HARDWARE

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What is a computer?
Mechanical calculating machines have existed for many centuries, albeit in crude form. The
Industrial Revolution introduced programmable machines that could carry out a sequence of tasks
by following a shaped gear, or pegs in a board or wheel. It was Charles Babbage who first thought
of putting the two together, to create a programmable calculating machine: the computer.
CPU
The heart of a modern electronic computer is the central processing unit (CPU or processor): a
calculator that can be controlled by numeric machine codes representing instructions (e.g. add,
subtract). The microprocessor is a CPU circuit contained within a silicon chip.
Main Memory
The CPU is fed a sequence of machine codes from main memory. This memory is formed from
ROM and RAM chips. Each machine code occupies a numbered location — an address — in the
memory. Codes are usually read in consecutive order.
I/O Circuitry
The CPU can also send data to-and-from external devices (e.g. keyboard, disk drive, video card)
through input / output circuitry.
This design of computer (CPU, memory and I/O) is known as von Neumann architecture.
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Inside a CPU
Early CPUs are split into three main sections: ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit) — this is a circuit that
performs calculations and logical comparisons.
Registers — numbers that are being processed are stored here. Each register is "word"-sized and
can be accessed at high-speed.
Instruction Decoder — this controls all other parts of the CPU, sending signals in preset patterns
to shift data between registers, the ALU and the main data and address buses.
A word is defined by the size of the CPU's registers. This measurement is also used to describe
the capability of the processor. Thus a "16-bit CPU" has 16bit-sized registers. The external data
bus is often the same width as the registers.
The external address bus will have a different width, depending on the amount of memory that it
may access.
Internal cache
Cache memory is a higher-speed memory device located between the CPU and main memory.
This allows data to be pre-fetched into cache memory and read faster than main memory would
allow. The cache closest to the processor is called level 1 (L1) cache and is often built within the
CPU circuit itself. Level 2 (L2) cache used to be located on the motherboard but is now integrated
onto the processor circuit board.
History
Things have come a long way since the Intel 4004, the first microprocessor.
EVOLUTION OF PROCESSORS
The Intel 8086 family of processors (known as x86) was so successful that a number of other chip
manufacturers made their own versions of these chips. Companies like Cyrix, AMD and IBM
produced 286, 386 and 486 processor clones. To counter this Intel trademarked the next
generation chip with the name Pentium: competitors chose different names (K5, 5x86).
Intel 386 & 486

The 386 processor introduced wider 32-bit internal registers and a wide range of new instructions
to take advantage of them. Programs written to use these new instructions were labeled as i386
compatible (also IA-32). The 386 also included memory management circuits. The 486 improved
on this.
Pentium
The original Pentium was essentially two 486 processors in one chip and contained 16KB of L1
cache (one 8KB cache for instructions or code, and another for data). It came in a 273-pin Pin Grid
Array (PGA) package (known as Socket 4) and operated at 60 MHz. It was powered at 5V and
generated enough heat to require a CPU cooling fan.
Pentium 296/ Socket 7

The second generation Pentium came in a 296-pin Staggered Pin Grid Array (SPGA) package
(Socket 7) in speeds from 75 to 166 MHz. The power supply voltage level dropped to 3.3V,
consuming less power and provide faster operating speeds. This design used an internal clock
multiplier: this meant that the insides of the chip ran much faster than the main data bus that was
attached to the processor. (This bus is called the Front-Side Bus or FSB).
The Pentium also introduced a 64-bit external data bus. The internal design remained 32-bit, but
the double-width interface allowed the CPU to move data in and out more quickly. The main
competitors to the Pentium were the AMD K5 and Cyrix 5x86, and they were designed to use
Socket 7. The AMD processor was designed in such a way that more processing was done in each
clock cycle: in other words an AMD chip running at 100 MHz might perform as well as an Intel
Pentium at 133 MHz. To solve this confusion, AMD chips were rated by the equivalent P-speed
(e.g. P133 = equivalent to Pentium 133).
Pentium MMX
The third generation Pentium also used the 296-pin SPGA arrangement (Super Socket 7) and was
produced in 166 – 233MHz speeds with 32KB cache. These devices had 57 extra instruction codes
for multimedia work and were known as Pentium MMX processors. The K6 and MII are,
respectively, the AMD and Cyrix equivalents of the MMX processor.
All different Pentium Overdrive: Socket 4, Socket 3, Socket 5, and Socket 5/7 (MMX).
Pentium Pro
The Pentium Pro was designed for multi-processor systems. It used a 387- pin PGA (Socket 8)
package; came with 16KB L1 cache and an onboard 256 or 512KB L2 cache
Pentium II / III class

The Pentium II used a new Single-Edge Contact (SEC) cartridge (also known as SECC). The 242-
contact design is called Slot 1 and requires a special Fan Heat Sink (FHS) module and fan. The
cartridge contains the Pentium II processor core (incorporating 32KB L1 cache) and 512KB L2
cache.
AMD's K6-2
The K6-2 was AMD's answer to the Pentium II and it added 21 further instructions to support
multimedia work. It still used Super Socket 7.
Pentium III & Celeron

The original Pentium III was a Pentium II core with 512KB L2 cache. Speed increased to 600MHz,
including a 100MHz front-side bus (FSB). Early models used Slot 1 but later version switched to
the FC-PGA Socket 418 package. The Celeron was designed as a cheap version of the Pentium II &
III.
Originally the main difference was a lack of cache memory but later Celerons added cache. The
chips originally came in Slot 1 designed but soon switched to Plastic PGA (PPGA) Intel Socket 370
packages.
AMD Athlon & Duron

The K7 Athlon originally ran at 500 MHz with 128KB L1 cache and a 512KB L2 cache. Early Athlons
used Slot A, (mechanically identical to Slot 1 but different electrical connections), however, they
soon switched to using Socket A
Pentium 4
The early Pentium 4 used 423-pin PGA (Socket 423) but later models employed the improved
Socket 478 package. The 64-bit external data bus of the Pentium design expanded to 128 bits and
the minimum FSB speed increased to 400MHz. The core voltage dropped to 1.7V, allowing even
faster execution — but the design requires a separate 12V power supply to the motherboard.
Athlon XP & Sempron

The Athlon XP range covers 1500 to 3000 (note that numbers are not MHz but Pentium speed
equivalents). The Duron and lower-end Athlon XPs were renamed Sempron.
Pentium 4 HT ("Prescott")
Hyper-threading is Intel's name for a design that duplicates many parts of the processor, allowing
two program threads to run simultaneously, but not as quickly as a full dual core.
Xeon & Athlon MP

The (P4-based) Xeon and Athlon MP processors are designed for multiprocessor systems.
Pentium M
The Pentium M is a variant of the Pentium 4 designed especially for laptops. It significantly
outperforms the P4 at the same clock speed. The Pentium M forms part of the Intel Centrino
chipset, along with wireless networking support chips.
Itanium & Itanium 2

The Itanium was a drastic departure from the x86 design. A new, more efficient 64-bit instruction
set was introduced (known as IA-64) but this was totally incompatible with i386 programs. Hence
the processor did not catch on, and is only used in high-end server systems. The Itanium is
mounted in a Pin Array Cartridge (PAC).
AMD Athlon 64 & Sempron/64

The Athlon 64 also featured a new 64-bit instruction set but it maintained full compatibility with
the older i386 codes. This design is called AMD64, x86-64 or more commonly x64. The Athlon 64
introduces a new processor socket: Socket 754, which looks similar to the newer Pentium 4
Socket 478 and Xeon Socket 603 and uses the same type of mPGA connectors. As with the
Pentium 4 processor, motherboards for the Athlon 64 also require the ATX12V connector to
provide adequate 12V power. The Sempron/64 is intended to cover the lower end of the Athlon
market and fits in socket 754.
Pentium 4 EM64T, Celeron D

Intel knew they were in trouble when the Athlon 64 appeared. Therefore they introduced
versions of the P4 and Celeron that support the x86-64 instruction set. However, they refer to
these instructions as EM64T codes. Note that Celeron D does not contain dual cores.
Athlon64 X2, Pentium D & Pentium M Dual Core
These feature dual cores: multiprocessor systems can be expensive but an alternative is to mount
two processor cores in the same package, sharing some circuitry.
Xeon EM64T & AMD Opteron

The Xeon EM64T supports the x86-64 instruction set. The Opteron is AMD's equivalent to the
Xeon EM64T and is aimed at the server market.
AMD Turion 64
The Turion 64 is designed to compete with the Pentium M in the laptop market. This uses the
new Socket S.
Intel Core Duo

The 32-bit processor market is not dead. In January 2006 Intel announced the Core Duo
processors that would be used in laptops (branded as part of the Centrino Duo chipset) and also
the new range of Apple iMacs.
Intel Core 2 Quad

Intel Core 2 Quad S-Series shaves power consumption to 65W The Core Duo replaces the Pentium
M and significantly outperforms it at the same clock frequency. Core Solo is a scaled-down version
with only one core.
Intel Core i7, i5, i3 (Nehalem)

The Intel Core i7 processor is new in cutting edge processor technology for the desktop PC.
Founded on the latest Intel Nehalem microarchitecture, the Intel Core i7 processor gives four
entire execution cores within a individual processor along with the reboard of Intel Hyper-
Threading Technology, giving unprecedented work and responsiveness in multi-threaded and
multi-tasking business and home apply environments and the power to at the same time process
up to 8 individual threads. The i7-950 uses the same Turbo Boost technology as the rest of the
LGA1366 range which means the CPU has the ability to dynamically increase its speed when it's
not drawing its maximum TDP. Intel claims the i7-950 has the ability to boost up to 3.33GHz. In
practice though, the CPU boosted its speed to 3.2GHz regardless of how many cores were loaded
Intel Core i7, i5, i3 (Sandy Bridge/2nd Generation)

After months of speculation and rumour, Intel’s Sandy Bridge processors are finally with us. In fact
we’ve been testing them since mid-december, but Intel’s strict non-disclosure agreements have
silenced us till this morning. Now, though, that Sandy Bridge codename can be thrown off to reveal
Intel’s true naming strategy of … 2nd Generation Core i7, i5 and i3. Now there are three different
processor sockets under the Core i7 brand: LGA1366, LGA1156 and the new LGA1155.
Advanced Micro Devices Processors

Advanced Micro Devices has finalized shipments schedules of its future microprocessors,
according to industrial sources.
AMD Processor Chip (in window) 1983
Phenom II X4 965
Back in April, Benchmark Reviews covered the release of AMD's flagship quad-core processor, the
Phenom II X4 955 BE. Nearly four months later, we have that opportunity once again. Today, we
look at the new king of the mountain over at the AMD, the Phenom II X4 965 Black Edition
processor model HDZ965FBGIBOX. Coming in at 3.4GHz, it not only bests the previous flagship
model by 200Mhz, but also happens to be the highest clocked CPU on the market. In today's
review, we find out just how well that extra clock speed translates to performance.
Phenom II X6 1100T
The Phenom II X6 1100T BE is just the 100 mhz faster than the Phenom II X6 1090T (3.2 ghz) but
one can call this as the fastest AMD desktop processors.
Four AMD's FX "Bulldozer"s

The initial family of AMD's FX-series microprocessors based on Bulldozer micro-architecture will
include four models with eight, six or four cores and 95W or 125W thermal design power (TDP).
The first breed of AMD FX8000, FX6000 and FX4000 currently known under Zambezi code-name
will completely support all the advantages that the Bulldozer micro-architecture is supposed to
bring, including new Flex FP floating point processing unit. The new chips in maximum eight-core
configurations are projected - by AMD's internal documents - to offer roughly 50% performance
improvement over Phenom II-series microprocessors in multimedia applications.
AMD Opteron 6174 vs Intel Xeon X5650

This March sees AMD and Intel return to the highly-profitable battleground that is the
workstation and server market with two new CPUs. In the green corner AMD has its new 12-core
Opteron 6000-series chip, based on the new Magny-Cours core. In the blue corner Intel has a
revised Nehalem EP, the 6-core Xeon 5600-series, based on the new Westmere core.
Although both AMD and Intel are releasing a whole slew of new Opteron’s and Xeons, for this
review we’ll be focusing our attention on the 2.2GHz Opteron 6174 and 2.66GHz Xeon X5650 as
these two models are closest in price. For a full description of the Opteron 6000-series and where
the 6174 falls, see page 2.
CPU TECHNOLOGIES
Processor cores
What is a core?
The core of the processor is the part that decodes and executes instructions. On early processors
this would describe the whole CPU but over the last 20 years processors have gained built-in
cache memory and cache controllers.
Operating speed and power requirements are affected by transistor size; the construction process
size of transistor circuits is quoted to give an idea of the advance in technology: Pentium III
processors used 180nm technology, whereas modern Intel Core 2 CPUs are 65nm.
Manufacturers usually use a codename to identify a particular design of processor core, and this
typically indicates the process size (e.g. 90nm) and operational efficiency.
Core names are like version numbers; stepping numbers indicate revisions or bug-fixes. It is
important to match core & stepping in multiprocessor systems.
INTEGRATED ELECTRONIC
TYPICAL L2
CORE NAME PROCESS PROCESSOR SOCKET
CACHE
Willamette 180nm Pentium 4 478 256 KB
Northwood 130nm Celeron 478 128 KB
Pentium 4 478 512 KB
Prescott 90nm Celeron D / P4 478 256 KB / 1MB
Celeron D / P4 (5xx) 775 256 KB / 1MB
Prescott 2M 90nm Pentium 4 (6xx) 775 2MB
Cedar Mill 65nm Pentium 4 (6xx) 775 2MB
Smithfield 90nm Pentium D (8xx) 775 2MB
Presler 65nm Pentium D (9xx) 775 4MB
Yonah 65nm Core Duo / Solo 775 4MB
Conroe 65nm Core 2 Duo 775 4MB
ADVANCED MICRO DEVICE

TYPICAL L2
CORE NAME PROCESS PROCESSOR SOCKET
CACHE
Thoroughbred 130nm Athlon XP A 256 KB
Barton 130nm Athlon XP A 512 KB
Palermo 90nm Sempron 754 128 KB
Clawhammer 130nm Athlon 64 754 1MB
Newcastle 130nm Athlon 64 754 512 KB
Athlon 64 939 512 KB
Sledgehammer 130nm Pentium D (8xx) 939 1MB
Winchester 90nm Pentium D (9xx) 939 512 KB
Venice 90nm Core Duo / Solo 939 512 KB
Manchester 90nm Core 2 Duo 939 1MB
Toledo 90nm 939 2MB
The diagram below shows the architecture of a Conroe core:
Microcode
x86 processors are CISC (complex instruction
set computer) designs, which means that
some instructions are built from a
combination of others. These combinations
are stored as microcode inside the processor.
There has been a shift away from CISC
technology to wards RISC (reduced instruction
set) commands in newer CPUs. RISC
instructions can be more easily pipelined,
allowing one instruction to be executed while
another is being decoded.
Hyper-threading
Threads are independent parts of a computer
program. Multi-tasking operating systems (e.g.
Windows or Linux) work by allocating each
thread a certain amount of "CPU time" in which
to execute some instructions. This means that
they can run dozens of programs "at the same
time". Multi-processor systems allow the OS to
literally run two or more program threads
simultaneously on different CPUs. This means
that there is less competition for CPU time and
therefore the computer should operate more
quickly. However, multiprocessor systems are
expensive.
Hyper-Threading Technology
(HTT) was introduced by Intel to give a cost-
effective compromise. By duplicating some of
the parts of the main core it pretends to be two
processors. This gives a small speed increase
(up to 30%).
Dual Core & multi-core

Dual core designs have two cores on a single chip, sometimes sharing L2 cache memory and
always sharing bus interfaces. A dual-core chip is not as good as having two processors; however
it gives typically 25%–75% faster performance than a single core processor.
The Athlon 64 X2 and Pentium D were the first dual-core processors released for the PC, followed
by the Intel Core Duo, Core 2 Duo and AMD Athlon FX60. Intel has released a four-core Core 2
Quadro processor.
Instruction set
The x86 family of processors has a common set of instructions that the processor recognizes. This
instruction set has been extended on several occasions. The first major revision was with the 386
processor, which introduced special 32-bit instruction codes.
MMX
Early processors could perform integer arithmetic only (i.e. calculations involving whole numbers).
Manufacturers soon added Floating-Point Units (FPU) to process numbers with decimal points.
These were quickly integrated within the main processor core.
The Pentium MMX (Matrix Math Extensions but more commonly misnamed Multi-Media
eXtensions) introduced extra instructions to make floating-point maths easier, especially when
manipulating several numbers at once. This concept is called SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple
Data) and means that graphics and sound software can run more quickly.
SSE / SSE2 / SSE3

AMD fought back with an expanded MMX instruction set called 3DNow!
Intel created their own version of 3DNow called SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions), adding 70 new
maths instructions. This was taken further with the Pentium 4's SSE2 and SSE3 extensions.
A multimedia program that supports SSE3 can run from 10% to 100% faster on an SSE3-
compatible processor.
Protected execution
The binary codes used for instructions are indistinguishable from those used for storing data. If a
computer programmer issues an incorrect instruction it is possible to accidentally start executing
data codes as if they were proper instructions. This is surprisingly common and leads to
unexpected results and crashed software.
This flaw is used by hackers to create buffer overflow attacks. These take advantage of
programming errors by disguising instruction codes as data. Thus, when the data is accidentally
executed, the CPU carries out the instructions set by the hacker. Most "critical" software patches
are aimed at fixing this kind of vulnerability.
The Athlon 64 introduced NX (No eXecute) technology, which allows the processor to mark
memory addresses as containing non-executable code. Thus the processor can tell if it has strayed
into data and will refuse to execute it. This gives better protection against buffer overflow attacks.
Intel recently introduced, XDB (eXecute Disable Bit), which does the same thing.
Clock speed
The processing of instructions in a CPU is governed by a single repeating signal — the clock — that
synchronizes the movement of data within the CPU.
It used to be easy to measure the performance of a processor by looking at its clock frequency
(also called clock speed or clock rate). However that is no longer the case...
There is a maximum limit to the clock frequency: this is determined by the signaling voltage and
the transistor design. If a clock goes too fast then internal buses will change state too quickly and
numeric codes will not be read properly.
VRM
Lower signaling voltages mean faster clock rates, because the signal can slew to the desired levels
more quickly. To ensure that the core has the appropriate level of voltage a Voltage Regulator
Module (VRM) is required.
ATX motherboards have VRM built in. Older, AT-based systems do not get a 3V power line and
therefore need more hefty VRMs; these sometimes plug in on a separate card beside the
processor.
Real speed vs. actual speed

However, AMD started producing CPUs that did more work in every clock cycle. Thus a 1.8 GHz
Athlon would carry out the same number of instructions per second as a 2.4 GHz Pentium III.
Therefore AMD started identifying their chips by the equivalent speed: the 1.8GHz Athlon was
sold as the "Athlon 2400+".
Recently Intel has developed a similar problem. The 2.2 GHz Pentium 4M for laptops is
outperformed by the 1.6 GHz Pentium M processor. Intel has now abandoned the use of clock
speeds to designate processor "quality" and has adopted a proprietary numbering system.
Throttling
CPUs typically operate at a constant speed and this can mean excessive power use when they are
idle. This can be a major factor in laptops.
Processor throttling is the act of lowering the processor workload or slowing it down to reduce
power consumption. This can be done automatically by some type of CPU or by special software.
The Pentium M has TM1 and TM2 thermal monitoring which respectively add no-operation (NOP)
instructions (to slow execution) and lower the internal clock multiplier.
OVERCLOCKING
Overclocking is the process of increasing the processor clock frequency to the maximum possible
level. This can have a number of side effects:
 Increased temperature, requiring better cooling systems
 Occasional crashes due to illegal instruction codes
Many processors can be overclocked and there are numerous websites dedicated to statistics
regarding relative performance and stability.
SYSTEM RESOURCES
INPUT & OUTPUT
I/O Addresses
Computer electronics can be interfaced to a range of devices. Data will flow through the
electronic circuitry to and from these devices as 1s and 0s.
Each input & output circuit is identified number — an I/O address. Typical PCs have tens of
thousands of I/O address but not all are used. A single device may use a number of I/O addresses
depending on its complexity.
Parallel & serial

A single data transfer between a computer and another device is usually called a word. Depending
on the design, a word may be 8 bits, 16 bits or 32 bits in size. There are two ways to transfer a
word of data: parallel or serial.
Note: the PC was originally built around a 16-bit processor, so programmers often talk about a
"word" as 16 bits. Hardware designers, however, use "word" to mean the number of bits in a
single data transfer. In parallel data transfer, the connection has a wire for each data bit and
ground wire(s) to provide a reference voltage. Thus the entire word is transferred in one instant.
This is fast but electrical effect limit the effectiveness of parallel connections over long distances.
Serial data transfer uses a single data wire (and single ground wire). The data is sent one-bit-at-a-time at
regular intervals (clock pulses). Serial transfer is slower but more effective over longer distances,
and requires fewer wires.
There are two types of serial transfer: synchronous (where data words are sent continuously and
the clock pulse accompanies the data signal) and asynchronous (where data words are sent at
irregular intervals).
Most data transfers inside a computer are carried out in parallel for speed; many peripherals use
serial transfer.
CONTROLLING I/O DEVICES

Programmed I/O
Most devices use programmed I/O: this allows the processor to use specific I/O address(es) to
read & write data and other I/O address(es) to send control signals to the device.
Polling
The processor may check the status of an I/O device by polling it. This is a regular check asking the
device if it needs to send data to the processor. However, because devices rarely need to send
data, polling is very inefficient.
Interrupts
Because polling is inefficient, most processors allow devices to interrupt the processor using a
special interrupt (INT) signal wire. When a device triggers an interrupt the processor temporarily
stops what it is doing, runs a service routine program and signals an interrupt acknowledge
(INTA). When suspending a task, details are temporarily stored in the system stack storage area.
These details are retrieved when the servicing has been completed and the processor carries on
as before.
Note: these interrupt signals may be masked (switched off) by a program as required.
However, there is a special non-maskable interrupt (NMI) wire used for 'emergencies'
such as memory errors.
PCs use a Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) chip to create a number of IRQ (interrupt
request) wires: thus a device with a higher priority interrupt can interrupt the service routine of a
lower priority one.
A single PIC would provide 8 wires (IRQ0 to IRQ7) but most PCs use a cascaded system with a
second PIC giving IRQ0 to IRQ15. IRQ0 is the highest priority.
I/O addresses
Devices may use any I/O addresses but design conventions have led to particular addresses being
set aside for particular devices.
I/O addresses are always given in hexadecimal, a shorthand form of binary. To identify them from
normal decimal numbers, 'hex' numbers often start with 0x or $ or end with H.
INTERRUPT DESCRIPTION HEX ADDRESS DESCRIPTION

00H Select head number 00H Select head number
NMI I/O Channel Check or Parity 000-01F DMA Controller
Check error 020-03F Interrupt Controller
NTC1 040-05F Timer/Counter
INTERRUPT DESCRIPTION 060-06F Keyboard Controller
IRQ0 System timer (internal) 070-07F RTC, NMI Mask
IRQ1 Keyboard Buffer Full 080-09F DMA Page Register
(internal) 0A0-0BF Interrupt Controller
IRQ2 Cascade from INTC2
0F0 Clear Math Co-pro Busy
(internal)
0F1 Reset Math Coprocessor
IRQ3 Serial Port 2
0F8-0FF Maths Coprocessor
IRQ4 Serial Port 1
170-177 Second IDE Interface
IRQ5 Parallel Port 2
1F0-1F8 First IDE Interface
IRQ6 FDD Controller
200-207 Game Port
IRQ7 Parallel Port 1
278-27F Parallel Printer Port 2
INTC2
2E8-2EF Serial Port 4
INTERRUPT DESCRIPTION
2F8-2FF Serial Port 2
IRQ8 Real-Time Clock (internal)
370-375 Second FDD Controller
IRQ9 Cascade to INTC1 (internal)
378-37F Parallel Printer Port 1
IRQ10 Spare
3B0-3BF VGA / First Printer Port
IRQ11 Spare
3C0-3CF VGA Video
IRQ12 Spare
3D0-3DF CGA, VGA Video
IRQ13 Co-processor (internal)
3E8-3EF Serial Port 3
IRQ14 Primary IDE controller
3F0-3F7 FDD Controller
IRQ15 Secondary IDE controller
3F8-3FF Serial Port 1
I/O PRINCIPLES FF80-FF9F USB Controller
System bus
At the heart of the computer is the microprocessor system:
 CPU (central processing unit), also called a processor
 Memory circuits — ROM and RAM — containing programs and data
 I/O circuits controlling electronic devices, such as keyboard and screen
These are connected by three sets of wires: the address bus, data bus and control bus, known
collectively as the system bus.
The CPU uses the address bus to broadcast the location it wishes to read from (or write to). It
then uses the control bus to trigger a read or write operation, and select either memory or I/O.
Finally, data is sent to / from the CPU along the data bus.
Expansion bus & local bus
The original PC ISA system extends the system bus to allow extra I/O circuits to be plugged into
the system bus by adding card connectors to form an expansion bus.
The local bus is the section of the system bus that connects CPU and memory. Some expansion
cards (e.g. graphics cards) tap directly into this local bus because it faster than the normal
expansion bus.
Controlling I/O devices

Control & data registers
Every device connected to a computer needs a device controller.
Device controllers are usually operated by use of a control register (which selects the mode of
operation) and a data register (which carries data to / from the device). This technique is known
as programmable I/O.
CONTROL DATA REGISTER DATA REGISTER

REGISTER
00H (OUT ) HEAD NO. Select head number
01H (out) cylinder no. Select cylinder (track) number
02H (out) sector no. Select sector number
03H (out) data to write Write data at current location
04H (in) data from disk Read data from current location
05H - FFH ___ ____ Not used
I/O Addresses
Device controllers are wired to the system bus and identified by unique addresses, just like
memory locations. This address is called the I/O address.
Windows System Information will identify the I/O addresses used by devices on a PC.
Port I/O versus memory-mapped I/O
When a separate set of addresses is used for I/O devices this is called port-mapped I/O. This
technique is used by most Intel microprocessors.
Other manufacturers prefer to wire I/O devices directly into memory addresses. This removes the
need for special I/O instructions but decreases the amount of ROM and RAM that may be
addressed. This technique is called memory-mapped I/O and is preferred by processor
manufacturers like Motorola.
Responding to I/O devices

I/O devices can be programmed by the CPU using control and data registers but they often need
to report information back to the CPU — how does the CPU know that a device is ready to report
back?
Polling
Polling is the simplest method of solving this problem: the CPU checks the control register at
regular intervals, looking for a specific code. However, most of the time the device will have
nothing to report — so this is an inefficient and poor technique.
Interrupt
The better solution is to install an interrupt wire feeding back to the CPU. When a device is ready
to report back it sends a signal along this wire (part of the control bus). The CPU pauses its current
task and deals with the device; it then resumes what it was doing. The program code that deals
with the device is called an interrupt service routine and it will be supplied as part of the device
driver.
IRQs
There are many devices but only one interrupt wire. PCs use an interrupt controller chip to create
multiple interrupt wires, each fed to a different device. When a device signals an interrupt the
chip triggers the main interrupt wire and tells the CPU which device has called, allowing the
appropriate service routine to be carried out.
On the PC these wires are given IRQ (interrupt request) numbers, e.g. IRQ2, IRQ7, etc. The IRQ
wires are part of the control bus and form part of the expansion bus.
NMI
Some processors have a special interrupt wire reserved for emergencies, which as memory errors.
This is called the non-maskable interrupt (NMI) and it has the highest priority.
DMA
With traditional programmed I/O the CPU reads data in from an I/O devices and stores it
memory; it also copies data from memory out to I/O circuits. This technique is slow and places a
heavy load on the processor, so a better method was developed to move blocks of data between
memory and I/O circuits.
Direct Memory Access
When large blocks of data need to be transferred between a device and main memory, the CPU
sends a signal to a special chip called the DMA controller.
This chip disconnects the CPU, hijacking the system bus, and juggles bus signals to feed data
directly from I/O to memory (or from memory to I/O). When finished, control is handed back
again to the CPU.
DMA transfers are common for disk drives, sound cards and graphics cards. Indeed, hard drive
DMA is continually improving in efficiency: newer device controllers offer faster Ultra DMA
(UDMA) modes for the latest IDE / SATA and SCSI hard drives.
INPUT DEVICES
Keyboard / Mouse
Type’s keyboards
PC keyboards come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
Multimedia keyboards have extra keys that automatically start programs such as the web
browser or email program, or interact with Windows (via a supplied driver) to adjust sound
volume.
Ergonomic keyboards are designed to reduce strain on hands and wrists while typing. Their keys
are positioned more conveniently for typists.
Most keyboards use springy rubber to support the keys, making them fairly quiet and comfortable
to use. The rubber pressed down on a keyboard matrix, a set of printed circuits on plastic film,
joining pairs of wires together. These wires are arranged in logical rows and columns and are
scanned by a microcontroller chip. The microcontroller sends the appropriate key scan codes
back to the PC to indicate when a key is pressed or released.
Some more expensive models have a firmer action based on a sprung mechanical switch: they are
more robust but can be very noisy.
Keyboards connect to the PC using either a PS/2-style 6-pin mini-DIN connector or a USB
connector. Older AT-style keyboards use a 5-pin DIN connector. Adaptors are available to convert
between connector types.
Wireless keyboards use a short-range infrared or radio link instead of a cable but will still have an
adaptor that plugs into the PC. This link is typically only strong enough to span 2 or 3 meters
distance; Bluetooth enabled keyboards can stray much further.
Special keys
The function keys (F1 , F2 , etc.)are designed to be general-purpose and have different meanings
in different programs. However, by general convention:
 F1 is "help"
 F2 enters "edit mode" for the current item (e.g. rename file in Explorer)
 F3 starts a search
 F5 refreshes or reloads
The Alt (alternate) key is mostly used for keyboard shortcuts but holding down Alt while typing a
four-digit number code will type a special character in most programs. For example, Alt + 0 1 6 9
gives a copyright (©) symbol. Full lists of Alt-key codes are available on the World-Wide Web.
Alt Gr (alternate graphic) is mostly identical to Alt but can be used to access extra characters
shown on keycaps. For example, most English keyboards now include a Euro symbol on the 4 key:
Alt Gr + 4 will produce a € symbol.
The SysRq (system request) key was originally intended to invoke special operating system
functions. However, it is mostly used as a Print Screen key: on DOS it will send the current screen
immediately to LPT1; in Windows it makes a snapshot copy of the current screen ready to be
pasted into programs.
Scroll Lock is very rarely used. Within a spreadsheet it will lock thecursor movement, making the
spreadsheet scroll around while the cursor remains fixed.
The BIOS boot program is one of the few to respect the Pause key. This key is more often used in
combination with the Ctrl key (i.e. Ctrl + Break) to force interpreted computer programs (e.g. DOS
batch files) to stop execution.
Mouse
Wheel mouse
Wheel mice have a ball that rotates, rolling a pair of spoked wheels. Distance moved left / right
and forward / backward are determined by how much the wheels rotate. Dirt picked up by the
wheel can easily clog the rollers, so wheel mice need to be cleaned regularly.
A trackball operates in the same way but exposes the ball on the top of the device. Trackballs are
easier to learn to use than mice but slower to operate.
Optical mouse
Early optical mice used the reflections of a light beam to measure distance travelled. They do not
work on some kinds of surface. Modern optical mice use a small sensor to take images of the
surface and compare movement between successive images. To aid this, they illuminate the
surface with LED or laser light.
Some tablets have built-in LCD display screens. Tablet PCs are laptops with a flip-over, touch-
sensitive screen. They are less accurate than a graphics tablet.
Scanners & cameras

Scanner
A flatbed scanner reflects light from the surface of a page or photograph and samples the color of
points — pixels — on the image.
More expensive scanners have facilities to automatically feed stacks of paper or to scan backlit
transparencies / photographic slides.
Cameras
Digital cameras can be connected to the PC by USB adaptor cable.
MOTHERBOARDS
CHIPSET
North & South Bridge
The PCI bus (see next section) requires a pairs of chips to manage communication between parts
of a PC. These chips are known as the North Bridge (or memory controller) and South Bridge (or
I/O controller).
The bridges are collectively known as the motherboard chipset (a term that sometimes includes
the CPU) and this chipset forms the heart of a modern motherboard. Some chipsets include extra
facilities, such as onboard graphics or wireless networking (e.g. Intel's Centrino chipset).
Older desktop Pentium designs feature a three-chip chipset: the third IC interfaces the ISA bus to
the PCI bus.
EARLY BUS ARCHITECTURE
ISA
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) was the original PC bus. Initially it carried an 8-bit data bus
signal (synchronized to a 4MHz clock). When the AT was introduced this was widened to 16 bits at
8MHz.
Attempts to improve or replace ISA
When IBM released its PS/2 in 1987 it tried to introduce a major redesign: the Micro Channel
Architecture (MCA) bus. This 16 / 32 bit design was completely incompatible with ISA and failed
to catch on.
Extended ISA (EISA) used taller slots to extend the system to a 32-bit data bus (still at 8MHz) but
it was not widely supported.
Graphics cards used the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) local bus extension. This
extended the ISA slot to create a 32-bit, higher-speed bus.
PCI bus
How the PCI bus operates
The Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) local bus design creates a main data highway
between the processor and other devices
478 SOCKET MOTHERBOARD
775 SOCKET MOTHERBOARD
INTEL CORE i7/i5/i3
SOCKET AM3/2 (AMD PROCESSOR)
PCI expansion cards are configured by the motherboard's PnP (plug 'n' play) system, allocating
resources (IRQ, I/O address) automatically. The PCI bus operates its own DMA controller, allowing
large quantities of data to be transferred quickly between devices without the CPU's involvement.
Originally the PCI expansion slots were at the heart of the PCI bus but this shifted to the south
bridge as manufacturers introduced dedicated north-south bridge local buses (as illustrated on
the Intel i810E chipset above).
The important thing about the PCI bus is that it is independent of the CPU's system bus; it can
expand to accommodate new processor designs and new peripherals. The bus transfers 132 MBps
using a 32-bit bus and 264 MBps using a 64-bit bus by subdividing the main bus clock (33MHz).
There are a number of different version numbers of PCI, which refer to speed improvements.
When selecting PCI cards it is important to ensure that the versions match for maximum
compatibility and speed.
The connection between North Bridge and CPU is along a front-side bus (FSB). Alternative
designs, such as Hyper Transport, offer very fast connection between the North Bridge and CPU.
AMR & CNR

Audio Modem Risers (AMR) and Mobile Daughter Card (MDC) were sometimes used to connect sounds
cards and modems. These have been replaced by a new design called the Communication and
Networking Riser (CNR) card. This includes support for V.90 modems, multi-channel audio, telephone-
based dial-up networking, USB devices, and 10/100 Ethernet-based LAN adapters.
PCI Express
PCI Express (PCIe) is a major redesign that uses high-speed serial signaling arranged in lanes. This
allows different sized cards to be used that may or may not require high-speed transfers.
All PCI Express slots must support x1 (single-lane) connections — so you can plug a x1 card into a
x16 slot if necessary. Smaller cards can be placed in larger slots (but larger cards cannot physically
fit into smaller slots). All interrupts and control signals are encoded into the serial data stream.
The photo below shows (top to bottom) a x4, x16, x1, x16 and a normal PCI slot.
VIDEO CARD
A video card is rectangular in shape with numerous contacts on the bottom of the card and one or
more ports on the side for connection to video displays and other devices.
The video card installs in an expansion slot on the motherboard. While most video cards are of
the PCIe format, video cards come in other formats as well, including PCI and AGP. These
additional formats are older standards and don't communicate with the CPU and other
components as quickly as PCIe.
Popular Video Card Manufacturers NVIDIA Corporation, ATI Technologies, Matrox
AGP
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) modified the PCI bus design to handle the high data traffic
associated with three-dimensional graphics. AGP provides a 32-bit video channel that runs at
66MHz in basic 1X video mode. AGP also supports three high-speed modes that include 2X (5.33
MBps), 4X (1.07 GBps), and 8X (2.1 GBps).
AGP provides a direct channel between the AGP graphic controller and the system's main
memory, instead of using the expansion buses for video data. This removes the video data traffic
from the PCI buses. The speed provided by this direct link permits video data to be stored in
system RAM instead of in special video memory. 8X employs a lower supply voltage (0.8) than the
2X and 4X specifications. When upgrading an AGP card or system board containing an AGP slot,
you should always consult the system board and AGP adapter card's documentation to verify their
compatibility with each other.
PCI / PCIe
PCI-Express is the newest kind of expansion slot used in PCs. It is technologically superior to the
older slots in every way. PCI-Express can be referred to using various names: PCI-Express, PCIe, or
PCI-E. They all mean exactly the same thing. There's another completely different and
incompatible bus called PCI-X so be sure not to get them confused. Despite the similarity in
names, there's no hardware compatibility of any kind between PCI and PCI-Express. You can't plug
PCI cards into PCI-Express slots or vice versa.
PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express), officially abbreviated as PCIe, is a

computer expansion card standard designed to replace the older PCI, PCI-X, and AGP bus
standards. PCIe has numerous improvements over the aforementioned bus standards, including
higher maximum system bus throughput, lower I/O pin count and smaller physical footprint,
better performance-scaling for bus devices, a more detailed error detection and reporting
mechanism, and native hot plug functionality. More recent revisions of the PCIe standard support
hardware I/O virtualization. Format specifications are maintained and developed by the PCI-SIG
(PCI Special Interest Group), a group of more than 900 companies that also maintain the
Conventional PCI specifications. PCIe 3.0 is the latest standard for expansion cards that is available
on mainstream personal computers
Some motherboards come with two PCI-Express x16 slots so you can run two full speed video
cards at once. This is normally used only by serious gamers who want the highest possible
performance in 3D games. NVIDIA has a dual-card implementation called SLI and ATI has a version
called CrossFire. In these modes, both video cards work together on the same game to increase
performance. Many motherboards with two PCI-Express x16 slots have special rules about using
the second x16 slot.
NVIDIA SLI (Scalable Link Interface) technology links two graphics cards together to provide
scalability and increased performance. NVIDIA SLI takes advantage of the increased bandwidth of
the PCI Express bus architecture, and features hardware and software innovations within NVIDIA
GPUs (graphics processing units) and NVIDIA MCPs (media and communications processors).
Depending on the application, NVIDIA SLI can deliver as much as two times the performance of a
single GPU configuration.
AMD CrossFireX (also known as CrossFire) is a brand name for the multi-GPU solution by Advanced Micro
Devices, originally developed by ATI Technologies. The technology allows up to four GPUs to be
used in a single computer to improve graphics performance
FORM FACTORS & POWER SUPPLY UNITS

FORM FACTORS
The form factor typically defines the dimensions, screw holes and component and connector
positions (including expansion bus slots) of computer parts. The term is usually used when talking
about motherboards and cases.
AT
The original PC-AT motherboard was quite large; it was the half-sized Baby AT design became the
predominant AT motherboard. These are easily identified by the 5-pin DIN keyboard socket and
two-part power supply connector (see notes on PSUs).
The AT design was followed for 15 years but it had a number of major flaws:
 The CPU was too far away from the main power connector
 RAM was often obscured by disk drives
 There was no standard for onboard connector placement
 Most cases had a live mains lead running through the case to the on/off switch.
ATX
In 1995 Intel introduced the ATX form factor. This had a soft power switch, used the PS/2
keyboard & mouse connector, and relocated components for better air flow and easier access. A
full ATX board is 12" × 9.6" (305mm × 244mm).
ATX boards usually have mouse, keyboard, USB, serial, parallel, video and audio connectors
mounted in a standard position at the rear of the case.
The new ATX power supply used a keyed 20-pin connector. Pentium 4 and Athlon 64 systems
usually require an extra 4-pin 12V cable and 8-pin tertiary connector.
Original PC main power cables

The original PC debuted in 1981 and used two cables to connect the PSU (power supply) to the
motherboard. The two cables plug side by side into the motherboard connectors. Sometimes they
are keyed so they only plug in one way and sometimes they aren't. Even if they're keyed you can
insert them the wrong way if you put a little effort into it. You always have to remember to plug
them in so the black wires are next to each other. It's either "black to black" or smoke and a
shower of sparks.
4 pin peripheral power cable

The four pin peripheral power cable dates back to the original PC. It was used for floppy drives
and hard disks. It's still around and is now also used for all kinds of things including add-on fans,
extra video card power, supplemental motherboard power, and case lighting. It's as old as the
hills but is still very widely used. The connector is shaped so that it only fits in one way. You don't
have to worry about inserting it the wrong way. People often use the term "4 pin Molex power
cable" or "4 pin Molex" to refer to a four pin peripheral power cable. It's not a technically useful
term because the 4 pin 12 volt cable is also a 4 pin Molex cable (Molex makes lots of connectors)
but "4 pin Molex" is commonly used to refer to peripheral cables anyway.
Floppy drive power cable

The four pin floppy drive cable showed up when PCs started including 3.5 inch floppy drives. This
kind of cable is also sometimes used as an auxiliary power cable for AGP video cards which use
more power than can be drawn from the motherboard slot. The connector is shaped so that it
only fits in one way so you don't have to worry about inserting it the wrong way. Floppy cables
are built with small connectors and 20 awg wire so they are limited to relatively low current uses.
6 pin auxiliary power cable

The aux power cable was added to provide extra wattage to motherboards for 3.3 and 5 volts.
This connector is rarely used anymore. It's most commonly found on older dual CPU AMD
motherboards. You're more likely to sight Bigfoot than a motherboard which uses this connector.
It plugs into the 6 pin version of the motherboard connector used by the original PC main power
cables.
SATA power cable

SATA was introduced to upgrade the ATA interface (also called IDE) to a more advanced design.
SATA includes both a data cable and a power cable. The power cable replaces the old 4 pin
peripheral cable and adds support for 3.3 volts (if fully implemented). The connector is shaped so
it can only be plugged in the correct way. You have to be careful about SATA power cables. Some
of them are missing the 3.3 volt wire. People with older power supplies often use adapters which
convert from 4 pin peripheral cables to SATA power cables. But since 4 pin peripheral connectors
only supply 5 and 12 volts, the SATA connector is missing 3.3 volts (there's no orange wire). There
are also a few older power supplies which inexplicably have SATA power cables which are missing
the 3.3 volt wire. Currently, SATA drives rarely use 3.3 volts.
ATX 20 pin main power cable

In 1996 PC makers started switching to the ATX standard which defined a new 20 pin
motherboard power connector. It includes a 3.3 volt rail which is used to power newer chips
which require a lower voltage than 5 volts. It also has a standby 5 volt rail which is always on even
when the power supply is turned off to provide standby power to the motherboard when the
machine is sleeping. The new connector also allows the motherboard to turn the power supply on
and off rather than depend on the user to flip a power switch. This connector is polarized so it can
only be plugged in pointing in the correct direction.
ATX 24 pin main power cable
The 24 pin main power connector was added in ATX12V 2.0 to provide extra power needed by PCI
Express slots. The older 20 pin main power cable only has one 12 volt line. The new 24 pin
connector added one line apiece for ground, 3.3, 5, and 12 volts. The extra pins made the auxiliary
power cable unnecessary so most ATX12V 2.x power supplies don't have them. The 24 pin
connector is polarized so it can only be plugged in pointing in the correct direction.
4 pin ATX +12 volt power cable

Older computers put most of their load on 3.3 and 5 volts. As time passed, computers drew more
and more of their load from 12 volts (see here). Before this power cable was introduced there was
just one 12 volt line provided to the motherboard. This cable added two more 12 volt lines so
more of the load could be shifted to 12 volts. The power coming from this connector is usually
used to power the CPU but some motherboards use it for other things as well. The presence of
this connector on a motherboard means it's an ATX12V motherboard. For dual 12 volt rail power
supplies, this connector provides the voltage referred to as 12V2. The power cable which plugs
into the 4 pin connector has two black wires and two yellow wires. This cable is sometimes called
an "ATX12V" cable or "P4" cable although neither of those are technically accurate descriptions.
You can plug a 4 pin 12 volt power cable into an 8 pin EPS motherboard connector but there's no
guarantee that it will work. If the motherboard expects only one 12 volt rail then a 4 pin 12 volt
cable may work. If the motherboard expects two 12 volt rails (many dual CPU motherboards
require one 12 volt rail per CPU) then it won't work. Even if the motherboard works with a 4 pin
12 volt cable, you are still only providing half of the current carrying capacity which would be
provided by an 8 pin EPS cable. That can overheat both the motherboard connector and 4 pin
cable. Scorched or melted connectors can be a result. A motherboard which has the 8 pin EPS
connector expects a lot of current and you are taking a serious risk by plugging in a 4 pin cable.
The 4 pin cable only fits at one end of the 8 pin EPS motherboard connector so you can't plug it in
improperly. That is, it only fits into one end of the motherboard connector unless you force it. If
the cable doesn't go into the socket easily then you're probably trying to plug it into the wrong
end. But then again, it's not a good idea to try to run with a 4 pin cable in an 8 pin motherboard
anyway.
8 pin EPS +12 volt power cable

This cable was originally created for workstations to provide 12 volts to power multiple CPUs. But
as time has passed many CPUs require more 12 volt power and the 8 pin 12 volt cable is often
used instead of a 4 pin 12 volt cable. Depending on the power supply, the connector may contain
one 12 volt rail in all 8 pins or two 12 volt rails taking up 4 pins apiece. It is often refered to as an
"EPS12V" cable.
The 8 pin 12 volt cable is polarized so it can only be plugged into the 8 pin motherboard
connector correctly. If you look carefully at the picture above you can see that four of the pins are
square and the other four have rounded corners. The motherboard connectors also have the
same square and rounded arrangement so the power cable only fits in one way. At least that's
true unless you try really hard to force it into the connector. With enough force you can
sometimes get a cable with a small number of pins into a connector which doesn't match. The 8
pin cable has enough pins that it's pretty hard to insert it in the wrong direction but determined
people might be able to do it. If you look carefully you can also see that the square and rounded
pattern matches various positions on other motherboard connectors like the 20 pin main power
connector and 24 pin main power connector. You should only plug the 8 pin 12 volt cable into the
motherboard connector where it belongs unless you enjoy the smell of fried electronics.
Motherboards featuring PCI

Express require an extended 24-
pin PSU connector in addition to
the 12V cable.
ATX & ITX
Micro ATX
A Micro ATX board measures 9.6" × 9.6" (244mm × 244mm) and has fewer expansion card slots.
(A variation of this design is called Flex ATX.)
NLX
The NLX form factor is a low-profile design that has been largely superseded by Micro ATX
Mini-ITX
Mini-ITX was developed for use in embedded systems and industrial control. The motherboard
measures 170mm × 170mm (6.8" × 6.8"). They are also designed for low power consumption.
WTX
The WTX form factor was introduced in 1998 for servers using Xeon and AthlonMP / Opteron
processors. It is bigger than ATX and uses a 24-pin PSU connector.
BTX
BTX was intended to replace the ATX form factor. It offers better airflow but has been largely
shunned by manufacturers. (Intel D915GMH BTX Mainboard and Layout)
CASING
POWER SUPPLY UNITS (PSUs)
The PSU converts mains AC electricity to the DC voltages required by chips, motors and circuits in
the PC.
PSUs contain potentially lethal mains voltages. Unless specially trained, you must not dismantle
a PSU while it is powered.
In addition, with power removed some internal components store enough electrical charge to
give a very painful shock.
The switch-mode PSUs used in PCs work by switching larger voltages on and off rapidly to give a
lower average voltage. These circuits rely upon feedback loops and are therefore difficult to fault-
find without expert knowledge.
Replacing a PSU
It is usually far cheaper to replace a faulty PSU than repair it. Therefore they are treated as non-
serviceable items. When replacing a PSU it is vital to ensure that the replacement unit is rated at
an equal or greater wattage.
Voltages
There are five main DC voltages produced by PSUs: +3.3V, +5V, –5V, +12V and –12V. The PSU also
provide the main system ground that current return along. 3.3V is used by the processor, 5V by
system board ICs, expansion cards and disk drives. The 12V levels typically power expansion cards
and disk drive motors.
Some PSUs allow mains power to be passed through to the display screen.
AT
The older supply used by AT systems has two 6-pin connectors (labeled P8 & P9) that connect to
the system board. It is possible to connect P8 & P9 round the wrong way — if this happens then
the system board will fry!
ATX
ATX style PSUs use a single 20-pin adaptor, but may also sport auxiliary connectors for system boards
requiring higher currents. Some companies like Dell use their own custom designs for PSU connection.
Voltages
The main connector carries 12V, 5V and 3.3V supplies.
The first auxiliary connector looks like the old P8/P9 ones.
The second is a four-pin adaptor that supplies additional 12V lines.
Soft power
The main difference between AT and ATX systems is that ATX is designed to be switched on and
off by software control.
To enable this, some parts of the system board are powered continuously, so that components
can sense a wake-up signal (such as the power button at the front of the case).
Therefore, switch mains power off before removing expansion cards.
UPS & SURGE PROTECTION

Terminology
Digital electronics circuits are very sensitive to power fluctuations. Such fluctuations can easily
cause a PC to shut down unexpectedly, or damage circuits.
 Spike: a large, transient voltage change lasting nanoseconds (billionths of a second).
These can be caused when connecting or disconnecting devices, by switching nearby
equipment on or off, or by nearby lightning strikes.
 Surge: an increase in voltage lasting only a few milliseconds (thousands of a second).
 Sag: a decrease in voltage lasting only a few milliseconds.
 Brownout: a decrease in voltage lasting for a protracted period. Its name comes from the
fact that conventional light bulbs emit a brownish glow when underpowered.
 Blackout: a complete failure of power for a protracted period.
Brownouts and blackouts are easy to identify because they last a long time. Fast-acting
disturbances are harder to spot, and in such circumstances the symptoms may vary from random
reboots to data corruption, or repeated component failure.
Surge Suppressors
Surge suppressors, also called anti-surge devices, clean up the power supply voltage by filtering
out spikes and small surges.
They work in a variety of ways:

 A fuse or circuit breaker protects against longer surges.
 Some transformer designs transmit AC power but are unable to transmit sudden surges.
 An MOV is a small device that short-circuits at a high voltage, hopefully passing the spike
/ surge to earth.
 Unfortunately, they are destroyed in the process. Cheap surge protectors use only MOVs
and will need to be replaced after tripping.
 A zener diode protects against normal spikes in a circuit, especially motor controllers.
 A gas discharge tube works like an MOV but can pass much more power without
destruction, but cannot react to sudden spikes.
There are two factors to consider when choosing a surge suppressor:

 Clamping speed: how quickly the protective circuitry reacts to changes in the incoming
power level and attempts to limit the change.
 Clamping voltage: the voltage level that the device will attempt to maintain.
Surge suppressors are useful for protecting systems from spikes and surges but offer no
protection against brownouts or blackouts.
Additionally, a large surge will blow MOVs, fuses or trip circuit breakers — thus switching the
computer off suddenly, which could result in the loss of data.
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

A UPS provides a battery back-up power supply when the mains sags or fails.
Batteries use dc (direct current) electricity so an inverter is used to convert the battery's dc to the
230V ac (alternating current) required to power a PC.
If the battery starts to run low the UPS sends a shutdown signal (via a separate cable connected
to the PC by USB or RS232 serial port) to tell the operating system to shut down gracefully and
save all open files before power runs out.
Offline ("Standby") UPS

An offline UPS monitors the input power: when a problem occurs, the supply is switched to a pre-
charged battery.
This is the cheapest type of UPS.

Online UPS
An online UPS is considered to be a "true" uninterruptible supply because the PC is continually
powered from the battery. If mains power fails there is no switching delay.
An online UPS is expensive but gives better protection and power conditioning.
UPS ratings
When buying a UPS the most important factor is its volt-ampere (VA) rating. This should not be
confused with wattage (W), often calculated as voltage times current. With ac, voltage and
current are often out-of-phase which means that there is a difference between the instantaneous
voltage and current and the average measurement used for wattage calculations. This difference
is given by a power factor.
Rule of thumb: for PCs the power factor is approximately 0.6. For safety, technicians
usually subtract 5% from the wattage. This would mean a 600 VA UPS should not be
used with PCs rated at more than 340 W.
Another important factor is the length of time they can supply power, measured in ampere-hours
(Ah).
Using a UPS
A UPS is designed to provide continual power for critical devices. Therefore they should not be
used to power printers or other nonessential equipment. Additionally, laser printers can exert a
heavy drain and should never be attached to a UPS.
The UPS data cable should connect directly to the PC; in a power failure devices like USB hubs
might fail to pass signals through to the PC.
The software accompanying a UPS may log significant disturbances; therefore a UPS can also be a
useful tool for checking for repeated power disruption in the absence of more specialist voltage-
measurement equipment.
Many UPS users recommend a full battery run-down at six-month intervals to extend the lifespan
of the battery.
CONNECTORS
I/O overview
PCs feature a variety of input and output (I/O) connections. Each physical port is the public
connection point to an interface circuit that deals with data signals travelling in and out. The
diagram below shows the I/O ports typically fitted to a modern ATX motherboard.
From left to right, the connectors are:

Keyboard (bottom, purple) & mouse (top,green)
Female 6-pin mini-DIN connectors (also called PS/2 connectors)
Serial communications port (also called COM or RS-232 port)
Male 9-pin D connector (also called DB9)
Parallel comms port (also called Centronics, LPT or printer port)
Female 25-pin D connector (also called DB25)
VGA video connection
Female 15-pin high-density D connector (also called HD15)
USB ports
Type A USB socket
FireWire connection (also called IEEE-1394)
FireWire (IEEE-1394) socket
Network port (used for 10/100/1000Base-T Ethernet)
RJ45 socket
Audio ports
3.5mm stereo sockets
When ordering cables and replacement connectors the PC technician needs to know the correct
names for each and the differences between similar connectors and cables. This is not as easy as
it sounds, because ports are often known by a variety of names.
Audio
The primary connector for PC audio is the stereo 3.5mm jack. Its three sections (left, right and
ground respectively) carry a low-voltage analogue signal.
Line out (lime green) — stereo left & right outputs for speakers & hi-fi amplifiers
Headphones — stereo left & right, pre-amplified output for headphones.
Rear — rear left & right outputs for 5.1 surround rear speakers.
Centre / sub — centre and subwoofer outputs for 5.1 surround speakers.
Line in (light blue) — stereo left & right input from hi-fi or other source.
Microphone (pink) — (usually) mono input for microphones
Some soundcards also feature additional S/P-DIF (Sony/ Philips Digital Interconnect Format) outputs for
digital signals. These use standard RCA phono or optical fibre TOSlink connectors to connect to CD or
Mini-Disc players.
Video
Analog
VGA
Early PC video cards — such as the monochrome Hercules & MDA cards, color CGA & EGA cards,
and very early VGA cards — used 9-pin D connectors.
When IBM introduced its PS/2 computer in the late 1980s it used an improved VGA connector
based around a 15-pin high-density D connector (abbreviated as HD-DB15). This type of connector
quickly became the standard video connection and is referred to as a VGA connector.
Composite video & UHF

Composite video (CV) combines the picture signals and synchronization pulses into a single signal,
transmitted down a coaxial cable. CV connections use an RCA phono socket and occasionally BNC
connectors on very old equipment. UHF connections are designed for older televisions and video
recorders. The video signals are shifted onto a carrier wave that enabled them to be fed down a
TV aerial cable. The picture quality is usually poor.
S-Video
S-Video (also called S-VHS) uses 4-pin mini-DIN connectors to carry picture signals.
Component video / RGB

When signals are multiplexed (mixed) or fed through wires that are in close proximity, some
interference and degradation can occur. Component video uses separate, screened, red, green
and blue signal wires to connect to the display. This gives a very high quality image.
Component video usually uses coaxial cable and RCA phono plugs or BNC connectors.
DIGITAL
Modern video cards often feature a digital connector for flat-screen displays.
DVI
The early Digital Flat Panel (DFP) interface used an HPCN20 connector but was soon superseded
by the modern Digital Visual Interface (DVI) interface and its custom DVI connector. DVI-D
connection is digital-only but DVI-I uses an extra four pins to carry an analogue signal.
HDMI
HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a fully-digital connection that can carry standard
or high-definition video signals. The speed of transmission means that cable length is usually
limited to around 5 meters.
HDMI can carry encrypted HDCP (High-Definition Content Protection) data, ensuring that video
signals are decoded only at the display screen. This makes it much harder to "rip" video to
another format.
Data
Parallel port
The standard printer interface for many years was based on a design by the Centronics printer
company. This carried an 8-bit data signal and used a strobe signal to ratify transmission. Various
handshaking wires allowed the computer to check the printer status.
This Standard Parallel Port (SPP) has been used since the inception of thePC and has not yet been
fully replaced by USB.
SPP printer cables feature a male 25-pin D connector (DB25M) at the PC end and a male 36-pin
IEE488 — commonly called a Centronics connector — atthe printer end. To confuse matters, the
DB25 connector is sometimesmisnamed a Centronics connector.
Parallel cables suffer from problems with crosstalk (interference from electrical signals on nearby
wires) and capacitive attenuation. Therefore they are typically limited to around 3m (10 feet)
length.
SPP can output 150 KBps but its input capabilities are limited. Therefore, better bi-directional
designs became popular, like Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) and Enhanced Capabilities Port (ECP).
These use the same DB25 connectors as SPP but must use bidirectional (i.e. not traditional SPP)
cables.EPP & ECP standards are governed by the IEEE-1284 committee.
Historically PC line printer ports are given the device names LPT1, LPT2.
Serial port
Synchronous serial transmission uses a common clock at transmitter and receiver to synchronize
signal timing.
Asynchronous transmission uses separate clocks at transmitter and receiver. These clocks may
slip out of synch but must be close enough to remain in step for short periods of time. Data is sent
in short bursts (usually 8 bits).
Sometimes the rest state between bursts could be misinterpreted as 0s, so a start bit (value 1) is
used to warn that valid data follows. For similar reasons, the burst is concluded by one or more
stop bits (value 0).
Serial transmission is slower than parallel transmission but can carry for longer distances.
Transmission a speed is measured in bits per second (bps) but is also quoted in signals per second
(baud). Most of the motherboard's circuits use parallel transmission buses and these need to be
converted to asynchronous serial format at interfaces. The chip used for this purpose is called a
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/ Transmitter (UART). Popular UARTs used in PCs include the
8250 and 16550 chips.
RS-232 COM ports

The RS-232 asynchronous serial standard (also called
V.24) has been used for decades and was designed to
allow a computer (DTE, data terminal equipment) to
control a modem (DCE, data communications
equipment). Instead of using traditional 1 = 5V, 0 = 0V
signals, RS-232 uses 1 = –12V and 0 = +12V, which
allows cables to easily reach 15m (50 feet). The left-
hand diagram shows standard RS-232 cable wiring.
For serial connections, very old PCs use male 25-pin D connectors (DB25M); most use male 9-pin D
connectors (DB9M). Because MS-DOS calls these RS-232 serial communication devices COM1, COM2,
etc., they are known as COM ports.
Where PCs are physically close, they can be linked by crossover cables known as null modem cables. The
right-hand diagram shows the wiring for a null modem cable.
A small inline crossover adaptor can convert normal serial cables into to null-modem cables.
USB
Since its introduction in 1995 the Universal Serial Bus has become the predominant connection
system for PCs, laptops, many peripherals and arrange of home entertainment systems. By 2004
there were over one billion USB devices in the world.
The heart of the USB bus is the host controller (root hub) inside the PC. It connects to peripherals
directly, or via hubs or by daisy-chaining. Up to 127 peripheral devices (including hubs) can be
connected to a single host; modern PCs usually contain several host controllers.
USB devices are designed to be hot swappable: when a device is attached the host enumerates it
(i.e. identifies it with a unique number) and loads the appropriate device drivers. Note that some
equipment requires the driver to be installed before connection.
There are four main styles of connector:
USB A (left) — this is the type that most users will be familiar with. It is at the end of the lead that
connects to a PC
USB B (right) — this type is used at the peripheral end, allowing the cable to be disconnected.
USB mini-A and mini-B are smaller versions predominantly used with digital cameras. They
feature an extra "ID" signal wire.
USB cables can reach for a maximum length of 5 meters

(approx. 15 feet) and the design allows it to carry up to
500mA of electrical current to power devices.
Versions 1.0 and 1.1 of the USB design (USB1.0, USB1.1)
gave a maximum data transfer rate of 12 Mbps (although
slower devices such as keyboards communicate at a special
lower speed of 1.5 Mbps). Using multiple high data
bandwidth devices (such as webcams) can 'clog' the
connection, causing problems.
Version 2 (USB2 or "Enhanced USB") increased the data speed to 480 Mbps. These high-speed devices
must also support the lower 12 Mbps rate if plugged into a USB1 bus.
MEMORY TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
The main memory of a computer holds instruction codes and data ready to be processed by the
CPU. Programs and data that are not being used are stored on auxiliary storage (such as disks,
tapes or CD).
Main memory is built from ROM and RAM chips.
ROM
Read-Only Memory (ROM) uses wires to form a grid of rows and columns which are linked at
chosen points. A voltage is placed on a selected row (determined by the address) and the column
scanner outputs the detected voltage as a binary number. Links represent '1' and no-links
represent '0'. In this way programs and data may be stored in a ROM chip.
ROM memory is randomly-accessed. This means that addresses can be specified in any order.
Early ROMs were expensive due to the cost of fabricating the link mask when building the chips.
The links cannot be changed after production.
Programmable ROM (PROM) chips are mass-produced with fuses linking all rows and columns
(i.e. '1' in every location).
By sending large voltages along row and column wires, individual fuses can be blown, removing
the link. In this way a computer designer can "blow" or "burn" an entire chip with any program
or data they desire, at low cost.
Like CD-R, a PROM can only be burned once. If the designer wants to store new data they must
replace the chip with a new PROM.
EPROM
PROM fuses can be made from chemicals that respond to ultra-violet (UV) light. When UV shines
on the grid, any "blown" fuses will re-form, resetting the chip to its original unused state. This
type of chip is called an Erasable PROM (EPROM).
EPROMs are instantly recognizable because they have a small, round window on top through
which UV light can be shone. The window is usually covered with a sticker to prevent accidental
erasure.
Because of their low cost and the ease with which they could be reprogrammed, EPROM chips
were used for many years in PCs to hold the permanent BIOS program that runs when the PC is
switched on.
Flash ROM
Electrically-Erasable PROM (EEPROM or E²PROM) is like EPROM but it can be wiped without
needing to be removed and placed under UV light. This means that it can be re-programmed in
situ, i.e. on the motherboard. Flash ROM is an improved form of EEPROM that can be erased in
sections.
NOTE: Modern PCs use a Flash ROM to hold the BIOS program. The BIOS can
therefore be updated by instructing the motherboard to re-write the chip with
data read from a disk. This is called "flashing the BIOS".
If a flashing operation fails partway through then the computer could become unbootable,
blocking any further attempt to re-flash the ROM. For this reason some motherboards feature a
dual BIOS ROM, with the second chip provided as backup.
Many PC devices such as expansion cards and CD / DVD drives store control programs and
settings on Flash ROM. These may also be re-flashed with updated software.
RAM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory but this term is misleading because other kinds of
memory may also be randomly accessed (i.e. ROM).
A better name would be Read-Write Memory because this describes its function well. However,
for historical reasons the name RAM has stuck.
Like ROM, RAM is organized into rows and columns. At each crossover, however, is an electronic
device capable of storing a single bit of information. With the appropriate signal this may be
either written-to or read-from.
Two types of RAM

1. DRAM
2. SRAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM. It is the type of memory in a modern computer. It is dense, very
small, and it is very inexpensive, which makes it affordable for large amount of memory. The
memory cells in a DRAM chip are tiny capacitors that retain a charge to indicate a bit. The
problem with DRAM is it is dynamic, and because of the design it must be constantly refreshed or
the electrical charges in the individual memory capacitors will drain and the data will be lost.
SRAM stands for Static RAM. It does not need the periodic refresh rate like DRAM. It is also much
faster than DRAM and is fully able to keep pace with modern processor. However SRAM are both
physically larger and store less bits overall and are more expensive to produce.
Volatile
In order to keep the bit stored the RAM chip must have electrical power. If power is removed the
RAM chip "forgets" all bits stored within. Because of this we say that RAM is volatile memory.
Static RAM (SRAM)

Static RAM uses small transistor circuits known as flip-flops (also called latches) to store individual
bits. Stored data can be accessed very quickly. Due to the number of transistors required, SRAM is
extremely expensive and is therefore not economical to use for main memory.
NOTE: Cache memory is built from SRAM, which is fast but expensive. Cache
memory contains data read in advance from main memory, allowing the
processor to retrieve information more quickly.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic RAM uses electronic capacitors to store electrical charge: charge for binary '1' and no-
charge for '0'.
Refreshing
Unfortunately these tiny capacitors leak slightly and the charge needs to be refreshed at regular
intervals (typically dozes of times per second). To achieve this, memory interfaces usually contain
dedicated scan-and-refresh circuits.
Many different forms of storage, based on various natural phenomena, have been invented. So
far, no practical universal storage medium exists, and all forms of storage have some drawbacks.
Therefore a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage, each with an individual
purpose.
A digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures,
audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary
digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to
8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer whose storage space is large
enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data.
For example, using eight million bits, or about one megabyte, a typical computer could store a
short novel.
In practice, almost all computers use a variety of memory types, organized in a storage hierarchy
around the CPU, as a trade-off between performance and cost. Generally, the lower a storage is in
the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This
traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by
cost per bit.
NOTE:Main memory is built from DRAM, which is cheap to manufacture but

slower than SRAM.
RAS & CAS

To reduce the number of chip connections, DRAM row and column numbers are usually provided
one-after-the-other. This is signaled by using RAS (Row Address Strobe) and CAS (Column Address
Strobe) control wires.
Wait States & Burst Mode (x-y-y-y)

When a processor asks for data from memory there will be a time delay while memory chip finds
the appropriate data and returns it along the data bus. This delay is called a wait state.
Because most memory access uses consecutive addresses, processors can use a method called
burst mode after RAS & CAS to read the next three addresses in a single burst.
To describe this we use a timing notation that describes the number of memory clock cycles
required for each access. This will be given in the form x-y-y-y, for example 5-3-3-3.
This burst timing can become crucial when matching RAM in dual-channel systems or fine-tuning
a system.
SDRAM
Normal DRAM operates in an asynchronous manner: if asked for data it will respond after a
certain number of nanoseconds (e.g. 70 ns).
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) is tightly synchronized to a system clock (normally the FSB). Therefore
SDRAM speeds are given as the clock frequency (in MHz) rather than a time delay (in
nanoseconds).
MEMORY
BIOS ROM
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) program runs when the PC is started. It has a number of
functions:
 To check the status of the motherboard circuitry
 To prepare the system ready for the DOS (Disk Operating System) — normally Windows
or Linux — to boot and take over
 To allow access to the computer's settings stored in CMOS memory
BIOS chips are easily spotted because they usually have "BIOS" written on them as part of a
manufacturer's label. BIOS ROMs usually sit in a socket, allowing them to be easily removed (with
a special chip extraction tool) if faulty
CMOS Memory
When people first started building microcomputers there were two technologies available for
digital circuit design. The first, TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic), was fast but consumed lots of
power. The second, CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor), was slower but used less
power and could work at a range of voltages. CMOS was also more sensitive to static electricity.
Computer circuits tended to use TTL circuitry (because they needed speed) and CMOS was used
for toys (where batteries were the main power source). When the PC motherboard needed a non-
volatile memory to store system settings, designers used a CMOS SRAM powered by battery. This
chip became known as "the CMOS Memory".
Since then CMOS circuitry has improved to the stage where it has superseded TTL and today most
parts of a PC are built using CMOS. However, for historical reasons, this non-volatile RAM is still
called "the CMOS Memory" and its contents are referred to as "CMOS Settings".
The CMOS Memory used to be powered by a lithium watch battery, typically a CR2032. This
battery also powered the PC's real-time clock (RTC).
Modern motherboards use Flash ROM for CMOS settings instead.
Cache Memory
Cache memory sits between the CPU and the main memory. A cache controller monitors the
addresses that are requested by the CPU and predicts which memory will be required in the
future.
Data is read into the cache memory in advance, allowing the computer to obtain data far more
quickly from the cache than from the main memory. Tags are used identify where cached data
originated. Cache is built from SRAM.
L1 & L2 cache
Level 1 (L1) cache memory is now typically built into the main processor circuit.
Level 2 (L2) cache memory was commonly on the motherboard but since the Pentium II has been
built into the same case as the processor circuit (although often mounted separately). Many
motherboards now have L3 cache.
Main memory
SIMMs (Single Inline Memory Module) were used from the 286 up to the early Pentiums. These
were designed to make the process of installing memory easier and faster. There were two sizes:
30-pin (8 bits wide) and 72pin (32 bits wide). They needed to be inserted at a 45 angle and tilted
into an upright position. SIMMs often needed to be installed in banks (groups of 2 or 4) to ensure
that memory widths matched the processor's data bus width.
Parity
Parity uses an extra bit as an error-checking bit for every 8 bits. Thus 30-pin
SIMMs 'with parity' are 9-bit and 72-pin SIMMs 'with parity' are 36-bit.
FPM, EDO and bursts

EDO (Extended Data Outburst) DRAM is around 30% faster than standard Fast Page Mode (FPM)
DRAM.
DIMMs
DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory Module) were introduced with Pentium class processors and come
in a variety of styles and sizes. Small outline DIMMs (SoDIMMs) are used for laptops.
Unlike SIMMs they are inserted vertically, forcing locking clips into position. Open the locking clips
to eject the DIMM.
SDRAM
SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) is synchronized to the system's Front-Side Bus (FSB) clock pulse.
This allows it to work more quickly than EDO DRAM.
DDR, DDR2 & DDR3

DDR (Double Data Rate) SDRAM works at twice the speed of conventional SDRAM and is
identified by its effective clock speed (e.g. DDR533 actually works at 266 MHz).
To make speed comparisons easier, DDR RAM is rated by its peak bandwidth in the form of a "PC"
number (e.g. PC 2700 transfers 2700 MB/s).
DDR-2 is a faster form of DDR memory, measured in a similar way to DDR.
DDR3
 The DDR3 components are twice as fast as today's highest speed DDR2 memory products.
 The first computer systems equipped with the advanced DDR3 memory technology are expected
to arrive in 2007.
 The main advantages of DDR3 are the higher bandwidth and the increase in performance at low
power.
 The DDR3 SDRAM devices will offer data transfer rates up to 1600 Mbps (megabits per second).
 The supply voltage for the memory technology is being reduced from 1.8 volts for DDR2 to just
1.5 volts for DDR3 targeting a work day equivalent of battery time. The voltage reduction limits
the amount of power that is consumed and heat that is generated in connection with the increase
in bandwidths.
 Standardized from 512Mbit thru 8Gbit.
ECC
Error-Correcting Code (ECC) uses parity bits to perform a more sophisticated type of error-
checking. DIMMs that support ECC are known as ECC memory and thus provide 72-bit storage.
Unbuffered or Registered
Unbuffered DDR memory allows control signals to pass quickly to RAM, which can be a problem
in systems with large amounts of memory. Registered memory adds extra circuitry and eases this
problem but at a financial cost.
Dual channel
Many motherboards support dual channel memory. This gives a significant speed increase by
accessing two DIMMs simultaneously but requires performance-matched DIMMs.
Rambus (RIMMs)
Rambus was a system designed to give exceptional memory access speed. It was used by Intel on
early Pentium 4 systems.
RIMMs are 184-pin boards similar to DIMMs in appearance, with heat spreader cases.
Continuity Connectors
RIMMs transfer only 16 bits at a time but at very high speed. The high-speed bus design requires
all slots to be populated, so 'dummy' RIMMs known as continuity connectors must be used in any
empty slots.
MEMORY HIERARCHY
The term memory hierarchy is used in the theory of computation when discussing performance
issues in computer architectural design, algorithm predictions, and the lower level programming
constructs such as involving locality of reference. A 'memory hierarchy' in computer storage
distinguishes each level in the 'hierarchy' by response time. Since response time, complexity, and
capacity are related, the levels may also be distinguished by the controlling technology.
Since the early days of computing, there has been a need for more memory than there exists
physically in a system. Strategies have been developed to overcome this limitation and the most
successful of these is virtual memory. Virtual memory makes the system appear to have more
memory than it actually has by sharing it between competing processes as they need it.
COOLING
Air Cooling
Chips and disk drives get hot, and we need to transfer heat away from them to stop their
temperature rising too high.
The heat flows from the device (which is at a high temperature) to the nearby air (which is at a
lower temperature). However, as the surrounding air warms up, the rate of flow decreases.
Heat Sink
The rate of heat transfer depends upon the size of the contact area between the device and the
nearby air. A heat sink attaches to a device and increases its surface area with fins made of metal
(which conducts heat very well). Heat sinks are a form of passive cooling.
Thermal compound
The contact point between the device and the heat sink will never be perfectly smooth. This will
reduce the contact area and limits the amount of heat that may be transferred to the heat sink.
Thermal compound (also called thermal paste or heat sink compound) goes between the device
and the heat sink, filling microscopic pores in the contact area. The paste conducts heat well,
ensuring that the heat sink dissipates as much heat as possible.
The paste dries out over time so it is advisable when removing a heat sink to clean off all old paste
with isopropyl alcohol (IPA) and apply new paste when re-mounting.
Auxiliary Fans
By moving new (cool) air into the vicinity of devices (and moving old (warmer) air away) we can
maintain a temperature difference, ensuring a high heat transfer rate. To do this we use a fan.
Because it requires power this is called active cooling.
A large fan spinning at low speed will give the same air flow as a small fan at high speed. Air flow
is measured in cubic meters or feet per second.
Fans produce noise (measured in dB — a lower dB rating is quieter). Smaller fans tend to produce
more noise because they need to spin faster.
Cheaper fans use lubricated rings called sleeve bearings. The lubricant on these can dry up
(especially at high temperatures), leading to failure. They also perform poorly if the fan is not
horizontal.
Better fans use ball bearings. These can work at a higher range of temperatures and are more
durable. They also generate less noise. Fluid bearings and magnetic bearings are very quiet
indeed.
Liquid Cooling
Water transfers heat away more efficiently than air, so some PCs now use it as their primary
coolant.
Cold water flows from the radiator to the CPU water block (which is attached to the CPU with
thermal compound); the warmed water then flows through the pump back to the radiator. The
fan blows air across the radiator's fins, cooling the water by transferring the accumulated heat to
the air and out of the case.
Further water blocks can be connected in the loop, absorbing heat from hard drives, the north
bridge and the graphics card.
What if it leaks?
In a tower case the mains power supply is usually at the top of the case, meaning that there is a
low probability that water would mix with live mains electricity.
However, any leaks could possibly short-circuit components and cause damage. If a leak occurs
the equipment should be powered off immediately and left to dry out. A well-maintained system
should be free of leaks.
REMOVABLE STORAGE
Floppy disks
The 8" floppy disk was created in the late 1960s by IBM. It consisted of a plastic disc with a
ferromagnetic coating that could be selectively magnetized, just like audio tape. They soon added
a firm, square plastic envelope to protect the disk from dust. The eight inch disk originally stored
approximately 100 KB of data but by 1977 this had increased to around 1 MB.
The floppy disk drive (FDD) was invented at IBM by ALAN SHUGART in 1967. The first floppy
drives used an 8-inch disk (later called a 'diskette' as it got smaller), which evolved into the 5.25-
inch disk that was used on the first IBM Personal Computer in August 1981. The 5.25-inch disk
held 360 kilobytes compared to the 1.44 megabyte capacity of today's 3.5-inch diskette.
The 5" floppy disk was introduced in 1976: it was essentially a smaller version of the 8" disk and
stored 90 KB of data. The later double-sided, double-density disk would hold 360 KB and high
density versions 1.2 MB.
Early PCs had 5" drives and the floppy interface found on modern machines is still compatible
with these devices, if the correct cable is used.
The 3" floppy disk was created by Sony in 1983. It had a rigid case and metal sliding door to
protect the disc surface, with capacities of 720 KB or 1.44 MB (high density). A number of other
floppy standards existed, such as the 3" disks used with Amstrad's PCW word-processor and home
computers, but the 3" floppy became the popular standard for 20 years.
Floppy replacements
By the mid 1990s it was clear that the floppy disk did not have the capacity for the quantity of
data that people needed to move quickly and easily. A number of different systems were
designed to succeed the floppy disk but most failed to gain mass market.
Zip disk
Iomega's zip disk could store 100 MB of data and became a popular format among people doing
graphics and audio work, where single files would typically exceed 2 MB size.
Later revisions to the zip drive increased capacity to 250 MB and 750 MB.
NOTE: the "zip" in zip disk is simply a brand name. It should not be confused with "zipping" data —
a method of compressing multiple files into a single compact file called a "zip archive" or "zip file".
Jaz drive
The Iomega Jaz drive was a removable hard disk available in 1 GB or 2 GB sizes. The hard drive
cartridge resembles a data cassette.
LS-120
The LS-120 disk drive could read both 3" floppy disks and special LS- 120 disks, with a capacity of
120 MB. They were far less popular than zip disks but were sometimes used in the medical
profession for storing images.
SOLID STATE DEVICES

USB Flash drive
The most popular form of removable storage nowadays is the USB Flash drive, also known as a
thumb drive. These devices contain electrically-erasable permanent memory called Flash memory
and come with capacities ranging from 64 MB to 2 GB. Modern flash drive up to 128GB
The devices plug into a PC's USB port and therefore require a device driver. Windows XP has
suitable drivers built in for many Flash drives but sometimes a specific driver will be required,
especially if the drive offers encryption of data.
Some models have built-in MP3 players.
Solid state drives (SSD) are quieter, stronger, and faster than all the moving parts our gadgets
currently require to function. Soon, energy efficient drives will be in all our gadgets, making them
less costly to run and longer lasting. That is good green news
Memory cards
There are many different types of memory card used by digital cameras and PDAs. With an
appropriate adaptor they can also be read by PC or laptop.
 CompactFlash — often combined with a microdrive (miniature HDDs)
 SmartMedia
 Memory Stick
 MMC (Multimedia Card)
 RS-MMC (Reduced Size Multimedia Card)
 SD (Secure Digital) Card
 miniSD Card
 microSD Card
 xD-Picture Card
These cards have different capacities and access speeds and vary dramatically in price. It is always
a good idea to investigate the specification of the card before committing to a particular format.
EXTERNAL HARD DRIVES

External hard disk drives can be used as a removable storage medium. These are usually too
power-hungry to work direct from USB and require a separate power supply.
Optical storage
Storage devices are hardware devices, such as a hard disk or a floppy disk, used to record and
store data. Storage devices are used all of the time today. Optical storage used to be the
preferred way of storing data through CD's and DVD's. Magnetic storage uses different patterns of
magnetization to store data. Solid State Storage is a data storage device for use in computing
applications that traditionally use a hard disk drive.
Optical storage is used in CD's and DVD's. The process above demonstrates what happens when
something is reading the CD or DVD. It is a pretty interesting process.
CDs
Compact Discs come in a range of different types and formats. Each type must conform to a
published specification known as a "Rainbow Book".
Data on a CD is recorded on a single spiral track that starts at the centre of the disc and is
recorded as a sequence of 1s and 0s, encoded as pits (indentations) and lands.
Information is read at a constant rate, which means that data flows faster as the scanning laser
moves towards the outer edges of the disc. The data layer is coated and overlaid with a printed
label.
Types of CD
Digital audio (CD-DA) discs follow a standard called the Red Book. It specifies that the audio data
on the disc is encoded as 16-bit binary samples taken 44,100 times per second. This gives up to 80
minutes of playback.
CD-ROMs (Yellow Book) contain computer data only. A variant of audio
CD called Enhanced CD (Blue Book) allows computer data to be stored alongside sound data on
CD-DAs.
VIDEO CDS (White Book) contain 74 minutes of MPEG1 video, with stereo sound. Although commercial
VCDs were released in the early 1990s the format did not take off until the rise of CD-recorders
ten years later. In the Far East, pirate copies of movies were often distributed on VCD.
This led to the development of Super VCD (SVCD), an unofficial variation of VCD supporting MPEG2 audio
and surround sound — in essence a mini-DVD.
Kodak's Photo CD format (Beige Book) was designed to hold high quality photographs and thumbnails in a
form compatible with a range of equipment. Super Audio CD (SACD) (Scarlet Book) is a dual-layer
CD that supports surround sound. It requires a special player; however, some SA CD discs use one
layer for conventional CD audio and will play in standard CD players.
Recordable CDs
CD-R has a photosensitive dye on the spiral track. This dye is chemically altered by writing laser to
change its color, absorbing playback laser light and creating the impression of pits and lands. CD-R
is a write-once, read-many (WORM) medium.
CD-RW works in a similar way but uses a metallic alloy instead. This alloy is chemically altered by
the writing laser, making it refract light at a different angle. This process can be cycled up to
1000 times.
The effective difference between "lands" and "pits" on a CD-RW is less than that of CD-R;
therefore many CD players cannot read CD-RWs. Most DVD players, however, are designed to
read CD-RW discs.
DVDs
DVD — Digital Video Disc (later changed to Digital Versatile Disc) — works in a similar way to CD
but uses a denser arrangement of pits and lands to store approximately 4.5 GB of data.
It is possible to lay a second, semi-opaque, surface onto the disc. The focus of the laser can be
adjusted to read either layer, creating a dual layer disc, capable of holding 9 GB.
In addition, the specification allows for this to be repeated on the other side of the disc (omitting
a label, of course) to create a dual-layer, double-sided disc. This kind of disc can store up to 18 GB
of data.
Minus versus plus
There are two standards for recordable DVD:
DVD-R and DVD-R/W
DVD+R and DVD+R/W
There is little technical difference between the two, but the '–' formats were designed originally
for video data and are more widely compatible with TV DVD players. However, DVD+RW can also
be erased in sections without wiping the whole disc. Dual-layer recordable discs are only available
in '+' format. Drives marked DVD±R and DVD±R/W are capable of working with both types of DVD.
DVD-RAM
DVD-RAM was designed for video recording. It is not as popular as
DVD±R(W) and can only play on compatible DVD players.
High Definition DVDs

Blu-Ray and HD-DVD offer greater storage than current DVD technology, with between 25 GB and 200 GB
capacity.
Drive speeds
Advances in technology have made it possible to read data from discs at a higher and higher rate. Be
careful to check that recordable media will work with the speed of drive that you are using.
Care of CDs and DVDs

Because the layers are very thin even a minor scratch can damage data. The label is the most dangerous
area because this is least protected. Pencils and ballpoint pens should not be used to write on labels; in
addition, some kinds of permanent marker can chemically react with the label and layers over time. It is
recommended that you use a special CD / DVD marker pen.
Prolonged exposure to sunlight causes warping and fading. You should store CDs between 20°C and 50°C
and in 5% to 90% humidity. Motor vehicles are bad places to leave discs because they are subject to
extremes of temperature during sunlight or winter.
Manufacturers usually recommend that you clean fingerprints and marks from the underside by wiping in
a straight line from centre hole to outside edge with a lint-free cloth. DON'T wipe in a circular motion and
certainly don't use solvent or abrasive cleaners. Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) can be used but it should be
applied sparingly to avoid tarnishing the surface.
Handle CDs only by their edges to prevent fingerprinting and store discs in their cases to avoid scratches
Blu-ray
New technology brings high definition video to optical disc
Blu-ray Disc ® is the latest and greatest optical disc technology. It might physically look and
feel just like a CD or DVD, but Blu-ray Disc can do so much more! Pioneer is one of the
companies that helped create this new disc format that will deliver HD content to your home.
Anyone who has seen a great HDTV knows that once you start watching TV in HD, you don't
want to go back to standard definition programming. Even the DVDs that looked so crisp and
clear when they were first introduced in 1996 seem to fade in comparison. Along comes Blu-
ray Disc and soon enough you'll be able to get movies and other programs in HD from your
local video retailer.
What is Blu-ray Disc?

Blu-ray Disc is the latest revolution in optical storage technology for PC products, consumer
electronics and gaming consoles.
Why is it called Blu-ray?
The new technology employs a shorter wavelength blue laser that is focused to a much smaller
spot size than DVD's red laser, thereby increasing data storage capacity.
What's the benefit of Blu-ray Disc?
The new Blu-ray discs can store 25GB data on single layer discs and 50GB data on dual layer
discs. That's the equivalent of 23 hours of standard definition TV content or 6 hours of HD
programming. One 50GB Blu-ray Disc can store the same amount of information as 70
recordable CDs or 10 recordable DVDs.
IDE & SATA HARD DRIVES

IDE (ATA)
The Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) interface — also known as AT Attachment (ATA) — got its
name because most of the controller circuitry for the drive motors is placed on the circuit board.
This is in contrast to earlier PC hard drive designs (like the Shugart HDD interface).
Therefore the PC's IDE interface card can be connected to any model of drive that follows IDE
data and control specifications, no matter how it works physically. This became a great advantage
when capacity grew larger: many IDE drives have different numbers of physical heads, cylinders
and sectors from those reported to the PC's IDE interface card. In addition, the IDE design was
easily adapted to connect CD, DVD and tape drives.
Disks are marked magnetically with low-level formatting codes, which are used to measure
rotation speed and platter deformation and define sector sizes. This should not be confused with
high-level formatting, which is the marking process used by an OS (like DOS, Windows or Linux) to
organize how files are stored. Low-level formatting is usually carried out at manufacture and is
rarely repeated.
Cabling & jumpers

The basic IDE design uses 16-bit parallel data transfer through a 40-pin ribbon cable. The ribbon
cable can be up to 18" long and attached to an expansion card or directly to IDE interface circuitry
on the motherboard.
IDE cables allow two drives to be attached. To differentiate between them, one is designated
master (MA or DS) and the other slave (SL) note that this does not mean that one drive can
control the other, merely that one is first and the other second.
IDE drives usually come configured as master. To configure the drive as slave you will need to
move or remove a jumper at the back or the underside of the drive. The precise change will vary
from drive model to drive model, but the manufacturer usually places a diagram on the drive or
marks the jumper block settings clearly.
A third option, cable select (CS), forces the drive to master if pin 28 on the ribbon cable is
grounded; if 28 is left disconnected, the drive is slave. Thus a cable with pin 28 grounded on only
one connector block is used for CS-ed drives. Special cables with dual-wire-28 allow this status to
be switched if necessary.
Data ribbons are usually keyed to ensure that they only fit in one way round. If the key is missing,
a visual clue to where the key would have been is provided by two grooves.
The red, pink or dotted red side of the ribbon matches cable pin 1 on the connector. Note that
some manufacturers block off pin 20, which is not used, as a secondary key. Cables can have
keying the wrong way round. Such cables should be destroyed to avoid confusion.
Partitions are allocated drive letters by MS-DOS as follows: 1st partition on master is C:, 1st
partition on slave is D:. After this, letters are allocated to all further partitions on the master, then
all further partitions on the slave. MSDOS will recognize a maximum of 24 partitions.
Enhanced IDE (EIDE)

EIDE (also called ATA-2) extended the IDE design to allow a second cable and thus a further two
drives. The cables are referred to as primary IDE and secondary IDE. (These may be indicated on
PC interface connectors as IDE0 / IDE1 or IDE1 / IDE2.) Another addition with EIDE was the ATA
Packet Interface (ATAPI) for CD drives. Previously, early CD drives required a custom-built
interface card.
New DMA high-speed transfer standards were introduced, leading to UltraDMA (UDMA) 66,
UDMA 100 and UDMA 133. These faster transfer speeds required a new 80-pin cable. The cable
looked similar to the 40-pin but with a finer ribbon cable where every other wire is grounded.
Connecting a UDMA 100 drive with a 40-pin cable will limit its speed.
2.5" HDDs
Laptop hard drives are electrically compatible with standard 3.5" drives but not mechanically
compatible. The connector pins are spaced 1 mm apart (as opposed to 0.1" or 2.5 mm apart) and
the power connector is integrated into Adaptors can be used to mount 2.5" drives in 3.5" bays.
Serial ATA (SATA)

The parallel design of traditional IDE hard drives meant that drives reached a maximum speed of
133 MBps with UltraDMA 133 mode (also known as ATA-7).
The solution to this speed barrier was Serial ATA (SATA). It uses much lower signal voltage levels,
which allow faster signaling. It also reduces the electrical problems associated with parallel
transmission by using balanced, full-duplex serial transmission. Although serial is much slower
than parallel (typically a twentieth of the speed) the lower signaling voltage means that the
increased transmission rate makes up for this.
Otherwise, SATA is backward-compatible with parallel ATA. Indeed, any traditional IDE device —
including CD/DVD and tape drives — can connect to SATA with a cheap adaptor.
Cabling
SATA cables use thinner cables with keyed connectors, and each device has an individual data
cable. This gives better airflow in the system unit case, ensures that cables are in the right way
round, and removes the need to define master and slave drives.
The modern storage facilities available for computers are many and varied. There are many
interfaces used to connect these cards to the host computer or portable notebook. Of the varied
cords used to interface these storage facilities, the Serial ATA (Serial Advancement Technology) is
one of the most modernized and highly used cables. SATA hard drives form the more advanced
and faster core of hardware power and data lines offering speeds up to 3 GB/s (for data transfer).
These data cables and standardized formats for use in mass storage devices have become the
advent children of modern computer organization and architecture, overthrowing the age old IDE
drives for both optical media transcription and magnetic palette and disc storage devices.
eSATA is the new form of standardization used in external storage devices. The ‘e’ in eSATA
stands for ‘external’. The externalization of both the drive as well as power means that although it
is a power hog, the eSATA device has a massive advantage over USB or Firewire cables in terms of
raw speed and data read/write capability. With a rated data transfer speed of up to 3 Gigabits per
second, the eSATA drives monstrously overtake USB cables, offering more than triple the speed
that USB’s and Firewire cables could offer. Dedicated cables for power indicate that the eSATA
drive will not be consuming power from the computer, and thus have to be more rugged and
insulated from power overload. Although the price of the eSATA drive is bound to increase, the
functionality it offers would prove to be a bargain for all those road warriors who want faster
access to their portable data.
Most motherboards released in the last few years have direct support for SATA and the new
standard will eventually replace parallel IDE completely.
The data signal cable contains 7 wires and the end connector is designed to connect ground wires
first, potentially allowing hot-plugging. Both ends of the cable are identical so the cable may be
connected the wrong way round, and the serial design allows cables of up to 1 meter.
The 15-pin power cable provides 3.3 V, 5 V and 12 V power. Each wire can carry 1.5 A of current
and three wires are used for each voltage. Some manufacturers support this power connector and
others still use traditional power connectors; some drives have both. Adaptors are available. PCI
SATA cards may be added to non-SATA motherboards. Most of these cards offer simple RAID
implementation.
DISPLAY SCREENS
RGB
How the eye sees color
We can see things because our eyes can sense light beams that are reflected off objects.
White light is made up of a range of different color hues mixed together. This can be seen by
shining white light at an angle through a prism: each hue is refracted at a different angle, resulting
in a color spectrum.
Humans can normally see a range of hues from red through to violet.
This is because the eye has three color receptors that are roughly tuned to red, green and blue
hues. The ranges of each receptor overlap.
Our brain interprets the mixture of sensations received from the three receptors as a single color:
 When we see a RED HUE, only the red receptor tingles.
 When we see a GREEN HUE, only the green receptor tingles.
 When we see a YELLOW HUE, both red and green receptors tingle.
 When we see white light, all three receptors tingles.
 If there is no light (i.e. black), no receptors tingle.
Tricking the eye

If we shine red and green light into the eye at the same time, the red and green receptors will
tingle and the brain will THINK it is seeing yellow light.
By mixing red, green and blue light in varying proportions we can trick the brain into thinking it
sees other colors. This is known as additive color.
How computer displays show color

Color televisions and computer display screens mix red, green and blue light to produce the
illusion of color. Therefore they are known as RGB displays.
Small red, green and blue dots are placed in close proximity, usually in a line or forming a triangle;
from a distance the brain cannot resolve the individual dots — it perceives the overall color
instead.
The size of the RGB cluster affects the quality of the image. One computer screens this is
measured with dot pitch, the distance between clusters.
CRT
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is the same technology used in oscilloscopes and traditional TV sets.
It consists of a vacuum tube enclosed in glass.
CAUTION: If a vacuum tube is smashed it can implode, sending glass fragments in all directions.
CRT monitors should therefore be handled with care.
One end of the tube contains an electron gun assembly. When heated, the electron gun emits a
stream of high-speed electrons — negatively charged particles — that are attracted to the other
end of the tube by a positively charged anode. This anode is typically charged to voltage of 25,000
V. Such voltages are referred to as Extra-High Tension (EHT).
WARNING: The high voltage levels in a CRT monitor (typically 25 kV) can be fatal; under this
level of EHT pressure current can jump an air gap of approx. 1cm (depending on humidity).
Large residual charges can be present inside the housing even up to a year after electrical power
has been removed.
CAUTION: If magnets are placed near the screen they can bend or permanently magnetize the
shadow mask.
: Setting a monitor to scan at too high a frequency can cause damage to its circuitry.
Adjustment
Older CRT device have analogue potentiometers ("pots") controls that can be used to adjust
picture scanning. Modern digital monitors synthesize the scanning waveforms and can be
controlled by buttons. These are commonly found on the front of computer monitors.
Flat screens
LCD & TFT technology
Liquid crystal is roughly transparent. If an electrical current is applied to the liquid crystal it twists
light waves passing through.
LCD monitor is the first monitor that used liquid crystal to display a video output. It has a lower
power consumption than CRT monitor, it is thinner and lighter than CRT too. But it also has a
disadvantage than a CRT monitor which is LCD display cannot be touched by a sharp object. It is
not made by glass, it is a liquid crystal, so if we touch it, the color will spread around the touched
area and it allied back.
By placing polarizing filters (which remove horizontal or vertical components of the light wave) in
front of and behind the liquid crystal, we can selectively pass or block light by applying a current.
This is the principle upon which Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) work.
Plasma technology
Plasma displays use excited phosphors to create light. They can be made bigger than LCD screens
and have a wider viewing angle. They also have faster response times.
However they are more fragile and have historically had problems with image burn-in. Large
display screens can get very hot.
Inside a Plasma Display
The xenon and neon gas in a plasma television is contained in hundreds of thousands of tiny cells
positioned between two plates of glass. Long electrodes are also sandwiched between the glass
plates, on both sides of the cells. The address electrodes sit behind the cells, along the rear glass
plate. The transparent display electrodes, which are surrounded by an insulating dielectric
material and covered by a magnesium oxide protective layer, are mounted above the cell, along
the front glass plate
LCD and LED are still using the same basic technology but different kind of backlighting used. The LEDs
can come in two forms, Dynamic RGB LEDs which are positioned behind the panel, or white Edge-
LEDs positioned around the rim of the screen which use a special diffusion panel to spread the
light evenly behind the screen.
LED has lower power consumption, because LED monitors require a lot less power to operate
than cold cathode fluorescent lamps in LCD. LED monitors are also a lot softer on the eyes than
LCD monitors. In the future, maybe LED can replace LCD monitor, because LED is more efficient,
lower power consumption, brighter than LCD. It is a fact in the world of technology. If there is a
new technology which is better than before, the past technology will be replaced by the new one.
What is LED MONITOR?

If you're not familiar with the technology that preceded them - the CRT monitor - consider
yourself fortunate. The LCD monitor is a vast improvement. And now, even among LCD monitors,
you can choose something a bit better than the old models. We're talking about an LED monitor.
LED and LCD: What's the Difference?
LED is not a completely different monitor from LCD. In fact, LED simply refers to a specific, more
cutting -edge LCD monitor. What distinguishes the LED from other LCD monitors is the way it's
lighted. With previous LCD monitors, fluorescent lights were used to light the screen. This was not
a perfect system, because fluorescent lights have a somewhat limited life span. It's not
uncommon to notice an LCD display starting to get dimmer after just three to five years of use.
That's because the fluorescent light uses a side-light or back-light which deteriorates with time.
LED lights, though, are different. One of the main differences is that LED monitors last much
longer without that same dimming effect
Thin and Light
An LED monitor also tends to be lighter and thinner. That's because the fluorescent light itself is
somewhat bulkier than an LED light. Making the LED monitor even thinner is the fact that it's
easily used for side-lighting (rather than back-lighting).
The LED monitor is perfect for those who don't have much room for their computer or home-
entertainment system. You can get them as thin as two inches and weighing no more than two or
three pounds. From the monitor's stable base to its features, the monitor is a true value.
Energy Efficient
LED monitors also are much more energy efficient than other monitors. They emit a smaller
amount of carbon dioxide and give off less heat. Even if you're not overly concerned about
environmental issues, you should care that this smaller heat print means that your utility bill will
enjoy the benefit of an LED monitor.

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Intel 386 & 486

Pentium 296/ Socket 7

Pentium II / III class

Pentium III & Celeron

AMD Athlon & Duron

Athlon XP & Sempron

Xeon & Athlon MP

Itanium & Itanium 2

AMD Athlon 64 & Sempron/64

Pentium 4 EM64T, Celeron D

Xeon EM64T & AMD Opteron

Intel Core Duo

Intel Core 2 Quad

Intel Core i7, i5, i3 (Nehalem)

Intel Core i7, i5, i3 (Sandy Bridge/2nd Generation)

Advanced Micro Devices Processors

AMD Processor Chip (in window) 1983

Four AMD's FX "Bulldozer"s

AMD Opteron 6174 vs Intel Xeon X5650

ADVANCED MICRO DEVICE

The diagram below shows the architecture of a Conroe core:

Dual Core & multi-core

SSE / SSE2 / SSE3

Real speed vs. actual speed

INPUT & OUTPUT

Parallel & serial

CONTROLLING I/O DEVICES

INTERRUPT DESCRIPTION HEX ADDRESS DESCRIPTION

Controlling I/O devices

CONTROL DATA REGISTER DATA REGISTER

Responding to I/O devices

Scanners & cameras

478 SOCKET MOTHERBOARD

775 SOCKET MOTHERBOARD

INTEL CORE i7/i5/i3

SOCKET AM3/2 (AMD PROCESSOR)

AMR & CNR

PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express), officially abbreviated as PCIe, is a

FORM FACTORS & POWER SUPPLY UNITS

Original PC main power cables

4 pin peripheral power cable

Floppy drive power cable

6 pin auxiliary power cable

SATA power cable

ATX 20 pin main power cable

ATX 24 pin main power cable

4 pin ATX +12 volt power cable

8 pin EPS +12 volt power cable

Motherboards featuring PCI

ATX & ITX

POWER SUPPLY UNITS (PSUs)

The second is a four-pin adaptor that supplies additional 12V lines.

Therefore, switch mains power off before removing expansion cards.

UPS & SURGE PROTECTION

They work in a variety of ways:

There are two factors to consider when choosing a surge suppressor:

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

Offline ("Standby") UPS

This is the cheapest type of UPS.

From left to right, the connectors are:

Composite video & UHF

Component video / RGB

RS-232 COM ports