125

An open phcnomcnological approach to learning from thc intcr

viewce is well exprcsscd in this introduction from Spradlcy (1979):

J wanr to undersrand the world from your point of VIC\V. I want to know
whatyouknow in the way you know it. I want to undcrstand the rncaning
of your experience, to walk in your shoes, to feel things as you feel therri,
to explain things as you explain thern \X1ill you become my tcacher and
help me understand? (p. 34)

The research interview is an interpersonal situation, a conversation

between two partncrs about a theme of mutual intcrcst. It is a spccific
form of human interaction in which knowledge evolves through a
dialogue. The interaction is neither as anonymous and neutral as when
a subject responds to a survey qucstionnaire, nor as personal and
e1notional as a therapeutic intervie\v. Paticnts scek therapists far help:
They are motivated to he as open as possible with the rhcrapist, 'Sith
whom a trusting rclationship is establishcd over time. In a research
sctting it is up to thc intervicwer to create in a short time a contact
that allows the interaction to gct heyond mcrely a polite conversation
or cxchangc of ideas. Thc intervicwer must cstablish an atrnosphcre
in which the subject fecls safc cnough to talk frecly about his or her
cxperiences an<l feelings. 1~his involves a delicate balance br.twecn
cognitivc knowledgc seeking and thc cthical aspccts of emotional
human interaction. Thus, at the samc time that personal cxpressions
and e111otions are encouragcd, the intervicwer 1nust avoicl allowing the
intervie\\' to turn into a therapeutic situation, v.rhich he or she may not
be ablc to handlc.
'The interviewcr has an cmp:ithic acccss to tbc '\Vorld of the intcr-
vie\vee; thc intcrvicwec's lived meanings may be immcdiatcly accessi-·
ble in the situation, con11nunicated not only by words, but by ronc: ·,)f
voicc, cxpressions, and gcsturcs in thc natural flow of a ronversatiorL
'fhe rescarch interviewer uses him- or hersclf as a rcsearch instrumcnti
dr~wing upon an in1plicit bodily and e1notional rno<lc of knowing th<-a
allows <:1 privileged access to the subject's lived world.
A rcscarch intervicw fo!lows an unwritten script, v.;ith differcnt
roles spccificd for thc t\vo actors. Thc ü11plicit rules of their interaction
bccorne visible whcn they are hrokcn, such as ir this intervic-;,v
exchange with an unemployed rnan about traveling, in which thc
int-crvie\vcr is caught off g113rd \Vhcn the .subjfct revcrses thc roles:
 126 I 11tc·1 Vicws

Suliject: \X1hcn you are on vacation thcrc is son1c silly tirnc f~1ctvr, the
only thing you hJ\'C rünc for is to g1) down and throvt' yourseJf
on thc beach. l)o you sunbathe?
Intcrvicwer: Wh,1t?
S: Do you sunbathc?
1: Wc!l, no l do not.
S: You have a nice color.
1: l don't spend onc single summcr day on that, but as a whole 1 look
tanncd. F urthcrmorc l get very easily tanncd, 1 only nccd to
put onc finger out of thc window to catch thc sun.
S: A lot of pcople wonld envy you that.
I: Wcll, where do we begin. What are you doing \Vúh )'(Jlll friends?
(Berg Smcnscn, 1988, p. 124).

'fhc convcrsation in a rcM arch 1ntcrvie\v is not thc reciproca!

int-cract1on of 1wo cqual partncrs. 'I'htrc is a dcfinitc asy1nn1erry of
ro\VCf: ·rJic intcrviC\VCf defines thc situationi int-rodULCS tl1e topics of
rhc convcrsation, and through furthcr questions stecrs thc course of
1hc infcrvicw. "fhis \Vas the case in the rather open intervic\.v reportcd
by c;iorgi (C=haptcr 2). Socratcs' intcrvie\.V, dcspitc the convcrsational
partncrs bcing fonnally cqual and thc politc introduction, took thc
forn1 of hctrsh 1nterrogation, rclcntlcssly Jriving Agathon around in
his ~ontra<lic1ory conccptions o{ !ove and beauty, until A.gathon
rhro\VS in thc to\vel and concedes that he kno\\'.S nothing qf \Vhat l1e
was talk1ng about (Chapter 2).
1\dvancc prcparation is csscntial to the Jtltcraction anJ outcomc of
an intervÍC\\'. A substanti<-11 part of rhe invr,<;tigation s11nuld takc place
bctorc lhc tape re-corder is turncd on in thc ;ic1ual ini-ervit~\V .situation.
'fhc kcy issucs of thc intcrvic\\ concern what, why, and lio\v: u1hat-
acyuiring a preknoY\·lcdge of tLc ~ubjcct r1Jatter to be in1.esl!gated;
z.uhy-··-fonnulating a clcar purpose for the intcrvie\v; and hou1--hcing
fan1Iliar \\'Íth Jiffcrcnt intcrvÍe',\' rechníqucs and dcc.idíng \Vhich to
dpply in thc in,·cstigation. Also) bcforc thc 11rsr intcrvie\VS in a <;tudy
are unJertakcu, thought shouJd have been given to how thc intcrvie\VS
\Vi!i be analyzcd ;:i.nd how thc fi11ding~ \vill be verif1ed and rcported.
Rest'arch intcrvÚ'\\'~ vary on d series of dirnensions. Thcy diffrr in
dcgrc!" oi struciur<', fro111 \Vt'l/-c:,rg:1;,1zcd intcrvic\\'.S 'hat follo\\' <1
The lnterview Situation 127

scquence of standard question forn1ulations, ro <lpen intcrvicws whcrc

specific rhemes are in focus but without a prcdeter1nintd sequence and
formulation of questions. Sometimes only a first, topic-introducing
question is asked and the remainder of the intervicw proceeds as a
foIJow-up and expansion on the interviewec's answcr ro the first
questions, such as in the intervicw on Iearning reportcd by Giorgi. l~hc
interviews also díffer in thcir openness o{ purpose,' the intcrvii:wer can
explain the purpose and pose direct questions from thc start or can
adopta roundabout approach, with indirect guestions, and revea! the
purpose oniy whcn the intcrview is over.
The interviews can diffcr furthcr in thcir err1phasis on exploration
versus hypothesis testing, as mcntioneJ in thc discussion of dcsign.
Interviews also vary concerning description versus interpretation. 'fhc
intcrviewer might seck 1nainlf to obtain nuanccd dcscriprions of rhc
phcnomena investigated or can, Juring the intcrvic\v, also atttn1pt
to c1arify and interpret the dcscriptions togethcr with thc suhjecr.
Intervicws also vary on an intel/ectual-emotional di:rnension, fron1 a
rational Iogical discourse bctween interviewer and subject analyti-
caliy clarifying conceptions of thc phcnomena invcstigatc:J, to thc
interviewer attempting to get spontaneou1'. and ernotional drscriptions
of, and reactions about, a tapie. 1-wo extrerric intcrvie\vs on the
intellectual-emotional dimension \verc prcscntcd t'arlicr·--thc discur-
sivc argumentation of Socratcs and thc en1otional rhcrapeuti¡:; inter-·
change rcportcd by Rogers.

Framing the Intcrvicw

l'hc intervicw is a st::1ge upon \Vhic!i kno\vlcdgc u. constructcd

through thc intcraction of inrerviewer and intcrvic\vec roles. Sc1 11i..
directions are suggestcd hcrc for sctting ll1c iiltervic\V stélgc so tht:
intervicwecs will he cncourage<l to put v.•ords to theír points 01 VtC\V
on their lives anJ \Vorlds. 'fhc dircctions pfrt'1in to intervirws \\'ith
nüddlc-clélss prrsons in Norther11 Europc aud ]\Jorth 1\n1cric;L lll uthc;
cultures, diffcrcn1 nonns 1nay hold for intcractious \vitli r·.t-r0ngcrc.
concerning initiative, dircctncss, opcnncss, and thc likc.
1'he intcrvicwccs should be providcd \Vid1 ;1 contcxt for tlic intcr
vie"'' by a briefing bcfote anda dcbriefing afr<~r\vard ·rhe cr'Jlf 1 ~\r ;,,
 '

128 lnu:rVP·\1··

introduccd with a briefing in which the intervic\vcr defines thc situ-

ation for thc subject; briefly tells about thc purpose of the intervic,~ 1 ,
the use of a tape recordcr, and so on; and asks if thc subject has any
questions before starting the interview. Further explanations abour
the interview investigation should preferably wait until thc intervic\.V
is over.
The first minutes of an interview are dccisive. l'he subjects wilJ waut
to have a grasp of the interviewcr befare they allow thcmselvcs to talk
freely, cxposing their expericnces an<l feelings to a strangcr. A gooJ
contact is established by attentive listening, with the interviewer
showing interest, understanding, and respect for \Vh<lt the subject say~;;
at the same time, the intcrviewer is at case and clear about what he or
shc wants to know.
Thc initial briefing should be followcd up by a debrie(ing aftcr thc
intcrview. At thc cnd of the intcrvicw there may be .sorne tension 01
anxiety, hccause !"he subject has been open ahout oftcn personal and
emotional cxpcriences and may be wondcring ahout [he intcrvie,v\.
purposc and how it will be uscd. Therc may pcrhaps also be fccliug:;
of emptiness; thc subjcct has givcn inuch information about his or he;
life and may not have rcceivcd anything in return. This bcing said.
con1mon expcrience after re.search intervicws is thar the subjects liav1
cxperienccd the intcrview as genuincly enriching, have cnjoycd talk ·
ing frecly with an attentivc li~tencr, and have sorr1Pti111cs obt<lincd ne\,\
insights in to in1portant themcs of their lifc v.rorld.
~I'hc intcraction can be rounded off by thc 1nterviewcr 111cntioni11v
so1ne of the n1ain points lcarnc-:d fro1n thc intcrvicv.' Thc suhjcct 1y1_;'
then want to co1nment nn this feedback. 'fhc intcraction CJn thcrcaf:l 1
be concludcJ by thc intervicv..'cr saying, for cxa1np!c, "I havc Jh
furthcr questions. Do you havc anythirig n1orc you \.vant lo bring u_r,
or ask about, befare wc finish the intervic\v?" 1-his gives the ~ul_'ljec·
nn additional opportunity to <leal \Vith issues he or she ht13 hcc.,
thinking or worrying about during thc inter\'ie\V.
·rhc debriefing is likcly to continuc aftcr thc tape recorder has hcc11
turncd off. /\Ítcr a fírst gasp of rclief, thc intervrc\vcc n1ay b!·ing Pi
topics he or shc did not feel safc raising with the tape rccorder on
And fhe interviewer crtn DO\\', insof:ir as thc suhject is inrcrcstcd, r, ''
1norc fnlly about rhc p1~rposc <lnd des1gn of ¡-he intcrvJC\\' stud)
 The Interuiew Sit11atio11 ] 29

The livcd intcrview situation, with the intcrvie\vee's voice and

facial and bodily expressions accompanying rhc statr1nents, provides
a richer access to the subjects' meanings than the transcribed texts will
larer. Ir may be worthwhile for the interviewer to set aside 10 minutes
of quiet time aftcr cach interview to recall and reflect on what has
been learned from the particular interview, including the interper-
sonal interaction. 'fhese immediate imprcssions, based on the intcr-
viewer's e1npathic access to the meanings comn1unicated, may-in the
form of notes or simply recordcd onto thc interview tape-provide a
valuable context for rhe later analysis of transcripts.

The Intervicw Guide

An intcrv1c\v guide indicatcs thc topics an<l tbcir scqucnce in tbe

intcrvicw. Thc guide can contain just son1c rongh topics to be coveted
or it can be a detaile<l scquencc of carcfully \Vordcd qucstíons. fur the
semistructured type of intervicw discusscd hcrc, thc guidc will contai!-.
an outline of topics to be covered, \VÍth suggestcd questions. It 1,vil!
dcpcnd on the particular dcsign choscn whcther the questions and
tbeir scquc11ce are strictly preJetcrmincd and binding on rhe intcr
vicwcrs, or whether it is up toan int:ervicwrr's judgtnent and tact bo\V
closcly to follo\v the guide and ho\V strongly to pursuc an individual
subjcct's answcrs.
Each intcrview qucstion can be cvaluated with rcspcct to both a
thc1natíc and a dynaniic di1ncnsion: then1atically \vith regard to its
rclcvancc fur thc research thcrnc, and dynarnically \Vith rcgard to thc
~1terpersonal rclationship in thc intcrvic\v. A good intervicw '--JLiCStion
should contribute the1natically ro k110\vlc<lgc production and dyna1ni··
cally to pron1oting a good intervic\v intcraction.
'fhenu1ticall-y thc qucstions rcL~te in the topic of tl1e intc1 vicv.', to
the theorciical cunception~; at tlie 1001 of an invcstigcttinn, and to thc
sub~cquelll a11alysis. 1'he queslious will be Jiffcreril v.·hen intet v1cwing
for sponta11co11s dcscriptions of thc lived \.Vorld, or intcrviewing for a
conceptual analysis of thc pcrson's concepts of a topic. Siroply ex··
prl's~,ed, die rnore sponta11ecus 1-hc intcrvic\V procedurc, thc rnor 1•
líke!y one is !o obtain spontaneous, liYL'ly, and uncxpectcd <111S\\rcr<:
froin thc i11tc1vic\vce~. 1\nd vice vcrs;1: ·rhc rnorc structurcd tÍll
 j.J() lnter'v1cw5

intcrvie\v ~iruati(Jn is, thc cas1rr thc !ater str 1ctunng of thc 11-itcrview
1

by analysis will be.

In line with tbe principie of "pushing forward" in an intcrvicw proj-
ec:t, the Iatc::r stages should be taken intn acci_¡unt wlicn preparing thc
intcrvie\V gucstions. If thc mcthod of analysis will in vol ve catcgorizing
thc answcrs, then clarify continually during thc interview thc tnean-
ings of the answcrs with rcspect to the categorics to he used larer. lf
a narrative analysis is to be employcd, then givc the subjects amplc frcc-
dom and time to unfold their own stories, and follow up with ques-
tions to clarify i-he 111ain episodes and characters in their narrativcs.
Dynamica/ly, the que.stions should pron1ote a positivc intcraction;
kcep thc flow of the conversation going and n1otivate the subjects to
ralk about their cxpcriences and fcelings. The qucstions should be easy
ro understand, short, an<l devoid of acadcrnic language.
A good conceptual thcmatir rescarch qucstion nce<l not be a goc
dyna1nic · ntcrvicw qucstion. When prcparing an intcrvicv.r ir n1ay L
uscful to dcvclop t \\'O gnidcs, one \VÜh thc projcct's 1nain the1natic
rcscan.:h qucstions and thc othcr with thc qucstions to be posed during
rhc intcrvÚ:\v, which t;:ikes both thc thcinatic and thc Jyna111ic <li111en-
sions into accuunt.
'fable 7.1 depicts thc translation of thcn1atic rcsearcb questions in
thc grading stuJy intu interview questions to providc thcrriatic kno\vl-
cdge and contributr <lynarnically to a natural convcrsational flo\V. 'I"hc
abstraer wording of rhe rescarch c_¡uestions wonld hardly lca<l ro
off-the-cuff ::ins\vers fro1n high ~chool pupils. 'The acade1nic rcstarch
qllcstion~-- nccd to be translated in toan C<lsy-goingi colloquial forrn to
generrttc spontarJeou~ and rich Jescriptions. Onc rcscarch question
c;1n be invcstigated through scveral intervic\v qucstions, thus obtain-
ing r:ch ;1nd varicd inforn1iltion by appruaching a ropic fron1 scvcr<Jl
anglcs. And onc inttrvic\v question might pr(rvidc a11SV1'crs to severa!
rcsearch questions.
-rhr rolr:s pf thc "v.:hy/' "\\'hat," and "how" quc~,tions ;;:re diffcre111
in rcsearch versus intervÍC\V questions. lt has be('n re pe~" ~-dly en1phrt-
~i1,cd that \.vhen dcsigning an 1ntcrvicw projccr, the "why" ;:ind ''\vhat"
qll(''ltion~ ~hou]d b·2 askcJ c~nJ ar.~wcrtJ bcfore thc t.¡uesrion of ''how''
is po~c<l. In thc intervic\V situation, the prioricy of thc qucsti1 1n 1ypcs
changc. In thc 1r1tcrvicw itsclf, the main question.s should be in a
desr.rirtivc fortn: "~'h:it hctppL'nci.J arlll hn\\' ._;id it happt'.n:··, "l Jov.
 The Interuiew Sttuation 131

TABLE 7.1 Research Questious and lntervicw Qncstions

---- -------
Research Questions /nterz1iew Questions
----·-------
Do you find thc subjects you learn
in1porranr?
/
Which form of learning motivarion ~ Do you find le;1rning
dominares in high schoo/? ~ intcrcsring in itself?

\'(1har is your rnain purpose

in going ro high school?

Do rhe grades pro1norc an externa!, Havc }'Otl experienccd a conflicr

instrun1ental 1norivation at rhc bctween what you v.•antcd to rcad
expense of an intrinsic intereH (study) anJ whar you had to re ad ro
morivarion for lt:arning? --Jo obtain a good gradt·?

Docs /carning for grades socializc "(-·--- --- Have ynu bcen rcv.--ardcd wirli rnoner
ro \\'Orking for wages? """ (. · r,ood grades?

~' Do yoi¡ set any c:onne(·tíon benvecn

1nonry and grades?

did you fccl thcn?" "What d1J you cxperiencc?" and thc likc. The aiin
is to clicit spontancous descriptions froin thc suhjccrs rathcr than to
gct their O\Vn, rnorc or lcss spC'culative cxplanation~ of \vhy son1cthing
took place. "\Xlhy" qucstions about thc sub;ects' own rcasons for thcir
actions lllél}' be irr1portant in thcir own right. Man:• "why" questions
in an intervic\V may, ho\vcver, lec1d toan intcllcctualizcd intervie\v,
perhaps evoking rueinorics of oral cxanúnations. Figuring out the
rcasons and explanations for why son1ething happcncd i~ prin1Jrdy
the tJsk nf rhf :nvcsrigator.

Interview Q11estions

·rhr ít.<,c2rch H1tervic•,v prot:(cJs ia.rlicr Ji!-,,' ,i norn1al cn11vcr::;:ii-ion

but hzis ~l specific purposc alld strllcture: lt is characterized hy ~~
 L12

systematic forin of questioning. 'Thc intervie\ver's qucstions should be

bricf and siinplc. In thc lifc 'h'orld intervicws descrihed here, an
opcning qucstion inay ask about a conc_r('re situation. l'he differcnt
dimensions introduced in the ans\vcr can lhcn be pursued. l~he dcci-
sivc issuc is thc intcrvicwcr's ability lO sense the in1me<liatc 1neaning
of an answer and the horizon of possible meanings that it opcns up.
This, again, reguircs a knowle<lgc of, an<l interest in, both the theme
and the human interaction of the interview. Decisions about which of
the many dimensions to pursuc that are introduced by a subject's
answer will dcpend on thc purpose and content of the intervicw, as
well as on the social interaction in the interview situation.
Box 7.1 depicts sorne main types of guestions that may be use ful in
the semistructured interview form treatcd here. A more extended
discussion of intcrview question1'l is givcn by Scidman (1991). In
a<ldition to paying attention to the thematic and dynamic aspects of
thc questions, the interviewcr shoul<l also try to kccp in tnind the latcr
analysis, vcrification, and rcportíng of the intcrviews. Intervic\vcrs
who know what thcy are asking abouti and why thcy are askingi \Vi!l
atre1npt to clarífy thc meanings rclevant to the project during thr
intcrvicw, obtaining a . .lisarnbiguation of thc statcrnents 1nadc, and
thercby provide a more trustworthy point of departure for the latcr
analysis. Such a process of rneaning clarification during the intcrvÍc\v
rnay also conununicatc to thc subjccts that the intcrvie\ver actually is
listening to and interested in what thcy are saying. Jdeally, the tcstmg
of hypotheses and interpretations is finishcd by the end uf the intcr-
vic\v, \Vith the intcrvÍc\\'cr's hyputhcscs having bcen vcrified or falsi-
fied duríng the interview.
lf an intervicw is to be reportcd, perhaps quotl d ;ir 1ength; thell
atlt::IBJH when fcasíble ro 1nakc thc c-.ocial contcxt cxplicit durtng die
intervicv:, and v.'hen possiblc thc c1notional tone of thc intcraction,
so that what is said is understandablc for the rcctders, "vho have not
\VÍtncssed the livc iutcrvic·w situatior, J\!luch is to he learntd froru
journalists and novclists abo11t convcying the sct1ing and rnood oí a
convcrsation.
'fhe focu!; hcrc has bccu on tbe intervicwct's questioús. J\U_iv1:
listening·~the intcrvie\vcr's ability lo listen activcly to what thc ínter·
vicwce says-can be rnorc import;inr rhan d1c specific rnastery of
qucstioning tcchniqucs. 'Tlicr<.pistsi cducatio11 c111phasi1.cs í hcir :..kijLc..
The J11tervie1v Situation 133

Box 7. 1

Types of Interview Questions

A. Introducing Questions: "Can you tell nle about ... ?'';

"Do you remember an occasion when ... ?"; "What hap-
pened in the episode you 1nentioned?"; and "Could you
describe in as much dctail as possible a situation in which
]earning occurrcd for you?" Such opcning qucstions may
yield cpontaneous, rich, dcscriptions whcre thc subjects
thcmselvcs provide \vhat they experiencc as the main di-
1ncnsions of the pheno1nena investigatcd. Thc remainder
of thc intcrvicw can thcn proceeJ as following up of
dirncnsions introduced in thc story told in response ro thc
initial question.
B. Fol/ow-Up Questions: The subjccts' answcrs may be
extended through a curious, persistent, and critica} attitudc
of thc interviewer. rfhis can he done through direct qucs-
tioning of \vhat has just he· ~1 said. Also a mere nod, or
"1nn1," or just ;i pause can indicare to the subject to go on
with the <lcscription. Repeating significant words of an
answcr can lead to furthcr elaborations. Intcrviewers can
train the1nsclves to noticc "red lights" in the answers-such
as unusual tcrms, srrong intonarion~, and the likc-"-which
n1ay signal a Vi'hole cornplex of topics irnportant to thc sub-
ject. "lhe kr-y issue herc is thc intcrvic\vcr's ability to listen
to \\'hat is i1nµortant to thc suhjccts, and at the san1e [in1c
to keep in 1nind the research qucstions of an investígation.
e:.l'rohing Questions: "(~ould you say son1ething n1ure
ahcut thJt?"; "Can you give a rnorc dctailed <lescription of
\Vhat happencd?"; "Do you havc furthr-r exarnples of this?"
'fhe interviev,rcr hcre pursues the answers, probing rheir
contcnt b11t without s!Jting \vhat diinensions are to be
takcn into account.
ícu11tin11cd)
1.14 1JJ!c1'Vit W.\

Bo>. / .1 ( :ontinucd

D. Specifying Questions: The interviewer may also follow

up with more operationalizing qucstions, for instance:
"What <lid you think then?"; "What did you actually do
when you felt a mounting anxiety?"; "How did your body
react?º ln an interview with many general statemcnts, the
interviewer can attempt to gct more precise dcscriptions by
asking "Have you also cxperienced this yourself?"
E. Direct Questions: The intervicwer hcre directly intro~
duces to pies and dimensions, for cxample: "Havc you cvcr
rcccivcd money for goo<l grades?"; "When you mention
con1petition, do you thcn think of a sportsmanlike or a
destructivc con1petition?" Such direct questions tnay prcf-
erably be postponed until thc latcr parts of the intcrview,
after the subjects havc g1ven their o\vn spont;1nco11s de··
scriptions and thereby indicatrd what aspccts uf the phc-
non1cna are central to thcrri.
F. Jndirect Questions: Here thc intcrviev..'er 1nay apply
projcctivc questions such as "l-Iow do you bclievc other
pupils regard the compcrition for grades?" rfhc answcr rnay
refcr <lircctly to thc attitudcs of others; it ma.y also be an
indircct statemcnt of thc pupil's O\Vn atcitudc, which he or
she docs not statc directly. (~areful furthcr qucstioning will
he neccssary hcrc to intcrprct thc ansv..'cr.
e;. Structuring Questions: l'hc intervie\Vt'f is rcsponsiblc
for the coursc of thr. inter,·ie\v :i.nd should indicare V.'Í1(:11 <\
thcrnc has becn cxhai1stcd. 'fhe intervicwer rnay Jírcctl;·
and politcly bre.ak off long answers that are irrelcvant to
rbe !opic of thc investigrttion, for ex;:u11p1e hy sayíng, "f
\Vould now like to introduce another t.opic: . "
I-L Silencc: l{ad1cr rhan n1Jking thc intcrvic\V ;:;. cross cx·-
a1ni11;1tion by c:ontinuJJly (iring of( quesLions, thc rcscarch
intervie\ver can takc a lcad from thcrapists in ernploying
siicnce to further thr interview. By allowing pauses in thc
 The /11tervieu1 Situation 135

llox 7. 1 Continued

convcrsauon the subjects havc amplc time to associate and

reflect and thrn break the silence thcmsclves with signifi-
cant information.
l. Interpreting Questions: Thc degrcc of intcrpretation may
involve mercly rephrasing an answer, for instancc: "You
then mean th;1t ... ?" or attempts at clarification: "Is it
correct that you feel that . . . ?"; "Does thc exprcs-
sion ... covcr what you havc íust expressed?" There 1nay
also be 1norc dircct intcrpretations of what the pupil has
sai<l: "Is it correct that your n1ain anxicty about the grades

__
conccrns thc reJction fro1n your parcnrs?'' 1\1orc speculativc
q11cstions can take thc form of: "I)o you see any connections
betwccn thc t\\'O situations of cornpeting with thc othcr J
,.=:~~-p-1-ls~::r-g-ra_J_c_-,~:=11=d=t=l1=·=1=T=·l=a=ti=o=1=1=ro=y'o"=JJ=t~s=·i=b=li=n=g=s=a=t=h~o=r=n=c=?="=

as Jistcncrs, furthering an cn-1pathic active li~tcning to thc n1any

nuance-. and laycrs of 1nc;:inings ot what their paticnts tell the1n. Freud
(l %3) rccomrnended that therapists listen to their patients with an
"cvc-nly hovcringattcntion" to attend to rhc rneaning of thcir accounts
(Chaptcr 4, l'sychoanalytical Knowledge Production).
·rhc importance of list-.:ning also Jppcars in phcnornenological and
henncncutical approachPs to intcrviewing ((~haptí'r 3, scction:, tidf'd
Henneneuticzi! lnterpret<1.tion; and Phcnomcnological l)escription).
fhcre i~ thc phenomcnologildl ideal of listcning \Vithout p1cjudicc,
a/l('\~:ing ihe intervie\vces' dcscription~ of thcir cxpericnccs unfold
1thout inte: fUptions fro1n intervie\vcr questions and the presuppo-
\.\
1

sitions thesc iHvo!vc. A herrncncutical approach involve~> 811 1ntcrpre·

tative lün<.ning ro tht n1ultiple hori1ons of 1ncaning involved in the
intervic\vces' staternenu.. , wíth an attention to the possibilitics of
continua! rcit)terprctations \Vithin the licrrnencutical circlc of thc
intcrvic\v. Attention i,.vill a.lso be paid to thc influcnce of th~ presup-
po:;ilions of tlic .sub1ccts' ariswcrs as wcll as thf-' prcs11pposit'ions of the
intl't vie\vcr's qucsrions.
 136 Inrc1 V1tws

An Intervicw About Grades

An intcrview will be reproduced hcre to illustrate thc modc of

questioning in a qualitative rcsearch interview. An interview guide th<It
combined explorative and hypothesis-tcsting approaches was pre-
parcd in advance. The interview was conducted bcfore a class at a
research workshop at Saybrook Institute, San Francisco, in 1987.
Although the interview situation is artificial, it gives in a condenscd
form a fair picture of the scmistructurcd interview form under discus~
sion. l"hc interview is reproduccd virtually verbatün, with only a few
nünor changes in linguistic style.

SK: 1 will now atternpt to demonstrate the rnode of understanding in

a qualitativc research inter~'iew, and 1 nccd a voluntecr. Ir \vill
be a rather neutral tapie, it's not a psychoanalytic depth intrr-
vicvv. l'hc intcrvit.:V.' will takc about ten 1ninutcs and afterwards
we \vill discuss it hcrc.

A iuonian in her thúties voluntcers.

SK l: 'fhank you frir your wíllingness to participare and be intcr-

vic\vcd hcre. I Lave becn stuc.lying the cffects of grades in Europe
fnr so1ne ycars, and no\V I'm interestcd in the 1neaning of grade~
for A1ncrican srudcnts and pupils.
l want to first ask you a maybe difficult question. lf you'll try
ro rcn1en1bcr baL=k whcn you w~nt to primary school, are yo11
able to rerncmbcr the first tirnc you ever had any grades?
~tn<lcnt 1: 1 rcn1e111hrr <-1 tirne; but ir rnighr not havc been thr first
ti1ne.
SK 2: Ler's take that tin1c. C:Jn 1 '0ll tell rne ,\1 hat happencd?
Student 2: I did very \Vell. 1 rcrne111ber getting a red star on thc top
of iny papcr \Vith 100; and that stands out in roy 1ntn1ory as
cxciting and interesting.
SK 3: Yes. Is it only the 1cd star that stands out, or what happcncd
around it?
Sturlent 3: [laughtcr"j I !·r-1ncrnhti thc colur very vcrv \'-e!!. ÍI \\'<1.'i
shining. I rcn1c1nber gctting rc\v-arded all the \vay aronnd. I
rerncmbcr bcing honorcd by rny classmarcs and thc reachl'1 ;-·nd
 The Jnterview Situation 137

my parents-thcm making a fuss. An<l sorne of the other kids not

responding so well who didn't do so wcll. lt was mixed emotions,
but generally 1 remember the cclebration aspect.
SK 4: You said mixcd emotions. Are you able to describe thcm?
Student 4: Well, at that time I was the teacher's pet and sorne people
would say, "Aha, maybe she didn't earn it, maybc it's just because
the teacher likes her so well." And sorne kind of stratification
occurring because 1 was not only the teacher's pet but 1 was
maybe gctting better grades and it created sorne kind of disso-
nancc within n1y classmates' experience of me socially.
SK 5: Could you describe that dissnnance?
Studcnt 5: Wcll, I think therc's always wme kin<l of demarcarion
between smdcnts who do well and students who don'r do as well,
and rhat's dctermined, especially in the primary grades, by the
numher that you get on top of yonr paper.
SK 6: Was rhis early in school? Was ir first grade?
Student 6: Third grade.
SK 7: Thir<l grade. Well, that's a long time ago. Are you able to
remen1ber what they said? Or--
Student 7: No; it was 1norc feeling·---
SK 8: The fccling--
Student 8: Yeah, it \Vas thc fecling of, J'd put sorne space bet\\'een n1e
and rhe peer group-
SK 9: Because of your good grades.
Student 9: Yeah.
SK 10: Did you try to <lo anythmg about thati
Studcnt 10: I <lidn't do so well alter that. Ir rcally affected me in a
!arge \vay. J \Vantcd to be with then1 rnore than 1 \vanted to be with
thc teacher, or on tile tcacher's good lisr. So il was significant.
SK 11 ~ Ir was a significant experirnce-· (Yes) --ro you, and you got
in a conflict bet\veen teacher and your peers, or you expcrienced
tt :ls a conflict. (Yes) l)id your parents enter into the situation?
Student 11: Not that I rccall, beca u.se it \Vas--ro 1nc ir \vas a significanr
alteration in hü\V 1 experienccd grades. "fo rhe111 it was 1nayhc
1ust a littlc bit lcss. But ir was still satisfacto"y, still acceptable,
and I was stil! rcwarded i11 general ter1ns for doing \vcll and tl()t
failing. So rhat dichoto1ny was rcspected.
 138 lnLt r\lir\\'S

SK 12: ·rhat kind of Jissonancc hct\Vtcn ~;1y !CJyalty t(J your tt·ach1'r
and rhc affectio11 of thc classn1atesj is that a situation you bavc
been into other ti1nes? Docs it re1nind you of-other~-?
Studcnt 12: lt kccps rcpcating itself in my lifc, yes. Whcncvcr 1 start
taking my fricnds or 1ny peer group for granted, 1 gct so1nr kind
of message saying, t-Iuh--uh 1 what's more important to me? 1\nd
what's more itnportant to me is iny friendships.
SK 13: Um-hmm. That is the hasic issue.
You n1cntioncd severa! tünes bcforc "re\vardcd"~..what do
you nlean by "rcwarded"?
Student 13: Oh, getting tosta)' up to watch TV whcn 1 was in thircl
grade, n1aybe; or getting to g(, sorne place or stay out latcr or
1naybe just gctting ice cream) sorne food·---·
SK 14: So yon got tangible rewards (Yes) for thc grades' Did that
1nake you learn niorc or was it nlorc incidental?
Student 14~ It rnadt inc wanr to do \\'el!, so it \.Vas--·-do bcttcr.
SK 15: l'vc hc;1rd so1nc place aboul die tcrin "gradr il10i1cy"

Student 15: ( ;radc?

SK 16: Money. 'J'hai- sorne pcuplc ge! "grade rnoncy."
Studcnl 16: Oh, if thcy do weli?
SK 17: Yt:s, JiJ yo11 cv1·r gct that?
Student i 7; i'~o. ()nJy food! [L1ughtcr] lee cre,11n.
SK 18: ~rherc's a tcrni callc<l ''\.vhecdling" nr "apple polishi11g." ()r
playing up to r.hc rca1:hrr. \\/,·¡_e you cvcr a,_-( u:-.cd c..~f rhat~
Student 18: Yes.
SK 19: You \\·ere. 1-lo\V did you takc that?
Studcnt 19: --·-No; it \Vas upsctting, yes.
SK 20: 'fhc J)anish pupils J'\'c intcrvie\ved, thcy'vc also n1cr1lHllH.d
that couflict. 'I'hcy gct guocl 1 ::L_nion:. vvir.h rhc rertchcr ;-ind ;d1no:-it
auto1naticJily othcr pupils !IJ.ty stc1rt saying it'.s \vhcedling

Lct'.<:. :-t_L. if \YC ¡un1p ahc;id !CJ- -lf yn111r:• ln r-<'1J,1.'JTIÍ>lr 1h,·
last tin1c you cvcr gota grade.
Studcnt 20: l)thLr 1han ;l P;lssiFail?
~K 11: Yn.
 The !11terviet1J .S1tuatíon 139

Student 21: 1 rcmembcr fail;ng English in collegc! That was pretty

traumatic. It n1eant I cou!Jn't graduare with iny cL1ss. Con1-
pletcly uncxpected. lt made me feel bad. But l wound up hy
taking the test over the phone with thc teachcr and finally
graduating with 1ny class, in undergraduatc school. 1'hat was
very swect of them.
SK 22: There you were at the othcr cnd of the continuum.
Student 22: 1 hada lot of friends say so! [laughtcr]
SK 23: So there seen1s to be an ahnost ongoing conflict in hoth
rclation to the tcachcr and rhe relation to the classn1ates. And
whcre is your o\vn self? Is that puiling apart?
Student 23: l'm glad 1 don't havc to dcal with that any more.
SK 24: Yes. 1 can scc that--
An'.l asking inorc specifica!ly ;1bout rhc lcarning process, did
thc fact that you \Vcre getting graded, did that ha ve any influencc:
on thc way you lcarne.:<l?
Studcnt 24: Yes; I \Vas very \vorried ;:i.bout picking the right the1T1c
c;uhjcct to writc ahout and gctting thc right rescarch, and right
111caning not neccssarily thc b('st. So nov.' {at Saybrook, a non-
residcntial Ph.D. progratn \Vith only pass/fail ev;ilnationl f'n1
tJking rnorc cha11cLs v.·ith \vriting cssays 1 personal opinion es··
~ays. l think "(1cc, Jet inc i-ry this, ir n1ight not be acccptcd, bur
l \voa't fail." ·rhis is a 1nuch rnore crcativc expcrieIJCC for n1c,
a11d thc risk-taking factor has cxpandcd. rl'hcrc v.,rasn't a lot of
risk-1;ik1ng \Vhcn l kneV\.' J was going to gct gr:-tdcd, 'cause J
nceded f(1 gcr thc confirrnat.íun of r·v peer group, tJlk about it,
and iriakc surc ihat it \V<ls in linc \vith ev<'rybody clsc's. ·rhis
cxperic11ce is ~;o i11dividu3I :1nd ~;o ;ionthrr?etll ning th;tt T'rn n;orc
\Vil!ing ro take crcativc risks.
SK 25: Llo 1 nndns1anJ yo11 cnnculy whcn ¡·,n saying rhat v0111
cxrerie;1c.T \Vit!i tlie gradtnv y<)u hél.d io play lt safc·, no1 !o he ton
crcJtive or takt any risks? (Yes) \\/hcrras v.-ith Pas ...,/F;úl, )·ou are
allo\vcd 1 0 thi11k <.Tcati,,·]y ¡¡nd t;ikt: risk~:-
Stndent ).S: Yr:-lh. And in this siti~11ion lat Snyhrookl in p;'\rtic'.i!?..r ir-''.;
\'Cr)' '-:iffi\:11lt to con1pa•(' and c,)ntr<1sr \Vil h c];1ssn1atcs \\·l:n aren'¡
\ ci \' l!o~C", "ºir<., ,1 hcncr :-itn<1tion.
 140 !nrcr\/íc\\'S

SK 26: Okay.-Arc there any more things you would want to say
bcfore we end the intervic,v?
Student 26: No; I don't think so.
SK 2 7: Okay; thank you very mu ch for your cooperation.

The interview was thcn discussed in class, including the following

exchange:

SK 28: How did you experiencc being intcrviewed about ir [the

grades] up in front here?
Student 27: I thought it was a rcally good opportunity for me to
explore that. I haven't evcn thought about it in ;1 long time, but
[ knew from thcrapy that !'ve had rcccntly that that was a big
tirnt in my Jifc when I was closer to n1y teachcr than I was to rny
lricnds and !'ve had to facc that a lot. lt was fun for me to talk
about it 'cause I'rn pretry clear about what happ('ned.

1·hc n1odes of questioníng and the topics ((lvcred in rl1is artifici~i.J

dc1nonstration interview ahout grades are rc;:rcscntative of rhc JO
intervie\vs on grades in Danish high schools discussed throngbout thi~_;
book. Fcvv of thc pupils, however, gavc such rich and 1Joqucnt
<lescriptions uf thcir cxpcrienccs with grades.

Knou1/edge I'roduced in the luteruiew. Sevcral i111portant aspects

of rhe social effects of grading are cvidcnt in this short intcrvicw--
pr in1arily a pcrvasive loyalty confl ict bet\vecn teacher and pecrs; bri ng
a tcachcr's pet gctting high grades created a dissonancc in her cla~s-
1natcs' cxpcricnces of her, ir put a space bctwccn her anJ the peer
group. 'f"his dissonancc kept rcpcating itself in her lifc, \.Vith her
fricndships being the n1ost ünportanr (Studcnr 3 & 5). In the- rhird
grade thi~ evcn lcd the studcnt deliberately to scek lo\\'Cr grJdcs in
ordcr not to be separatcd frorn her pccrs (Studcnt 10). In a pas~;ifail
cvaluatio11 systctn in thc present Ph.f), progran1, shc \vas rclicvcd that
this n1ade it difficult to con1parc 8nd contrast cvaluations wirh cL:1ss-
rn<1tes. Learning thcreby hccarne a 1nore creative cxpcrience for thr
studcnt, \Vith rnorP risk takíng (Studcnt 24).
In the intcrview guide, thc rneanings uf gr;iding \Yen: to be ad-
drcsscd fro1n thc threc rhcorci-ical pcrspectivcs n1entinncd earlicr---a
 The lntert iew Situatio11
1 14 ¡

Rogerian, a Frcudian, and a Skinnerian approach (Chaptcr 5, Dcsign-

ing). These wcre uscd as general approaches in this interview to
investigare different aspects of thc mcanings of grades. Thus when the
student described "mixed emotions" (3) and "it was more the fceling"
(7), J sought, in line with a Rogerian approach, to encourage further
e!aboration of the feeling and the mixed emotions by repeating thesc
very words (SK4 & 8). A Frcudian approach in a broad sense was tried
by asking, "Did your parents enter into thc situation?" (SK 11) and,
later, whethcr thc loyalty conflict between teacher and pupils re-
mindcd her of othcr situations (SK 12). The stuclcnt's answer confirrns
that this keeps repeating itself in her life, but she <loes not hring up
family rclations. I hcre had in mind her grade-loyalty conflict as
possibly reactivating chi!,Jhood conflicts of jcalousy and sibling rivalry
far thc affection of parents.
A Skinncrian rcinforcen1cnt approach \Vas pursued (SK 13) by
probing thc 1neaning of che studcnt's i-crm ''rc\v;lrdcd" C~ &: I 1). Thc
student then tells about bcing rcwardcd for good grades as a child by
getting to stay up late to ""·atch 'TV or by hcing givcn ice crcan1. Earlíer
in the intervie\v the studcnr (3) h<1d tncnrionc<l reinforcernents for
good grades, such as bcing honored by her class1natcs, tcachcr, and
parcnts. If this had not been a dernonstration intcrvicw in front of a
class, and had Iasted longcr, onc or n1orc of thc three theorctical
approachcs \vould havc bccn nlore cxten~,ivcly follo\ved up.

]'he Intervieu; Situation. In spite of thc intcrvicw taking place in

front uf a clc1ss, 1-hc atn1osphere \\'as r<lthcr relaxed. ()ne re<1son Í~; the
student's openncss: She had volunteered, indic:l.ting therrby that sbc
\Vas not afraid of bcing intervie\VC<l 1n front of an <ludicncc; she had
also been in thcrapy and \Vas rhus comfortablc \\'ith talking about her
personal experiences. And, as ir turne<l out, the ropic of the inttT-
view-- ·-gradcs---had had quite ~orne personal in1~:ict on her scbool lifc,
My expcricncc frotn prcvious intcrvie\vS about grades 1nadc JI
relatively easy to listen to and follo\v up on significant tbc1ncs about
grades (ron1 the pcrspcctive of thc studcnt. I did, ho\vcver, :1ppcar
rnorc influcnced by the audicnce than the subjcct \Vas, sornetin1cs nor
following up irnporrant lcads in the answers .1l1d not tnlcrctting pauses
(SK 2.0 &, 24). I fclt i-hc topics here inight hl' roo sfnsitive to explore
in front uf r-hc othcr students.
 142 l nterV !CWS

"fhc 1ntcrv1cw was 111troduce<l by a briefing about thc purposc and

contcxt uf the intcrvie\v beforc, and also at the start, of thc intcrvie\v
(SK 1). ft was rounded off by a debrieling-bcforc ending rhe inter·
view by asking if rhe student had anything more to say (SK 26), and
after the interview by asking her about her cxperience of thc intcrvicw
(SK 28).

Question Types. The application of sorne of rhe question rypes

011rlined in Table 7.1 frorn (A) rhrough (!) will now be pointed out.
The introductory qucstion, asking about a specific episode of grading
(SK 1/A), hit home, and the first two thirds of the interview were
mainly a following up (B) of the studcnt's answer (2) abatir the "red
star." The term was a "re<l light" signaling that l stop and probc; thc
vcry worJ, and probahly also her tone of the voice and facial expres-
sion, had in<licated thJt this was a symbol of sorne significant cxpcri-
cncr. The follow-up qncstion, rcpeating the term "red star" (SK .l/R),
lcd to an e1nntional response rich in inforn1ation (Studcnt 3 ).
(:ontinued probing> rcpc;Hing anothcr significanl cxprc,..;sion·---~
"mixcd cmotions"-·-and probing for further dcs<'·iption (SK 4/ll & CJ
opencd up él hasic conflict for the subjcct bctvvcen loy;i]ty to the
tcacher or ro her pcers. 1'his topic \vas pursucd in the following
.scquencc until thc concludin~ :~tudcnt (12) re1nark. "And what's n1ore
irnportant to n1e is 1ny friendsJiips." In so1ne of thc ansv..•crs 111 this
scqucnce I ovcrhcard potcntially significant cxpressions likc "dcint:¡·-
cation" and ".spacc" (Studcnt 5 & 8), and inst(·aJ of follov.,iing thc1n
np posc<l specifying (SK 6/D) and intcrpretrng (SK 9/1) questions.
1 thcn "wcnt hac-k" in the intervie\.\-' and rrpeatcd a tt·nn introduccd
hy tht> studcnt that \Vas <1f 1heoretica! intert'.St 10 n1e-····"rc\\';ltdrd';
and asked for its 111C;'tlling (SK 13/B & C). 'fhis lcd to a (\)llCITLt an:·;\\'cr
;.1huut ice crea1T1 ?.nd ·r\r as re\vards, whcrcas a direct follow-up qucs·
fion ;i.bont rccciving 111oncy for grades (SK 1 S/E.) grtve 110 confir 'iation.
l"f1en for thc first rin1e .-,incc the opcning qucstion l rurned to the
inrcrvic\V guide dnd poscd a dircct question about \Vhet:her the studcnt
had bcen ai.:cuscd of "\Vhccdling (SK 18/F). 'fhi.s was confirn1ed by tbc
studcnt (18 & 19) b11t in such a rcnsc \vay that 1 chosc not to fol!ovv
tlp and atte1npted a conruling rcn1ark (SK }.0). ·rhe subjcct did not

cxpand on thc situation, and thcre wrts a JlélllSC wh('rrupon J changcd

rhc topic by ,1s.king ;.1botlf ;1 rccent grading episodc. I sought to follov..·
 The /nterview Sit11atiot1 J 4.1

up on the answers (Student 20-22) with an intcrprctarion in the

direction of the loyalty conflict (SK 23/1), but this time was politely
put off by a "double entendre" rcmark by thc student (23 }: "! am glad
¡ don't have to deal with that anymore." A second to pie from the
interview guidc abotrt lcarning and grading (SK 24/E) was then
introduced, and this opened to a long studcnt (24) answcr about
grades as suppressing crcativity and risk taking, which again lcd into
the loyalty conflict describcd cxtensivcly earlicr in thc intcrvicw.
The majority of questions in this interview were probing (C)-often
by repeating significant words from thc studcnt's answcrs to a few
direct qucstions aborrt cpisodes and cffccts of grading. Therc wcrc a
few interpreting questions, such as the meaning~clarifying question,
"Do 1 understand you corrcctly when l'm saying that you experiencc
with the grading you had to play ir safe, ... " (SK 25/l}, which is
followcd by a confirrnation and furthcr claboration (Student 25).
Earlier in the intcrview, a direct intcrprctation of thc stta.lent's statc-
mcnt (8) as "Because of your good grades" (SK 9/l) was immediately
confirmed, "Ycah" (Studcnt 9).
Extensivc interpretatíons and follow-ups chccking rhc rcliability of
the answers and tcsti11g of hypothcses \Vcrc not undcrtakcn in this
interview. 'fhis was duc to the short tirne, to the social situation in
front of the class, and to the scnsitivity of thc snbjcct to sorne of thc
topics raised. 'fhis intervicw thcreforc l!oe~ not livc up to thc ideal
requirements posed carlier of bcing interprcte<l, validatcd, and con1-
municatcd by thc time the tape rccorJcr is shut off. In Chaptcr 8 I will
adJress sonic oÍ tiH· íactors cotHributtng ru thc quality oían inr~rvic\v.