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SURVEYING
6.1 GENERAL
6.2 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
6.3 ROAD RECONNAISSANCE
6.4 ROUTING TECHNIQUES
6.5 FIELD NOTEBOOKS
6.1 GENERAL
Hand held instruments are now used for surveying forest roads in steep terrain. These optical
instruments combine accuracy with low weight and volume, thus allowing high output even in
difficult terrain and dense forests.
Except for bridge construction, tunnelling and other special projects, theodolite, and levelling
instruments are not used, since their use is too slow for the accuracy required, in addition to which
they are expensive and fragile.
6.2.1 Clinometers
6.2.2 Compasses
6.2.3 Tapes
6.2.4 Barometric Altimeters
6.2.5 Additional Equipment
When planning forest roads in steep terrain, the following instruments are used
Instruments
Clinometer
Magnetic compass
Tape
Barometric altimeter
Items to be Surveyed
Gradients or grades
Bearings or azimuth (direction)
Distances
Altitudes or elevations
This equipment, along with proper survey methods, has proved to be suitable... practical for
surveying roads in forests in mountainous terrain.
6.2.1 Clinometers
The clinometer is the basic instrument for routing a forest road in steep terrain. The vertical axis of
a pendulum instrument corresponds to the direction of gravity an angle of 90 the horizontal level
(collimation line) of the instrument is optically fixed, from which vertical angles (in percent or
degrees) can be measured. There are several types of clinometers which can be used to determine
gradients but basically are all the same, based on the principle of gravity.
The percent scale of the clinometer is used to determine the gradients of the road and to measure
side slopes since it is much simpler for future calculations than use of angles measured in degrees.
FIGURE 8 Side view of Meridian Clinometer
"Percent" means "part of a hundred". For example, 1 percent is one part of a hundred (equal to
1/100 or 0.01); 45 percent is 45 parts of a hundred (equal to 45/100 or 0.45). The gradient of a
straight line in percent can be drafted by the height of a right angled triangle with a base of 100
units:
FIGURE 9 Example of a gradient, in percent
Gradients can be measured directly, independent of the distance between clinometer and target.
Thus lines (routes) with required gradients can easily be found. The so-called "zero line" or "grade
line", which is one of the basic criteria for locating a forest road in steep terrain, is determined by
use of the clinometer. A word of caution with regard to the use of clinometers is, never mix up
readings of percent and degrees, since both functions are normally given on the instrument scales.
The percent readings correspond to the tangent functions of the degrees and are quite different, and
if the two are mixed while reading the scale, it will lead to errors in calculations and grade lines.
FIGURE 10 Triangular Functions
TABLE 5
Conversion of Degrees into Percent
Grade in Degrees Grade in Percent Grade in Degrees Grade in Percent
1 1.8 11 19.4
2 3.5 12 21.3
3 5.2 13 23.1
4 7.0 14 24.9
5 8.8 15 26.8
6 10.5 16 28.7
7 12.3 17 30.6
8 14.0 18 32.5
9 15.8 19 34.4
10 17.6 20 36.4
Example of an error by triangular form, i.e. 8 or 14% if 8% was your maximum grade:
An erroneous reading of 8 degrees instead of 8 percent leads to a grade of 14 percent:
(see conversion table)
Two types of clinometers are recommended for forest engineering and surveying work.
These are:
a) Meridian clinometer (made in Switzerland)
A pendulum device with a fixed optical system, the most suitable model (MC1002) has
two optical lenses for separating uphill (+) and downhill (-) readings to 100 percent both
ways.
PHOTO NO. 6 Use of the Suunto clinometer during Training Course in Bhutan
Use two poles (or rods) with flat bases so that the poles do not penetrate the round and so that their
height will be constant. The clinometer (zero point) and target (middle line) are adjusted to the same
height with the two poles on level ground. The height of the instrument pole is adapted to the
comfortable eye height of the instrument....
Adjusted Meridian clinometer and target
Use two poles (or rods) with flat bases so that the poles do not penetrate the ground and so that their
height will be constant. The clinometer (zero point) and target (middle line) are adjusted to the same
height with the two poles on level ground. The height of the instrument pole is adapted to the
comfortable eye height of the instrument man.
PHOTO NO. 7 Adjusted Meridian clinometer and target
Checking
The clinometer and target must be checked, before use to ensure that the vertical heights of the
clinometer and the target are equal. Two points are fixed on the ground at an average distance of 20
- 25 m and the gradient is measured in both uphill and downhill. If both readings are equal, then the
instrument and the target adjustment are correct.
Checking
The clinometer and target must be checked before use to ensure that the vertical heights of the
clinometer and the target are equal. Two points are fixed on the ground at an average distance of 20-
25 m and the gradient is measured in both uphill and downhill. If both readings are equal, then the
instrument and the target adjustment are correct.
6.2.2 Compasses
After setting out the zero line by means of clinometer and stakes, the line must be surveyed in order
to make a plan of the route. There are numerous hand-held compasses of modem design which can
be used. These are of two main types, those with protractor base and surveying needle and those
with a swinging needle card without a protractor base.
Compasses with a Protractor base
These instruments have a swinging needle and a circular scale and can be used for direct mapping.
There are universal types for reconnaissance and use of maps but they are not as accurate as
surveying compasses of the second type.
Examples of this type are the Bezard (made in Germany) and the Silva (made in Sweden).
PHOTO NO. 9 Bezard Compass
The use of the Suunto type KB-14-RT-360, illustrated above, is recommended. It has a clockwise
degree graduation 0-360 in black, and a reverse scale in red (code R). The instrument-man must be
sure to read the correct scale.
The reverse scale is useful for controlling the measurement on the line (see 2.4.5 "Routing Process).
The instrument also has an illuminated scale by Bray (code T) for easier reading in dense forests or
during twilight.
PHOTO NO. 11 Rod with flagging as compass target
The magnetic North Pole is not the same thing as the Geographic Pole of the globe The deviation
(difference) between the magnetic meridian and the direction "True North" of the map is called the
DECLINATION. Declination is different in different places of the northern hemisphere, depending
on the geographic longitude and latitude, so that the compass must be adjusted for the region where
it will be used in order that everyone in an area surveys to the same base.
When ordering a Suunto compass, the geographic data for country of use must be given with the
order, since the instrument can only be adjusted during its production at the factory.
Some needle compasses can be adjusted easily with a set screw in the field; however, one must be
careful with waterproofing.
When using a compass it is important that the surveyor keeps the instrument free from attractions
caused by magnetic influences, such as steel parts of spectacles, wrist-watches or iron tools and
equipment. The surveyor must avoid surveying close to electric wires and iron ore deposits. There
are methods for testing the magnetic influences caused by ore bodies but this will not be gone into
here.
6.2.3 Tapes
A measuring tape for rough use in the forest must be strong, reliable and must not stretch when
tightened. The use of fibreglass or steel tapes with metric graduations and a length of 50 m
(fibreglass) or 30 m (steel) is recommended. Steel tapes are more expensive and heavy, and they
should be stainless to avoid rusting. Recently the preference has been for fibreglass tapes which are
cheaper and lighter than steel and are not magnetic.
Tapes must be handled as carefully as other instruments, do not drag them on rough surfaces, unless
they are steel, clean and dry the tape after use and it will last for many years.
PHOTO NO. 13 Fibreglass tape
The Thommen pocket altimeter can be adjusted easily by turning the scale, the altimeter scale is
divided in units of 10 m from 0 to 1000m. The intervals of 1 000 m are accounted in the central
display.
Precision Altimeters
The Paulin precision altimeter (made in Sweden) is a very accurate but lightweight instrument. The
accuracy of this fully compensated altimeter is in the order of ± 5 m.
In order to avoid damages to the instrument the measuring system of the instrument must be locked
during transport by turning the central button anticlockwise. In the measuring position the central
button is turned clockwise until the needle point balance indicator indicates the reading position.
Then the main needle shows the altitude on the circular scale (minimum scales are 5 or 10 m
depending on type). The instrument can be adjusted to actual heights.
PHOTO NO. 16 Paulin Palab altimeter with case
FIGURE 22
Available Types of Paulin Altimeters (according to Paulin)
TYPE ALTITUDE SCALE BAROMETER SCALE
Reconnaissance is the basic tool of forest road location and design. This preliminary work provides
the knowledge of terrain and the forests which enables the engineer to determine the most feasible
and economic road alignment.
During the first field reconnaissance the engineering crew must walk the main and side valleys and
then check the slopes and ridges relative to the preliminary map plan (s) as drafted. Important
characteristics are grades, soils, rock, control points and logging units.
Positive control points are important as well as advantageous places for road construction and
logging, such as bridging points, gentle parts in slopes which are suitable for curves, switchbacks
and better alignment, log landings and easier construction, similarly gravel deposits are extremely
important, as are saddles for crossing from one watershed to another.
Negative control points are very steep slopes (>80%), rock, swamps, landslides, deep canyons and
excessive ridging:
Very steep slopes are mostly rocky and should not be crossed for distances of longer than about 200
m. The considerable excavated material can cause damage to the forest below and when not rock,
erosion and siltation with all their negative impact on the environment can ensue.
During the first reconnaissance the actual situation in the field is carefully checked against the map
and photographs. Details of terrain and control points, field data and sketches are noted in the field
notebook.
By means of the barometric altimeter the relative altitudes of all important control points can be
determined. The instrument is adjusted to the actual altitude of the starting point which can be
identified on the map.
After the first field reconnaissance the preliminary paper locations can be improved and unsuitable
variants of the plan can be discarded.
In mountainous terrain the engineer tries to develop a road system which will allow for the downhill
transport of products, in order to use the natural forces of gravity, it is also important to find suitable
junction points with the public road system.
Beginning from roads in the main valley bottom, the road system is developed up into the slopes.
Road spacing depends on the type of logging and transport systems (see General Planning) which
will be used.
After general cost considerations and comparisons and perhaps more field reconnaissance have
taken place, the most feasible and economic variant of the road system is selected. This selection
should be discussed with the local staff and the authorities before final detailed work commences.
A common problem of design is to determine whether or not a road line can be obtained which fits
within the elevations of the terminal points, bearing in mind the maximum allowable gradient. On a
fairly exact contour map, a draft of a general zero line (grade line) can be drawn by divider setting
(see 6.2). Usually the gradients between control (terminal) points are checked by calculation, the
distance being taken from the map and the relative altitudes being obtained from the barometric
survey. An example is given below.
FIGURE 23 Sketch of a Lengthwise Section (Example)
6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Personnel (size of location crew)
6.4.3 Instruments and Equipment
6.4.4 General Rules for Road Location
6.4.5 Method of Location
6.4.6 Special Problems
6.4.7 Right of Way
6.4.1 Introduction
It is recommended that the "zero line" (or "grade line") method be used in locating a forest road in
steep terrain. The term "zero line" is derived from the German language and means that on this line
there is neither cut nor fill. It is the intersection line between the planes of the original slope and the
eventual formation. The difference between a zero line and a centre line is shown in Figure 24.
FIGURE 24 Zero Line and Centre Line
The zero line can be applied as an element of location only on slopes. It is determined by the use of
a clinometer and is marked on the ground with stakes. The zero line is like an unclosed polygon
with the required gradients which is adapted to the shape of the terrain and to the desired alignment.
This polygon is the guideline for the bulldozer operator during road construction. The formation is
cut with free bends close to the shape of the terrain. This type of work is known as "sidecasting".
The zero line marks the gradient of the road and also the alignment in the slope provided the
distance to the centre line is relatively short. This distance decreases with increasing slope grade.
This does not mean that the alignment of the road can be ignored and special consideration must be
given at points for tight curves, embankments, long cuts and in areas with gentle slopes. In such
cases it is recommended that the centre line also be located.
Lastly, it must be emphasized that intensive training, personal capacity and years of practical
experience are needed to be successful in road location which is one of the most important tasks in
any forest operation.
-1 field notebook
-1 engineer's pocket (leather or canvas) with pencils, eraser, scale and other small
utensils like graphite markers for stakes, plastic flagging, pocket measuring tape, pocket
knife.
- set of tools, bush knives, 1 axe or hammer to drive stakes into the ground, gloves to
protect hands.
- 1 first-aid kit
- snake bit serum and syringe (can be purchased from Haffkine Institute, Bombay, India
- suitable personal equipment. Heavy leather boots are best since steep slopes must be
traversed. "Mountain boots" protect and support the feet best. A raincoat. Daily food
ration (in a plastic box or bag), and a hot drink (in a thermos) carried in a rucksack.
PHOTO NO. 19 Engineer's Pocket with clinometer, compass, altimeter, steel tape. pocket
tape. ruler and scale, pencils
(b) The correction of the gradient is attained by means of the determined height difference and the
distance (drag rope totals).
Correction of grade ± g (%) = h/d x 100
It should be mentioned that the difference between slope and horizontal distances of the location
line is so small that it can be neglected. Therefore, regard the actual distances of the zero line as
horizontal distances.
Second Part: In case of major differences, locate a second route using the improved gradient by
working backwards. A different colour flagging must be used to avoid confusion. Over long
distances a minor difference may again be found and thus a final correction of gradient must be
made.
FIGURE 27 Second Trial "Forward"
Third part:
The two preceding trials (parts 1 and 2) are carried out to determine the correct zero line and can be
regarded as a "detailed reconnaissance". Theoretically at this point all details are known and the
final location can be started. The clinometer and the target are used in order to obtain exact
gradients. The distance between stakes should not exceed 20 to 25 m and should be approximately
equal. The stakes are numbered continuously. The engineer notes the following data in his field
book during this part:
Numbers of stakes, gradients between stakes, representative slope (percent) of terrain
between the stakes, estimated rock component, additional mass of earth and rock which
is not given by the Norm Profiles, description of peculiarities of terrain, culverts and
structures required.
Fourth part: The located zero line is surveyed by means of compass and tape. Again, the engineer
walks ahead and looks back at the target. Thus the correct bearings corresponding to the form in the
field notebook are obtained. By using a second target ahead, the bearings can be checked by means
of the reverse scale of the compass. In the case of a careful survey both bearings7 are noted and
differences should not exceed 1 degree.
7 backsight and foresight
The engineer can also read the distances on the tape and should do the recording. It is recommended
that a tape crew of three men be trained for this task. The readings of distances are rounded to full
decimeters (1/10 of a metre).
During the fourth part the engineer only has to determine the bearings and distances.
A common mistake made by inexperienced personnel is to set stakes too far up valleys or on the
outside of ridges, as shown in Figure 29. the minimum radius should be checked using a 20 m tape
or rope.
Feasible crossing points along creeks and torrents must be selected. Bridge embankments require a
lot of fill material which the bulldozer cuts close to the site, out of the flanks of the valley. The
bulldozing distance should, if possible, not exceed 20 m.
Alteration of Gradient
If it is necessary to reduce or to increase the gradient, the maximum difference between the two
gradients should not exceed 3 percent. In this way a smooth road profile will be obtained. This rule
must be especially observed for the layout of switchbacks and the transition from elevation to
depression ("crest") or vice versa ("valley").
FIGURE 30 "Crest" in the Lengthwise Profile, average distance between the stakes 20-25 m
Torrents which will endanger the road during heavy rainfall should be located in a "valley" of the
profile, with a 0% grade at the crossing. Thus, overflow water is limited to this crossing section.
FIGURE 31 Lengthwise Profile - Road Crossing a Torrent
"Crests" and "valleys" of the profile of a forest road should be located within curves because they
are not as visible here as along straight parts of the road. According to practical experience, it is
recommended that a crest within a curve be located on a ridge, and a valley within a curve be
located in a valley.
Routing Switchbacks
A switchback is generally a narrow bend in a slope where the general direction of the road is altered
by a vertex angle of the bend smaller than 90 degrees. The minimum radius for truckable forest
roads should be at least 11 m.
FIGURE 32 Functions of Road Curves
Switchbacks are often required in order to get to the top of a planned road. These curves are
disadvantageous for transport in that the truck must slow to round the curve and thus transport costs
are affected. Therefore, an important part of planning is to minimize the number of switchbacks on
a road. Several switchbacks in a so-called "zig-zag system" should be avoided if possible because of
the danger of land slides. Switchbacks should be located only if they cannot be avoided, and their
distance from each other in steep terrain should be as long as possible.
FIGURE 33
Examples of Correct and Wrong Serpentine Systems
Cooperatively planned roads CORRECT
Suitable places for switchbacks are positive control points. The hillside slope in these places must
not exceed 40 percent.
A switchback is located as shown in Figure 33. It is recommended that in addition the centre line be
marked, using the tape to mark the radius of the curve.
FIGURE 34 Zero Line and Centre Line of a Switchback -Average distance of the stakes 20-25
m
Invisible Target
During the location of a forest road the target may frequently be invisible because of big trees or
ridges. Three empirical methods are suggested in order to overcome these obstacles:
a) Use intermediate points for the clinometer and the target without driving in stakes.
This simple method is mainly used for crossing small ridges. During the compass
survey the target is elevated above the invisible point until it is visible.
b) If the target is visible from a slightly higher clinometer point, the pole is put at this
point and the clinometer is moved down along the pole until the correct reading is
found. Then the clinometer is fixed by hand at this height on the pole, and the target is
adjusted downward (to 0 percent). The foot point of the target pole is the correct point.
This method is used to pass by big trees or other obstacles.
c) For long cuts across ridges which obstruct the sight, the clinometer is used as a
levelling instrument to transfer the elevation of the last point around the ridge using 0
percent sights. The distance between the terminal points of the cut is determined by
means of the tape and the centre line is marked. By means of the gradient and the
distance the difference in elevations can be calculated easily using the formula:
The final terminal point is located from the transferred 0 percent point using the calculated
difference in elevations.
Slope Gradient
Uphill Downhill
(cross-section)
Earth Rock
30% 4m 4m 4m
40% 5m 4m 6m
50% 6m 5m 6m
60% 7m 5m 8m
70% 8m 6m 10 m
80% 9m 6m 12 m
90% 10 m 7m 12 m
100% 12 m 7m 12 m
5 -9 32.0 199 60 50