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Acute lesions in the periodontium, such as abscesses (210). A more comprehensive definition has also been
and necrotizing periodontal diseases, are among the proposed: ‘a lesion with an expressed periodontal
few clinical situations in periodontics where patients breakdown occurring during a limited period of time,
may seek urgent care, mostly because of the associ- and with easily detectable clinical symptoms, includ-
ated pain. In addition, and in contrast to most other ing a localized accumulation of pus located within
periodontal conditions, rapid destruction of peri- the gingival wall of the periodontal pocket’ (130)
odontal tissues may occur during the course of these (Fig. 1).
lesions, thus stressing the importance of prompt diag-
nosis and treatment. In spite of this, the available sci-
Classification of periodontal abscesses
entific knowledge on these conditions is limited and
is based on somewhat outdated literature. This lack Different criteria have been used to classify periodon-
of contemporary data makes it rather challenging to tal abscesses.
devise evidence-based therapeutic guidelines. Hence,
Location
an update is imperative, although it must be confined
to an evaluation of narrative reviews and expert Abscesses can be classiffied as gingival or periodontal
opinions. abscesses (110). A gingival abscess is a localized pain-
Other gingival and periodontal lesions may also show ful swelling that affects only the marginal and inter-
an acute presentation, including different infectious dental gingiva and is normally associated with
processes not related to oral bacterial biofilms, muco- subgingivally impacted foreign objects. These condi-
cutaneous disorders, or traumatic and allergic lesions. tions may occur in a previously healthy gingiva (7). A
This article provides an overview and updates of periodontal abscess is a localized painful swelling that
existing information on acute conditions affecting the affects deeper periodontal structures, including deep
periodontal tissues, including abscesses in the peri- pockets, furcations and vertical osseous defects, and
odontium, necrotizing periodontal diseases and other is usually located beyond the mucogingival line. His-
acute conditions. tologically, both lesions are identical, but a gingival
abscess affects only the marginal soft tissues of previ-
ously healthy sites, whilst a periodontal abscess
Abscesses in the periodontium occurs in a periodontal pocket associated with a peri-
odontitis lesion (76).
149
Herrera et al.
Fig. 1. A periodontal abscess, manifesting as a localized Fig. 2. Pericoronal abscess associated with the right man-
purulent lesion within the gingival wall of the periodontal dibular third molar.
pocket.
150
Acute lesions
pocket depths were 5–6 mm (156). Abscesses occur (245), or a sickle-cell crisis in a patient with sickle-cell
more often in molar sites, representing more than anemia (255).
50% of all sites affected by abscess formation (128,
209, 300), probably because of the presence of furca-
Etiology, pathogenesis and
tion, and complex anatomy and root morphology.
histopathology of periodontal abscess
However, one case series suggested that the mandi-
bular anterior incisors were the most frequently Periodontal abscesses may develop in periodontitis-
affected teeth (149). affected sites (with a pre-existing periodontal
pocket) or in healthy sites (without a pre-existing
Tooth loss
pocket).
Periodontal abscesses may lead to tooth loss, espe- In periodontitis, a periodontal abscess may repre-
cially if they affect teeth with pre-existing moderate sent a period of disease exacerbation that is
to severe attachment loss, as occurs during sup- favored by the existence of tortuous pockets, the
portive periodontal therapy in patients with severe presence of furcation involvement (Fig. 3) or a ver-
chronic periodontitis. In fact, periodontal abscess tical defect, in which marginal closure of the pocket
has been considered as the main cause for tooth may lead to spread of the infection into the sur-
extraction during supportive periodontal therapy rounding periodontal tissues (76, 158, 224). Also,
(55, 209, 294, 300). Similarly, teeth with repeated changes in the composition of the subgingival
abscess formation were considered to have a hope- microbiota, with an increase in bacterial virulence,
less prognosis (36), and 45% of teeth with a peri- or a decrease in the host defence, could result in
odontal abscess during supportive periodontal a diminished capacity to drain the increased
therapy were extracted (209). The main reason for suppuration. Among periodontal abscesses in peri-
tooth extraction in teeth with a questionable prog- odontitis patients, different subgroups can be
nosis, followed for 8.8 years, was a periodontal distinguished:
abscess (55). Taking these reports into account, it after nonsurgical periodontal therapy. After scal-
has been suggested that when a periodontal ing or professional prophylaxis, dislodged calculus
abscess is encountered in patients receiving sup- fragments can be pushed into the tissues (74), or
portive periodontal therapy, early diagnosis and inadequate scaling may allow calculus to remain
adequate therapy are crucial to preserve the prog- in deep pockets, whilst the coronal part will
nosis of the affected tooth (294). occlude the normal drainage (156).
after surgical periodontal therapy – associated
Association with systemic dissemination of a
with the presence of foreign bodies, such as mem-
localized infection
branes for regeneration or sutures (106).
Numerous case reports have described the occur- acute exacerbation of an untreated periodontitis
rence of systemic infections from a suspected source (74) (Fig. 4).
in a periodontal abscess, either through dissemina- acute exacerbation in refractory periodontitis (97).
tion during therapy or related to an untreated acute exacerbation in supportive periodontal ther-
abscess. During the treatment of an abscess, the con- apy, as described previously (55, 209, 294).
comitant bacteremia may lead to colonization of
pathogenic microorganisms in other body sites and
to the development of different infections, such as
pulmonary actinomycosis (315), a brain abscess
containing Prevotella melaninogenica and other
Prevotella spp. (103), or a total knee arthroplasty
infection (330). It has been suggested that the risk of
bacteremia during abscess drainage may be reduced
if a needle aspirate of the abscess contents is
obtained before the procedure (99, 265).
There are also case reports of bacteremia originat-
ing from untreated abscesses, such as cellulitis in
breast-cancer patients (198), a cervical necrotizing
fasciitis (57), a necrotizing cavernositis containing Fig. 3. Periodontal abscess with the presence of furcation
Peptostreptococcus spp. and Fusobacterium spp. involvement.
151
Herrera et al.
systemic antimicrobial intake without subgingival retrieved from 12 abscesses (76), observing the
debridement. In patients with severe periodontitis following areas from the outside to the inside of the
this may also cause abscess formation (125, 126, lesion:
321), probably related to an overgrowth of oppor- a normal oral epithelium and lamina propria.
tunistic bacteria (125). an acute inflammatory infiltrate.
Periodontal abscesses can also occur in previously an intense focus of inflammation, with neutroph-
healthy sites (i.e. nonperiodontitis periodontal ils and lymphocytes present in an area of
abscesses) owing to impaction of foreign bodies or to destroyed and necrotic connective tissue.
alteration of the root surfaces: a destroyed and ulcerated pocket epithelium.
different foreign bodies have been described to be In seven biopsies analyzed using electron micro-
associated with the development of a periodontal scopy, gram-negative bacteria were found to invade
abscess, for example: an orthodontic elastic (250); the pocket epithelium, and the affected connective
a piece of dental floss (5); a dislodged cemental tissue formed a mass of granular, acidophilic and
tear (124); a piece of a toothpick (100); or pieces of amorphous debris.
nails in subjects with nail-biting habits (304). The
term ‘oral hygiene abscesses’ has been proposed
Microbiological findings
for abscesses caused by the impaction of foreign
bodies that are oral hygiene aids (110). Purulent oral infections are usually polymicrobial and
the root surface may be altered by different fac- are caused by commensal bacteria (317). In microbio-
tors: perforation by an endodontic instrument (4); logical reports on periodontal abscesses, gram-
cervical cemental tears (124, 146); external root negative bacteria predominated over gram-positive
resorption (339); an invaginated tooth (60); or a bacteria, and rods predominated over cocci (224),
cracked tooth (116). with large proportions of strict anaerobes (128, 224,
In the development of a periodontal abscess, the first 321).
step may be the invasion of bacteria into the soft tis- The most prevalent bacterial species identified in
sues surrounding the periodontal pocket, which will periodontal abscesses, using culture-based or molec-
develop an inflammatory process through the che- ular-based diagnostic techniques, is Porphyromonas
motactic factors released by bacteria that attract gingivalis, with a range in prevalence of 50–100%
inflammatory cells and lead to the destruction of the (82, 123, 128, 149, 224, 321, 327) (Fig. 5). Other strict
connective tissues, the encapsulation of the bacterial anaerobes frequently detected include Prevotella
infection and the production of pus. Once the abscess intermedia, Prevotella melaninogenica, Fusobacterium
is formed, the rate of destruction within the abscess nucleatum, Tannerella forsythia, Treponema spp.
will depend on the growth of bacteria inside the Parvimonas micra, Actinomyces spp. and Bifidobacte-
focus, their virulence and the local pH (an acidic envi- rium spp. Among the facultative anaerobic gram-neg-
ronment will favor the activity of lysosomal enzymes) ative bacteria, Campylobacter spp., Capnocytophaga
(76). spp. and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans
The histopathology of periodontal abscess lesions have been reported (123), as well as gram-negative
was described following evaluation of biopsies enteric rods (149).
Fig. 4. Periodontal abscess in untreated periodontitis. Fig. 5. Microbiological sampling in a periodontal abscess.
152
Acute lesions
153
Herrera et al.
to arrest tissue destruction and control the symp- both protocols were similarly effective. Eguchi et al.
toms; and management of a pre-existing and/or (82) compared irrigation with sterile physiological
residual lesion, especially in patients with periodon- saline and 2% minocycline hydrochloride ointment
titis. vs. irrigation with sterile physiological saline without
the local antibiotic, in 91 patients for 7 days.
Control of the acute condition
Surgical procedures have also been proposed,
Four therapeutic alternatives have been proposed: mainly for abscesses associated with deep vertical
tooth extraction; drainage and debridement; systemic defects (158) or in cases occurring after periodontal
or local antimicrobials; and surgery. debridement in which residual calculus is present
If the tooth is severely damaged, and its prognosis subgingivally after treatment (74). A case series evalu-
is hopeless after the destruction caused by the ating a combination of an access flap with deep scal-
abscess, the preferred treatment should be tooth ing and irrigation with doxycycline is also available
extraction (300). and reports ‘good results’, but scientific data were not
The most logical treatment of a periodontal provided (316).
abscess, as in other abscesses in the body, should After drainage and debridement the patient should
include drainage (through the pocket or through an be recalled 24–48 h after treatment to evaluate the
external incision), compression and debridement of resolution of the abscess (Fig. 7A,B) and the duration
the soft-tissue wall, and the application of topical of the intake of antimicrobials. Once the acute phase
antiseptics after drainage. If the abscess is associated has resolved, the patient should be scheduled for a
with a foreign-body impaction, the object must be follow-up therapeutic phase.
eliminated through careful debridement (5), although In summary, numerous treatment protocols have
it may no longer be present. been proposed, but sufficient scientific evidence is
Systemic antimicrobials may be used as the sole not available to recommend a definitive approach.
treatment, as initial treatment or as an adjunctive It is, however, clear that drainage and debridement
treatment to drainage. Systemic antimicrobials as should be established when the systemic condition
the sole or as initial treatment may only be recom- and the access to the abscess is adequate. When
mended if there is a need for premedication, if the immediate drainage is not possible or a systemic
infection is not well localized or if adequate drainage affect is evident, therapy with systemic antimicrobials
cannot be ascertained (176). As an adjunctive treat-
ment, systemic antimicrobials should be considered
if a clear systemic involvement is present (7, 176).
The duration of therapy and the type of antibiotic is A
also a matter for discussion, including the recom-
mendation of shorter courses of therapy (176, 202).
However, the available scientific evidence on the
efficacy of these therapies is very limited, with only
two prospective case series and two randomized
clinical trials. Smith & Davies (300) evaluated inci-
sion and drainage of the abscess, together with
adjunctive systemic metronidazole (200 mg, three
times daily for 5 days), followed by a delayed peri-
B
odontal therapy, in 22 abscesses for up to 3 years.
Hafstro € m et al. (123) proposed drainage through the
periodontal pocket, irrigation with sterile saline, su-
pragingival scaling and tetracycline for 2 weeks (1 g/
day), and tested this therapy in 20 abscesses, with 13
followed for 180 days, highlighting the importance of
drainage and the potential of regeneration. Herrera
et al. (129) compared azithromycin (500 mg, once
per day for 3 days) vs. amoxicillin plus clavulanate
(500 + 125 mg, three times daily for 8 days), with Fig. 7. (A) Periodontal abscess before treatment. (B) Peri-
delayed scaling (after 12 days), in 29 patients with odontal abscess, 12 days later, after treatment with azi-
abscesses followed for 1 month, and concluded that thromycin.
154
Acute lesions
should be considered. The drug with the most appro- Necrotizing periodontal diseases
priate profile is metronidazole (normally prescribed
for acute conditions at 250 mg, three times daily).
Azithromycin (500 mg, once per day) and amoxicillin Definition
plus clavulanate (500 + 125 mg, three times daily) Necrotizing periodontal diseases are a group of infec-
have also shown good clinical results. The duration of tious diseases that include necrotizing ulcerative gin-
the therapy should be restricted to the duration of the givitis, necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis and
acute lesion, which is normally 2–3 days. necrotizing stomatitis. However, it has also been sug-
Management of a pre-existing and/or a residual gested that these conditions may represent different
lesion stages of the same disease because they have similar
etiologies, clinical characteristics and treatment,
As most periodontal abscesses occur in a pre-existing although they vary in disease severity (138, 140).
periodontal pocket, periodontal therapy should be These diseases share common clinical features con-
evaluated after resolution of the acute phase. In cases sisting of an acute inflammatory process and the
where the patient has not been treated previously, presence of periodontal destruction (Fig. 8).
the appropriate periodontal treatment should be pro- Necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis has been diagnosed
vided. If the patient is already within the active phase for centuries but referred to by various names, such as
of therapy, the periodontal therapy should be com- Vincent’s disease, trench-mouth disease, necrotizing
pleted once the acute lesion has been treated. In gingivo-stomatitis, fuso-spirochaetal stomatitis, ulcer-
patients receiving supportive periodontal therapy, ative membranous gingivitis, acute ulcerative gingivi-
careful evaluation of the recurrence of the abscess tis, necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis and acute
should be made, as well as assessment of the tissue necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (21, 138, 152, 269).
damage and how this affects tooth prognosis. Necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis was defined both
in the 1989 World Workshop (54) and in the 1993 Euro-
Summary pean Workshop (26). At the International Workshop
for a Classification of Periodontal Diseases and Condi-
Abscesses in the periodontium are important because tions in 1999 (22), the new category of ‘necrotizing
they are a relatively frequent dental emergency, they periodontal diseases’ was introduced, which includes
can compromise the periodontal prognosis of the necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis and necrotizing ulcera-
affected tooth and because the bacteria within the tive periodontitis. More recently, the terms necrotizing
abscess can spread and cause infections in other gingivitis and necrotizing periodontitis have been used
body sites. instead of the terms necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis
Although histologically all abscess lesions are simi- and necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis (138). The
lar, different types of abscess have been identified, simpler terms necrotizing gingivitis and necrotizing
mainly classified by their etiological factors because periodontitis adequately describe these diseases and
there are clear differences between those affecting a these terms will be used in the rest of the text.
pre-existing periodontal pocket and those affecting
healthy sites.
For the management of this condition, rapid and
accurate diagnosis (mainly based on clinical features)
and provision of early therapy are mandatory. Ther-
apy for the acute condition should be based on drain-
age and debridement, with evaluation of the need of
systemic antimicrobial therapy based on local and
systemic factors. When the supporting tissues have
been destroyed to the extent of compromising the
tooth prognosis, tooth extraction may be the only
valid alternative. The definitive treatment of the pre-
existing condition should be accomplished after the
acute phase has been controlled, as most abscesses
are found in patients with untreated periodontitis, Fig. 8. Multiple gingival crater formation. The clinical sce-
thus needing periodontal therapy. nario includes rapid progression and severe periodontal
destruction.
155
Herrera et al.
156
Acute lesions
157
Herrera et al.
the necrotic zone, containing disintegrated cells, immune response, although usually more than one
together with medium- and large-size spirochetes factor is necessary for initiating the disease (138). In a
and fusiform bacteria. study in the USA, the most important factor was HIV
the spirochetal infiltration zone, where the tissue infection. In non-HIV patients, the most important
components are adequately preserved but are factors were a previous history of necrotizing peri-
infiltrated with large- and medium-size spiro- odontal disease, poor oral hygiene, inadequate sleep,
chetes. Other bacterial morphotypes are not unusual psychological stress, poor diet, recent
found. systemic diseases, alcohol abuse, tobacco smoking,
Caucasian ethnicity and age below 21 years (140).
158
Acute lesions
159
Herrera et al.
distinct findings, depending on the extent and sever- hygiene practices and is normally the reason for the
ity of the lesions (1, 67, 138, 152, 269). patient’s consultation.
Other less common findings include the presence
Necrotizing gingivitis
of:
The diagnosis is based on the presence of necrosis pseudomembrane over the necrotic area. The
and ulcers in the free gingiva. These lesions usually pseudomembrane consists of a whitish/yellow-
start at the interdental papilla and have a typical colored meshwork, composed of necrotic tissue,
‘punched-out’ appearance. In addition, a marginal fibrin, erythrocytes, leukocytes and bacterial cells.
erythema, named ‘lineal erythema’, may be present, When this ‘membrane’ is removed, the underlying
separating the healthy and the diseased gingiva. connective tissue becomes exposed and bleeds.
These necrotic lesions can progress to the marginal halitosis, although this is not an exclusive sign of
gingiva. The most typical location is the anterior necrotizing gingivitis.
teeth, especially in the mandible (Fig. 12). In necro- adenopathies, which are usually found in the most
tizing gingivitis, gingival bleeding is a frequent find- severe cases of disease. If present, submandibular
ing, and it is usually spontaneous or occurs after lymph nodes are more affected than those in the
minimal contact (Fig. 13). Pain normally has a rapid cervical area (150, 151).
onset and occurs with different degrees of severity, fever and a general feeling of discomfort.
depending on the severity and extent of the lesions.
Necrotizing periodontitis
The bouts of pain increase with eating and with oral
The same clinical picture described in necrotizing
gingivitis occurs in necrotizing periodontitis, but in
addition, in necrotizing periodontitis the following
characteristics may be present:
necrosis affects the periodontal ligament and the
alveolar bone, leading to loss of attachment. As
there is concomitant necrosis of the soft tissue,
the presence of pockets is not an usual finding
(Fig. 14).
as the disease progresses (Fig. 15), the interdental
papilla is divided into a buccal part and a lingual/
palatal part, with a necrotic area in the middle,
known as the interproximal crater. If the craters
are deep, the interdental crestal bone becomes
exposed and denudated. In addition, crater for-
mation favors disease progression by allowing the
Fig. 12. Necrotizing gingivitis affects more frequently the accumulation of more bacteria. Interproximal
mandibular anterior sextant. necrotic areas spread laterally and merge with the
160
Acute lesions
161
Herrera et al.
Summary
Fig. 16. Gingival craters are important sequelae because
they can limit mechanical plaque control. Necrotizing periodontal disease includes necrotizing
gingivitis, necrotizing periodontitis and necrotizing
stomatitis, and these may be considered as different
stages of the same pathologic process. This group of
diseases always presents three typical clinical features
– papilla necrosis, bleeding and pain – which makes
them different from other periodontal diseases.
Although their prevalence is not high, their impor-
tance is clear because they represent the most severe
biofilm-related periodontal conditions, leading to
rapid tissue destruction. In their etiology, together
with bacteria, numerous factors that alter the host
response may predispose to these diseases, including
HIV infection, malnutrition, stress or tobacco
smoking.
Owing to their acute presentation, together with
the associated pain and tissue destruction, treatment
Fig. 17. Esthetic consequences of necrotizing periodontal should be provided immediately upon diagnosis; this
diseases. should include superficial debridement, careful
162
Acute lesions
mechanical oral hygiene, rinsing with chlorhexidine that affects all oral mucosae and may be associated
and daily revisions. Systemic antimicrobials may be with fever and malaise. Treatment includes rehydra-
used adjunctively in severe cases or in nonresponding tion, rest and the prescription of systemic antimicro-
conditions, and the best option is metronidazole. bials (154, 157, 160, 183). Stomatitis associated with
Once the acute disease is under control, definitive S. aureus is characterized by bullous generalized der-
treatment should be provided, including adequate matitis, with vesicles and desquamation, which
therapy for the pre-existing gingivitis or periodontitis affects the lips, oral mucosa and other mucosae. Its
as well as adequate oral hygiene practices and sup- appearance is similar to multiform erythema or impe-
portive therapy. Surgical treatment of the sequelae tigo and it is usually treated with systemic antimicro-
should be considered based on the needs of the indi- bials (102, 299).
vidual case. Despite the presence of the oral epithelium as a
protective barrier against infection with Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, gonococcal lesions may develop as a
Other acute conditions in the result of direct contact. In the newborn, N. gonor-
periodontium rhoeae infection may occur through contact when
passing through the birth canal. In adults, transmis-
This group of acute gingival lesions includes lesions sion may be bucco-genital and superficial lesions are
manifesting initially as acute conditions or as acute found as white/yellowish plaques or pseudomem-
episodes of a chronic condition. They can appear as branes that, when removed, result in a bleeding ulcer.
isolated lesions or as part of complex clinical pictures Salivary flow may be reduced and saliva can be den-
and they are frequently responsible for emergency ser. The clinical history is crucial and treatment
consultations. should consist of the administration of systemic anti-
The clinical lesion is usually an ulcer or erosion, microbials (61, 92, 293, 332).
which may be the primary lesion or secondary to a Among generalized infectious diseases, syphilis
vesicle-bullous lesion. The most frequent symptom is may often affect the gingival tissues. Syphilis is
localized pain, which initiates with the lesion or may caused by Treponema pallidum and may be difficult
precede it, although it may also occur in conjunction to diagnose because of similarities with other sys-
with pain in the pharynx or dysphagia. To establish temic conditions (96, 172, 256). Syphilis can be con-
the proper diagnosis, a clinical history, anamnesis genital or acquired. In acquired syphilis, the
and careful examination are mandatory because fre- incubation period may vary from 12 to 40 days, and
quently there is a direct and recent relationship with the lesions may follow different stages. In primary
the cause (68). In the following discussion, the lesions syphilis, the lesion is located at the point of transmis-
are classified according to their etiology because their sion, normally as a chancre that may be located on
clinical appearance is similar and a careful differential the lips, tongue or tonsils (11). The gingiva may be
diagnosis is key to their therapy (22, 134, 326). affected by secondary syphilis after 6–8 weeks, or
even 6 months, with the presence of a plaque (ele-
Gingival diseases of infectious origin vated papule with central erosion) that may last for
weeks or even a year (18, 168, 193, 197, 257, 268). Ter-
Gingival lesions of specific bacterial origin
tiary syphilis is uncommon and, when present in the
Specific bacterial infections localized in the oral oral cavity, it may affect the palate and the tongue
mucosa are uncommon. They may be caused by bac- (171). Differential diagnosis is critical and sometimes
teria normally present in the oral cavity that eventu- difficult. Treatment consists of the administration of
ally become pathogenic, and also by bacteria specific systemic antimicrobials (96, 197).
exogenous to the oral cavity, such as gonococci, tula-
Viral infections
remia or anthrax. In addition, the lesions present in
the oral cavity may be a secondary location of gener- Different viruses may cause lesions in the oral cavity,
alized infectious disease, as in scarlatina, diphtheria, with or without concomitant skin involvement (215).
syphilis or tuberculosis. The most frequently associated viruses causing gingi-
Both staphylococci and streptococci may cause oral val and periodontal lesions are from the Herpesviri-
infections with gingival involvement, leading to a dae family (herpes simplex virus type 1, the causal
lesion with a nonspecific appearance (usually ery- agent of oral and labial herpes lesions; herpes simplex
thematous or erosive) (102, 201). Group B streptococ- virus type 2, associated with genital herpes; and vari-
cal infections frequently result in pharynx-amigdalitis cella-zoster virus, responsible for varicella and herpes
163
Herrera et al.
164
Acute lesions
165
Herrera et al.
166
Acute lesions
Traumatic lesions
Fig. 25. Traumatic lesions: often self-inflicted, or associ-
The clinical presentation of lesions associated with ated with traumatic toothbrushing or incorrect oral
physical and chemical agents will depend on wether hygiene habits.
167
Herrera et al.
168
Acute lesions
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