VOL 1. ISSUE 3.

2006

FEED TECHNOLOGY UPDATE

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

PELLET QUALITY – INFLUENCE OF STORAGE AND HANDLING
Factors that influence pellet quality

THE TRUTH ABOUT MOISTURE UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION

Achieve that critical pellet-to-pellet stability

SAFE STORAGE OF GRAINS IN THE TROPICS

Hermetic flexible storage provides an alternative to traditional silos
 VOLUME 1. ISSUE 3. 2006

FEED TECHNOLOGY UPDATE

ANIMAL FEED
SOLUTIONS FOR THE GLOBAL FEED INDUSTRY

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

WELCOME
Pellet quality and storage solutions feature in this month’s FTU

PELLET QUALITY—INFLUENCE OF STORAGE

AND HANDLING
Various factors that influence pellet quality discussed

THE TRUTH ABOUT MOISTURE Above:150MT Cocoon™ storing maize in Rwanda.

Cover photo by courtesy of Grainpro
UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION
Why good pellet-to-pellet stability is critically important Feed Technology Update is published by:
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P.O. Box 161081, Honolulu, Hawaii 96816-0924, USA.
SAFE STORAGE OF GRAINS IN THE TROPICS Email: info@linxpublishing.com

A comparison of hermetic storage in flexible silos versus rigid metal or concrete silos © Linx Publishing LLC 2006.
All rights reserved.

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 RUNNING HEAD

Pellet quality and tropical

storage solutions

T he impact of storage and processing on

pellet quality are reviewed in our first article
of this month's FTU. The key factors that
influence pellet quality and the quality tests com-
CONTACTS

SALES OFFICES
Andrew West
monly used are described by Matthias Franke and P.O. Box 411
Andreas Rey. Redhill, Surrey, RH1 6WE, U.K.
Phone: +44 (0) 1737 763501
Good pellet-to-pellet uniformity is critical and if Skype: andywest1204
you are one of the many feed producers who think Fax: +44 (0) 1737 762996
that piece-to-piece variations are not important Email: info@linxpublishing.com
Or: andrew.west733@ntlworld.com
because the product will equilibrate in the bins or
after packaging, think again, says Paul McKeithan, John Brown
48 Beacon View
in his article "The truth about moisture uniformity Marple, Cheshire SK6 6PX U.K.
and equilibration”. Phone +44 (0) 161 427 2402
Tropical climates present particular problems for Skype: jcbconsult
Fax: +44 (0) 161 427 2402
the long-term storage of feeds and feed ingredi- Email: info@linxpublishing.com
ents. Even when properly dried, commodities can Or: jc.brown2@ntlworld.com
suffer from condensation and contamination from
both insects and mycotoxins. Read how hermeti-
cally sealed flexible silos compare as an alterna- DESIGN AND PRODUCTION
Julia Nixon
tive to traditional metal and concrete silos in tropi- Email: julianixon@xtra.co.nz
cal applications.
We wind up this issue with a look around what is
happening in our industry: news briefs, jobs avail- EDITORIAL & ACCOUNTS
able, upcoming events and more. Suzi Fraser Dominy
And now you can keep up-to-date with our pick of 4192-4 Keanu St
Honolulu, Hawaii, 96816, USA.
the feed news in our feed blog, Feedback. Skype: suzidominy
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interesting feed-related stories in the news.
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The FTU Team

Feed Technology Update
Next Month: Aquafeed Production is published by:

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 PELLET QUALITY

Pellet Quality: influence of storage and handling

This article deals in some detail with the various factors that
influence pellet quality
by Matthias Franke and Andreas Rey

I
nvestigations conducted by Dr. K.C.
Behnke, Kansas State University,
show individual parameters and their
weighting with regard to the pellet
quality. The influencing factors shown in the
diagram are considered in more detail
below, as well as elements that usually
receive inadequate attention.
15% 5% cooling
combination
die/rollers
This enables this air to absorb more humid-
ity, and the pellets are dried. This shows
that a high air volume is not necessarily
required to achieve a good drying result. A
large air volume means high air flow veloc-
ity and therefore a shorter period of contact
with the product. The air is heated to a
lesser degree and can therefore absorb less
humidity, which in turn degrades the drying
result. For this reason, the air volume must
be optimized relative to the required values.
This is done by means of the butterfly valve
on the cooling air fan.

[ ]
40% raw
material total cooling air m 3 / min
Specific air volume =
20%
conditioning
material throughput [t / h ]

The ratio of retention (dwell) time to spe-

cific air volume

20% grinding Specific air volume v [m3 / min · t / h

Storage 100

During pellet storage, the temperature is

crucial. The pellets must be sufficiently
cooled after the pelleting process. The pel-
let temperature should be in a range lower
than 10°C above the ambient temperature.
This will prevent condensation inside the
storage bins. The storage bins should be
equipped with an autonomous exhaust sys-
50

tem to absorb major fluctuations in the cli-

mate which might affect the pellet quality.

Cooling
The pellets are additionally dried during the
cooling phase.
The temperature of the air flowing through
Retention
the cooler is increased by the hot pellets.
5 10 15

time [min]
 PELLET QUALITY

The curve diagram shows how the specific

cooling air requirement varies as a function
of the retention time.
The problem of mold growth on the upper
pellet layer as a result of hot and humid air
that may enter the bins – say, when the
weather changes – can best be prevented
by minimizing the pellet storage time. This
is done by today’s feed manufacturers.

Handling
During transportation and handling of pel-
lets, attention must focus on minimizing
production of fines. As a result, agitation of
the pellets must be minimized. At the same
time, care must be taken to ensure move-
ments that are easy on the pellets: low
conveying velocities, low friction, and low
falling heights. The term pellet quality in
this case means hardness and stability. Chain conveyors for sanitation and gentle conveying

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 PELLET QUALITY

PELLET QUALITY TESTING METHODS

Two basically different measurement methods exist to assess and describe the durability and
stability of pellets:
One is “hardness” testing which measures the force required to destroy the pellet.
The unit of measurement is typically [N] or [kP].
The other measurement method is the so-called “durability” test. It uses test devices to inves-
tigate the actual loads acting during transportation and handling on the pellets, simulating
them and measuring the weight (percentage) of fines produced or the weight of the pellets left
over.

Measurement of hardness
Note that during a hardness measurement, several samples must be drawn and analyzed. This
is because the hardness of a given pellet is always measured at one single point, which may
distort the test results if an insufficient quantity of pellets are tested. A good sample size would
be 12 to 20 pellets.

“Kahl” hardness tester

In this measurement procedure, the absolute load withstanding force is
measured in kilograms, i.e. the force is measured that is required to break
the pellet. The device must be operated by hand.

“Schleuniger” tablet tester

This device is used to measure the absolute load withstanding
capacity in kilograms, i.e. the force that is needed to break the
pellet. The pellet must merely be placed in the device,
after which the process will take place automatically.

Durability or abrasion test

Here, the following test devices and methods have gained wide acceptance:

Holmen
In this measurement method, 100 grams of dust-free pellets
(mesh width 0.8 x diameter of the pellets) are cycled in a pneumatic
circulation system during 1 to 2 minutes.
After the fines have been removed by sieving, the remaining pellets
are
weighed. Then the durability factor is determined, i.e. the weight of the
pellets is stated relative to the total weight as a percentage (DLU).

“Pfost” method
In this measurement method, 500 grams of pellets each are filled into the two plastic
containers. After they have been rotated 500 times, the pellets are removed again,
sieved, and weighed.
The measure of the pellet quality is either the so-called

Durability Factor DLU = m fines

m total sample
or the

Durability Index PDI = m remaining pellets

m total sample
 PELLET QUALITY

Action for improving pellet quality

Granulation / grinding
Finely milled formulated feed has positive
effects on the pellet quality. In practice,
however, some restrictions exist such as
the high energy requirement of the hammer
mill, the limited throughput capacity of the
hammer mill, and problems with the flow of
product in the presence of an excessively
fine particle size. As a result, a typical com-
pound feed will have an average particle
size of approximately 0.5 to 0.7 mm, with
no particles > 1 – 1.5 mm. Otherwise, such
a particle will act as a kind of predeter-
mined breaking point in the pellet.

20% depends on grinding, whether done by Hammer-

mill (left) or by roller mill (above)

Conditioning
Today, the conditioning process is ex-
pected to meet new requirements. The
main reasons for conditioning used to be Flexible conditioning; separated mixing and time
controlled retention process
the production of hard pellets, e.g.
 PELLET QUALITY
• creation of liquids bridges
• plasticizing of individual particles
• increase in throughput rates due
to lubrication effects
• reduction of pelleting costs
through lower energy consump-
tion
• increase in the service lives of
dies and rollers
• partial gelatinization of starch
Today, special attention is paid to the re-
duction of germ and bacteria counts. Since
the need to reduce the germ count and the
requirement to achieve a high pellet hard-
ness clash to a certain extent, the condi-
tioning process must be of very flexible de-
sign. This is achieved by splitting the condi-
tioning process into a mixing phase and a
time-controlled retention process.
Die / rollers
The rollers in conjunction with the die are
the most important elements of a pellet
mill.
It is enormously important to ensure the
most uniform spreading of the mash across
the entire width of the die and the rollers in
a pellet mill in order to achieve the most
consistent pelleting conditions possible.
The higher the pellet quality requirements,
Pellet mill
the longer normally the active die hole
length selected. This applies basically wher-
ever the pellet quality cannot be further im-
proved by selecting a higher conditioning
temperature. This is especially true with
products with an elevated fat content.
Raw material
As described above, the blending of the raw
materials has the greatest impact on the
pelleting process. Thus, for example, by
adding pelleting aids with or without nutri-
tional substances, adhesive forces can be
created inside the pellet or, by adding fat,
the pellet mill throughput can be increased
and the energy requirement reduced.
About the authors:
Matthias Franke is Product Manager and An-
dreas Rey, Marketing Services, Buhler AG,
Uzwil, Switzerland. For more information
contact:
andreas.rey@buhlergroup.com or
matthias.franke@buhlergroup.com
Visit the Buhler website
See Buhler on FeedLink
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 MOISTURE UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION
The truth about moisture uniformity and
equilibration
By Paul McKeithan
E
veryone knows that feed moisture
uniformity is important and most
plants monitor the uniformity of the
product. However, not everyone
understands how critical it is to have a good
pellet to pellet uniformity.
Here are a number of reasons why you
need to take a closer look at your product
moisture uniformity.
Product Quality
Product stability is one of the main reasons
you monitor moisture content. You are ac-
tually targeting a certain water activity in
the product. Water activity is defined as “a
measure of the energy status of the water
in a system or the degree to which water is
“bound” and, hence, its availability to act as
a solvent and participate in chemical and
biochemical reactions and growth of micro-
organisms.” 1 It is important to monitor this
water activity to know that the feed is at a
stable state and, therefore, does not have
enough free water to create microbial
growth.
However, it is not as practical to measure
water activity in a production environment
so moisture content is generally measured
instead. For a given product moisture con-
tent can be related to the water activity.
With this knowledge you can target feed
moisture that is safe from mold and an ac-
ceptable quality for your customers.
Production Economics
If you are producing dried extruded feed
and you are not focusing on your drying
uniformity, you may be wasting a signifi-
cant amount of money. You are aware that
non-uniform drying can cause mold growth
in your packaged product due to wet pel-
lets, or result in wasted money due to ex-
cessive energy used to over-dry some pel-
lets, but you may be overlooking the big-
gest cost of non-uniform drying.
Drying your product non-uniformly is like
throwing product out the exhaust stack.
This is because your feed product is sold
based on the weight of product shipped out
your door. One of the key specifications for
feed products is the moisture content.
Suppose that your finished feed cannot con-
tain over 10% moisture, and that your drier
is only drying the product to +/- 3% mois-
ture on a wet weight basis. This means
that you must dry your product to 7% mois-
ture on average in order to ensure that no
product is over the 10% moisture maxi-
mum. The result is that you are sending
3% less product to packaging than if you
dried to only 10% moisture. This lost pro-
duction is going out the drier exhaust stack
in the form of water vapor. If your drier
could be made to dry more uniformly, you
could raise your discharge moisture and get
more production out of your dry feed line
with no additional cost or ingredients.
The value of this lost production can be
staggering. Consider a 15 ton/hour dry feed
line that is producing feed overdried by just
3% moisture. If the line runs 24 hours per
day for 350 days a year, the lost production
is:
15tph× 24hr / day×350days/ year×3% = 3780tons/ year
That’s an additional 3,780 tons of product
per year that could be sold simply by drying
more uniformly.
 MOISTURE UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION
Most common causes of poor moisture
uniformity
First, the product must be consistently ex-
truded. Once an extruder is set-up and al-
lowed to run in a steady state production it
will usually produce a consistent feed. The
feed that leaves the extruder is high in
moisture and temperature and therefore
willing to release its moisture quickly.
The drying curve is linear at this time;
meaning that the product will lose its mois-
ture as if it was just a cup of water. It is
critical that each piece of product travels
the same process path as it goes from a
soft wet feed to the stable dry feed. Any
difference along this path is a source of in-
consistent product moisture. Some of the
more common areas for this moisture dif-
ference occur in the drier and are caused by
but not limited to: inconsistent bed loading,
uneven airflow, and uneven product reten-
tion time.
Tips to improve moisture uniformity
The drying process is often where the most
product moisture inconsistency can be in-
troduced so it is important to have this
process evaluated. An experienced drier
expert will be able to adjust the drier to
achieve its best potential moisture uniform-
ity for that particular drier configuration and
design. The drier expert should also con-
duct a detailed moisture uniformity check.
Most daily process moisture samples are
taken after the drying process in a mixed
product stream. This sample would repre-
sent a masked sample.
Taking a sample every so often is fine for
production records, but for product quality
or economics, a more discrete set of mois-
ture samples must be taken. It is important
that you understand your piece to piece
product moisture uniformity.
Moisture Equilibration
You may be one of the many feed produc-
You may be one of the many feed
producers who feel that piece-to-
piece variations are not important
since you believe that product will
equilibrate in the bins or after
packaging. This is not the case!
ers who feel that piece to piece variations
are not important since you believe that
product will equilibrate in the bins or after
packaging. This is not the case!
The following graph shows typical results
from tests conducted using extruded feed to
monitor the rate of equilibration.
This particular test placed several samples of
9mm extruded feed taken at two different
moisture contents in a sealed bag.
The wet sample was approximately 12.5 %
moisture wet weight basis. The dry sample
was approximately 5.5% moisture wet
weight basis. These samples were mixed and
packaged together.
The combined average moisture content,
similar to a typical production moisture
sample, was approximately 9.2%. At differ-
ent intervals the samples were analyzed and
the results were telling. The equilibration
curve may surprise you.
The graph below shows the equilibration
curve for seven hours. There is some equili-
bration but it is clear the curves do not meet
at the average. Even after several days the
product maintained a 3% moisture differ-
ence.
So, although the average moisture sample
was 9.2%, after seven hours the bag still
contained product with moisture content
over 11%.
 MOISTURE UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION

Equilibration Curve
1 kg wet with 1 kg dry feed mixed in plastic lined bag

14.00
13.00
12.00
Moisture (%wwb)

11.00
10.00 Dry Product (%wwb)
9.00 Wet Product (% wwb)
8.00 Average (%wwb)
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hours)

This higher moisture content could cause
mold growth yielding product unacceptable
to your customers.
So with this in mind, when you are per-
forming a moisture tolerance investigation,
you should check your product after the
drying stage and prior to any mixing.
Because this can be difficult, let’s review
some important considerations.
The vast majority of extruded feed driers
are horizontal conveyor driers. However, a
few producers have installed some vertical
semi-continuous batch driers on extruded
feed lines.
Different methods are required. Typically,
taking samples from a conveyor drier is
much easier due to better access and is
continuous rather than a semi-continuous
mode of operation.
Collecting product moisture samples
from a conveyor drier
On a conveyor drier, you will want to inves-
tigate cross machine moisture variations, as
well as transient moisture variations in
time.
You may also want to take samples from
the first or second bed in a two or three
pass drier to help in pinpointing the source
of the variations.
Figure 1 on the next page shows where to
take the discharge samples.
 MOISTURE UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION
Product Feed
Discharge Sample
Figure 1: Side view of a two-pass Horizontal
Convection Conveyor drier showing the sample
location
The samples should be taken as a matrix
in the vertical plane of the product prior
to discharge from the bed. The bed of
product can typically be accessed through
the end doors of the drier.
Figure 2 shows the discharge product sample
matrix.
Collecting product moisture samples
from a vertical drier
Taking samples from a vertical drier is
considerably more difficult since you have
very limited access to the decks of prod-
uct. Also, you will need to take more
samples in a “set” of samples since the
vertical drier is a batch operation rather
than a true continuous operation.
This means that you are now looking to
measure moisture variations across the
whole deck of product rather than just
across the bed as in a conveyor drier.
Unfortunately, these difficulties make it
very challenging to take a proper set of
samples from the vertical drier.
You will need to find a safe and effective
way to collect these samples as different
vertical configurations present different
challenges to access the product prior to
mixing.
You should remember that a moisture
gradient can exist through the depth of
the product as well as across the width
and length of the deck.
Remember that you should not take sam-
ples at the discharge because this will be
a mixed sample that can mask the piece
to piece moisture content.
 MOISTURE UNIFORMITY AND EQUILIBRATION

Product sample loca-

tion. Last heating
level prior to cooling.

Figure 3: Hot spot and its impact on grain

So why should you care? About the author:

As pointed out in this article, there are many Paul D. McKeithan, E.I. is a Market Man-
compelling reasons to care about product ager for Aeroglide Corporation. Paul
moisture uniformity. With a tight moisture has evaluated hundreds of convection dri-
tolerance the economical savings are great. ers all over the world. He has also con-
You are now efficiently utilizing your cheap- ducted drying theory classes in many dif-
est product ingredient - water, without fear ferent industries and countries.
of producing an unstable and non-saleable Contact him for more information at:
product. And with new evidence that shows pmckeithan@aeroglide.com
product moisture equilibration is at best
dampening the effect of significant moisture
uniformity, the key is having the right drying
equipment and operating it properly.
1
Publication no. W-1999-1214-01F. 2000 Ameri-
can Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc. Under-
standing the Importance of Water Activity in
Food, A.J. Fontana, Jr.

RETURN TO CONTENTS PAGE

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ET-154D.indd 1 1/24/06 1:49:47 PM

 GRAIN STORAGE

Safe storage of grain in the tropics

A comparison of hermetic storage in flexible silos versus rigid
metal or concrete silos
By Philippe Villers, Tom de Bruin, and Dr. Shlomo Navarro

I n modern hermetically sealed “silos”

such as Cocoons (as shown in Figure 1),
the bagged grain is stored under modi-
fied atmospheric conditions, insulated from
the ambient atmosphere by means of a
special fabric that serves as a gas barrier.
Fig. 1:
300MT Cocoon with GrainShade storing paddy in
the Philippines
The metabolism of the organisms in the
stored products, including insects found in
grains, creates a Modified Atmosphere (MA)
with high CO2 and low O2 conditions. The
low-permeability, flexible PVC material used
in the Cocoons both prevents changes in
humidity and protects the stored grains
from rodents.
This MA controls the insect population, pre-
vents development of fungi (molds) and
slows down oxidation. The unique design
and PVC material of the Cocoon protect the
commodities from rodent attack. With the
use of a Cocoon, all quality aspects of the
grain, seeds or other dry agricultural prod-
ucts are protected without the need for fu-
migation or aeration.
By contrast, in non-hermetic, traditional
metal or concrete silos, grain is loaded into
the silos by several means, including the
use of bucket elevators. Once the grain is
stored in non-hermetic conditions, it is ex-
posed to atmospheric oxygen and external
humidity, and therefore, insect infestation
cannot be controlled without the use of
toxic pesticides.
Metal and concrete silo technologies origi-
nated in Europe and in the United States,
where temperate climates, particularly in
winter, permit the use of ventilation sys-
tems built into the silos to cool the grain
during the cold season. Most storage pests
are not active at temperatures of less than
20oC.
A properly built conventional silo is effective
in protecting against rodents but in tropical
climates, does not prevent moisture con-
densation and subsequent moisture in-
crease within the stored commodities.

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processing technology
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www.FeedLink.com
 GRAIN STORAGE
Table 1 – Comparison of Hermetic Storage Vs Conventional Silos in Tropics

Item of comparison Hermetic (“Cocoon TM”) Conventional metal or concrete

storage bin silos
Control measures if Control by depleted O2. Gas Grain will have to be unloaded and
infestation occurs analyzer enables follow up on treated with phosphine (PH3)
infestation level, detection of
leak
Fumigation Not needed Required every 6—12 weeks
Condensation at No, if “GrainShade” provided High risk if storage is above 1
14% MC with Cocoon is used properly month and grain is not sufficiently
dry (low moisture content (MC)
Protection from Protected Protected
rodents
Length of storage Unlimited 1—3 months depending on cli-
mate, silo material (metal or con-
crete), the extent of the exposure
of the roof to absorb solar energy,
and initial MC of the commodity
Moisture level of Remains constant Moisture content will rise signifi-
commodity cantly due to condensation
Aeration Not needed Is required in temperate climates,
but it is ineffective in tropics due
to lack of cold nights
Life span of the 10—15 years 20—25 years (if metal is painted
structure periodically against corrosion, and
concrete with adequate mainte-
nance)
Set up Can be set up at any location Needs concrete floor, access road,
construction time
Infrastructure re- None Road, electricity
quired
Auxiliary equipment None Bucket elevator, fans, “sweeper”
auger
Price per MT US$50—US$80 US$100—250 (including infra-
(investment) structure and handling equipment)
Mobility (ability to Excellent Impossible once set up
move/dismantle si-
los and move them
to another area)
Hazards Rodents (but can easily be Dust explosion, caking due to
prevented) excess of moisture content,
condensation
Safe storage Proven under tropical condi- Storage may not be extended
duration tions for long term storage above 1—3 months
 GRAIN STORAGE

Background information

P roblems of metal or concrete silos

for long-term storage in the tropics:
In tropical climates, even if the
commodity is sufficiently dry, it suffers
“Conventional silos operate successfully
in continental, temperate and
subtropical climates where a cold
from two major problems if stored within
metal or concrete silos: season exists”.
1. Condensation occurring below the roof
of the silos and at the top layers of the protected against change in moisture con-
grain bulk, leading to fungal and insect tent (which is accompanied by rapid mold
growth. development), oxidation, or insect infesta-
tion.
2. Contamination with fumigants and
Conventional silos operate successfully in
chemical contact insecticides necessarily
continental, temperate and subtropical cli-
used to prevent insect infestation.
mates where a cold season exists.
Cylindrical metal or concrete silos were
designed for storing grain in bulk. Grain Figure 2. Diagram showing factors having an im-
in a silo is protected against rain, but not pact on stored grain
 GRAIN STORAGE

The temperature of grain stored in non- designed to have no headspace and to be

tropical climates rises because of high
moisture content (MC) or insect infesta-
tion but can be reduced by mechanical
aeration - using fans that take advantage
of the cold air available during the night
or during the cold season. If well man-
aged, aeration can control insect popula-
tions, which are suppressed at tempera-
tures below 18oC.
Humidity and Condensation
protected from large temperature gradients.
Infestation
B ecause in metal and concrete silos in
tropical climates the grain bulk can-
not be properly cooled (unless refrig-
eration is applied), infestation is a common
feature. Infestation usually occurs in spots
where large populations of insects also de-
velop; however, uniform distribution of the
infestation is also possible. Infestation gen-

C
ondensation in metal or concrete erates more heat and thus creates favorable
silos is the result of heat build-up at conditions for further insect and mold devel-
the headspace of the grain bulk, opment.
followed by cooling. This is caused both
by direct sunshine on the roof and the
walls of the silo and by high prevailing
daytime temperatures. Warm air has the
capacity to hold more water than cold air
and, aided by convection currents, warm
headspace air in the silo absorbs moisture
from the grain by adjusting its relative
humidity to that of the grain. This mois-
ture is transferred to the headspace air
from the grain inside the silo through dif-
fusion and “convection currents”.
(Remember the principle: warm air rises,
cold air goes down!)
At night the ambient temperature drops
and so does the temperature in the head-
space of the silo. As the temperature goes
down, the air in the headspace which has
become over-saturated with moisture
then releases its excess of water. This is
known as condensation drops or
“sweating.”
These drops settle at the roof of the silo
and will eventually drip onto the top sur-
face layer of the grain bulk and along the
walls. Wet grain at the top of the bulk
forms, a phenomenon called “caking.” The
grain becomes moldy and black, heats up
during the warm day and, if not removed
in time, can ignite due to spontaneous
combustion. By contrast, a Cocoon is
Figure 3: Hot spot and its impact on grain
 GRAIN STORAGE
Moisture absorption
T he commodity should be stored dry
at a safe moisture content (MC). For
corn, this is set at 12.0% (which is
in equilibrium with 60% relative humidity)
because molds develop at higher relative
humidities.
Insect population
Density of
Figure 4: Effect of relative humidity on mold density
Silos in the tropics
I n the tropics average temperatures are
around 30oC and the relative humidity
fluctuates between 70-90%. The water
vapor capacity of this warm and humid air
is high, particularly when the headspace
heats to 50oC. This air, at a relative
humidity of 65%, may contain as much as
62g of water per m3 air.
When this air cools to a temperature of
30oC, its maximum water vapor capacity
drops to 29 g water/ m3 air. The excess of
water vapor condenses on the roof (inside
the silo) and each m3 air releases about 33
g of water for each day/night cycle.
Although day and nighttime temperature
differences are very limited in tropical
climates (usually not more than 5oC), the
problem arises due to heating of air at the
headspace of the silo. The exposed metal
roof temperature can easily heat up to 60
o
C or more, aggravating the condensation.
Thus, a commodity stored at 14% MC (at
70% RH) in a silo in the tropics is exposed
both to high relative humidity and high tem-
perature. Operation of the ventilation system
is generally ineffective since the cooling ef-
fect of air with a day/night temperature dif-
ference of 5oC is extremely low. In addition
the ventilation system helps to expose the
commodity to air with a high relative humid-
ity (RH), thus increasing the MC of the com-
modity.
As a result, insects easily develop in the grain
(optimal temperatures for storage pest devel-
opment is 28-35oC). In addition, when the
MC increases, molds and related aflatoxin
easily develop.
Insect population
Density of
Figure 5: Effect of temperature on insect infestation
Eventually, heat build-up at the roof and
walls will result in condensation which, under
tropical conditions, cannot be prevented due
to inability to cool the grain sufficiently.
What about existing silos in the tropics?
M
any traditional metal and concrete
silo complexes exist in the tropics,
often built without sufficient under-
standing of the unique problems of storing
grain in that environment. As a result, in
some countries such as Nigeria, millions of
dollars worth of storage capacity is standing
idle.
In the Philippines, a number of silo complexes
acquired for storing paddy are unused due to
the problems mentioned above. For example,
 GRAIN STORAGE
feed millers have had severe problems of
caking of corn in their silos, requiring them
to clean the silo walls at great expense.
Although it is possible to hermetically seal
conventional silos, the expenses involved
are substantial. Silo roofs have to be insu-
lated and walls may have to be painted
white to reduce heat absorption. A solution
is needed to cope with air expansion due to
fluctuation of temperature.
Hermetic storage in flexible liners called Co-
coons* such as those shown in Figure 6 be-
low, offers an alternative solution.
Fig. 6 - 150MT Cocoon™ storing maize in Rwanda
It preserves the quality of the grain and is a
totally environmentally user-friendly and
green solution. Applying the existing her-
metic technology to new metal silos to cre-
ate Hermetic Silos™ for bulk grain storage
is also possible using the same flexible PVC
as in Cocoons. However, retrofitting exist-
ing silos in this manner would be quite diffi-
cult.The use of (patented) hermetic storage
using Cocoons, as described above, is now
used in some 20 countries for applications
as varied as:
1) long-term safe seed and grain storage
without refrigeration; 2) preserving taste
and aroma of coffee, cocoa and spices; and
RETURN TO CONTENTS PAGE
3) using either vacuum or purging with CO2
or Nitrogen for rapid fumigation of high-
value commodities as different as figs and
historically important museum pieces.
Fig. 7 - IRRI Rice Seed in SuperGrainbags
Recently, (as seen in Figure 7) the introduc-
tion of a novel type of low cost hermetic lin-
ers for conventional bags, called Super-
Grainbags™, allows 50Kg bags of grains or
seed to benefit from hermetic storage.
For further information contact
Tom Debruin:
tom@grainpro.com or visit:
www.agri.gov.il/Envir/envir.html and
www.grainpro.com
For a list of references contact Dr. Shlomo
Navarro, Agricultural Research Organization
snavarro@volcani.agri.gov.il
About the authors:
Philippe Villers is President, GrainPro Inc.,
Concord, MA 01742 U.S.A.; Tom de Bruin
is Vice President, Sales & Marketing, Grain-
Pro, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines and Dr.
Shlomo Navarro is Principal Scientist,
Dept of Food Science, Agricultural Research
Organization, Bet-Dagan, Israel.
Victam Int 07 A4 ad 17/2/06 2:11 pm Page 1

VICTAM
International2007
THE WORLD’S PREMIER EVENT FOR SUPPLIERS TO THE ANIMAL &

AQUATIC FEED, PETFOOD AND GRAIN PROCESSING INDUSTRIES

8 – 10 May 2007 • Jaarbeurs Halls, Utrecht • The Netherlands

VICTAM INTERNATIONAL 2007 will bring together exhibitors and visitors from all over the world who are
concerned with animal feed technology, animal feed additives, aqua feed technology and ingredients, petfoods,
specialist animal feeds, raw materials, flour milling, grain processing, storage, handling & transportation,
explosion prevention and biomass technology.

VICTAM ANIMAL FEED INGREDIENTS

Ingredients for health and nutrition, feed additives and feed formulation

VICTAM ANIMAL FEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Animal feed production technology, machinery, processing, automation, packaging, etc.

VICTAM AQUAFEED PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY & INGREDIENTS

Aquafeed ingredients & production technology, machinery, processing, packaging, etc.

VICTAM PETFOOD PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY & INGREDIENTS

Ingredients, production technology, machinery, processing and packaging of dry petfoods

VICTAM FLOUR, GRAIN, RICE & RAW MATERIALS PROCESSING

Flour milling technology & additives, rice, grain, alfalfa/lucerne & other raw materials & their processing technology

VICTAM STORAGE & HANDLING TECHNOLOGY

Storage, handling and transportation systems, together with port un/loading facilities

VICTAM BIOMASS TECHNOLOGY

Systems & technology used in biomass processing, for use as alternative energy sources, including services and
technology to facilitate organic waste re-cycling

VICTAM EXPLOSION PREVENTION

Systems & equipment used within industrial premises to monitor and maintain safety and prevent fire & explosions

OPTIMIZE PROFIT THROUGH NUTRITION & TECHNOLOGY

Organised by VICTAM INTERNATIONAL BV
Netherlands: PO Box 197, 3860 AD Nijkerk, The Netherlands.
T: ++31 (0)33 246 4404 F: ++31 (0)33 246 4706 E: Beaveldhuizen@victam.com
UK: PO Box 411, Redhill, RH1 6WE, UK.
T: ++44 (0)1737 763501 F: ++44 (0)1737 762996 E: Andrew.west733@ntlworld.com
Or visit our website www.victam.com for your local sales consultant
 MILLING AROUND

WHAT’S NEW AT FEEDLINK

Oak Bluff, Mani- ON-
ON-LINE RESOURCES
toba, Canada-based
G. J. Vis Enterprises Inc., is the Kansas State University
latest member of FeedLink.
Grain Science Library
Vis plans and designs feed mills
with projects ranging from
Most of these free-access
20,000 to 400,000 tonnes per
feed production “bulletins”
annum for mash and pelleted
are far from new—but there
feeds. The company also
is a wealth of useful technical
manufactures a wide range of
information in these papers
bulk storage bins, material
that withstand time:
handling equipment and proc-
essing equipment to industrial Avoiding Drug Carryover During
standards. Feed Processing and Delivery
See details of the services Vis PDF
has to offer as well as more about the company and de- Bagged Ingredient Storage
tails of their product range here: Vis on FeedLink. PDF
Bulk Ingredient Storage PDF
Effects of Diet Particle Size on
DRYER OPTIMIZATION Animal Performance PDF
Evaluating Feed Components and
Geelen Counterflow has recently performed a complete
Finished Feeds PDF
analysis of all dryers installed at a major European Evaluating Particle Size PDF
private label petfood producer. Engineers from the com- Grain Grading Standards in Feed
missioning team visited six plants in four countries and Manufacturing PDF
analysed eight dryers (both horizontal and vertical) from Hammermills and Roller mills
four different suppliers. PDF
They performed a review of the mechanical condition of Mycotoxins in Feed Grains and
the dryers which were in some cases over 10 years old. Ingredients PDF
Energy efficiency and moisture uniformity were meas- Portable Grinder Mixers PDF
Premixing PDF
ured, as well as air exhaust volumes.
Preventative Maintenance for
At the end of the tests, a detailed report was presented Feed Processing Facilities and
to the group's directors. Opportunities for improvement Equipment PDF
were identified and discussed. Rotating Drum Mixers PDF
In total the potential savings in energy efficiency and Safety Measures in Handling
moisture uniformity were calculated as in excess of €1 Stored Grain PDF
million per year. That is excluding the financial impact of Sampling: Procedures for Feed
better product quality and lower cleaning and mainte- PDF
nance costs. Sampling: Statistical and Eco-
nomic Analysis PDF
A short list was prepared with a number of relatively
Statistical Process Control: Tech-
small mechanical improvements to the dryers. niques for Feed Manufacturing
As a follow up, the Geelen Counterflow team will be PDF
organising a set of seminars for the group's plant manag- Testing Mixer Performance
ers and operators to improve their understanding of the PDF
drying process.
Visit Kansas State
University Grain Science
For more information contact Sander Geelen at
Department
sander.geelen@geelencounterflow.com
 MILLING AROUND

UPCOMING DATES FOR YOUR DIARY

April 23-26, 2006 NEWS WATCH
Alltech's 22nd International Feed Industry Symposium
Lexington, Kentucky, USA Escalating bird flu crisis
Delivering on the Nutrigenomics Promise:This year’s program jeopardizes global poultry
brings together scientists and decision-makers from around the trade prospects
world to discuss the latest advances in animal feeding programs Reduced consumption is lowering
and their impact on animals and ultimately human health. poultry prices and import de-
More details mand
Recent avian influenza outbreaks
April 13-16, 2006 in Europe, the Middle East and
International Fair of Mill Machinery & Related Grain Tech- Africa have caused dramatic
nologies 2006 swings in poultry consumption,
World Trade Center, Istanbul, Turkey increased trade bans and sharp
Supported by Flour Industrialists Association and Turkish Grain price declines, FAO said.
Board, the first show, in 2005 was visited by 5500 professional Avian flu and global poultry
visitors from 36 countries. More details markets
FAO's avian influenza web-
April 26-28, 2006
Food and Feed Extrusion New Zealand site
Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
The course covers the principles of extrusion, the design of ex- US Cow Tests Positive for BSE
trusion processes, and the formulation of extruded products. It The United States Department of
includes a practical demonstration of the principles learned using Agriculture has confirmed that a
a twin screw extruder at the Institute of Food, Nutrition, non-ambulatory animal on a
and Human Health at Massey University. farm in Alabama has Bovine
The program is relevant to both single and twin screw extrusion Spongiform Encephalopathy
technology, and to the production of all types of extruded prod- (BSE). The cow is believed to
ucts - including expanded snacks and breakfast cereals, pastas have been upwards of 10 years
and third generation snack pellets, pet foods and aquafeeds. of age. This would indicate that
More information this animal would have been
born prior to the implementation
May 2-4, 2006 of the Food and Drug Admini-
Food and Feed Extrusion Australia stration's 1997 ruminant-to-
Roseworthy Campus of Adelaide University at Gawler in South ruminant feed ban.
Australia (See above) More information USDA APHIS BSE Home
Page
May 5, 2006
Aquafeed Extrusion Workshop
Roseworthy Campus of Adelaide University at Gawler in South Protocol for monitoring of
Australia (See above) More Information heavy metals in feed included
in GMP+:2006
June 12-16, 2006 Excess level of cadmium in zinc
Feed Microscopy Short Course sulphate from China prompted
Manhattan, Kansas, USA Netherlands-based feed industry
This short course covers all aspects of feed microscopy from ba- regulatory body, PDV to estab-
sic stereomicroscopy techniques to advanced compound micros- lish new controls.
copy. More information The protocol is part of Appendix
4 “Minimum Requirements for
Inspection and Control”.
MORE DIARY DATES ON THE CALENDARS AT The content of the protocol
FeedLink.com and Aquafeed.com is available here as a PDF

VICTAM ASIA A HUGE SUCCESS
“More than exceeded our
expectations” is just one
quote from one of the many
satisfied exhibitors at the
recent Victam Asia 2006
event held in Bangkok from
the March 8-10, 2006.
The general reaction to the
event from visitors, confer-
ence delegates and exhibi-
tors was that the overall
event was a great success.
MILLING AROUND
Just on 4,000 visitors from
many countries throughout
Southeast Asia attended
the trade show at which
128 exhibitors from all over
the world participated.
The exhibition had for the
first time included exhibi-
tion pavilions from both
Thailand and the PRC.
CONFERENCES
The event was supported
by a technical conference
organized by the Thai
Department of Livestock
and Development and the
Thai Tapioca Trade Board.
Almost 180 delegates
attended a series of techni-
cal papers presented by ex-
perts from the Thai feed
industry.
Aquafeed.com also held a
one day workshop entitled
“Optimize for Profit”. This
workshop, devoted to aqua-
culture feed, attracted 153
delegates from throughout
the Asia/Pacific region.
NEWS WATCH
Sixth feedmill for Cargill in
Viet Nam
Cargill Vietnam has commenced
construction of its sixth animal
feed mill in Vietnam.
The 150,000 tpa mill is being
built in the Mekong delta prov-
ince of Long An at a cost of
US$12 million and will boost
Cargill Vietnam's feed processing
capacity to more than 700,000
tpa.
Cargill Vietnam General Director
Scott Ainslie said that Viet Nam
is a promising market for animal
feed and that his company plans
to build two or three more facto-
ries in the country by 2010.
Mad cow disease on the wane
worldwide says FAO
Cases of Bovine Spongiform
Encepalopathy (BSE) or “mad
cow disease” worldwide are
declining, according to the UN
Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion (FAO). They have been
dropping at the rate of some 50
percent a year over the past
three years. In 2005, just 474
animals died of BSE around the
world, compared with 878 in
2004 and 1646 in 2003, and
against a peak of several tens of
thousands in 1992.
Don’t be the one who didn’t
see it coming
Visit our news blog
FEEDBACK

Abstracts of these papers
can be obtained from
Aquafeed.com.
Dr. Chaweewan Leowijuk,
Deputy Director General of
the Thai Department of
Livestock Development
praised the many exhibitors
for participating at the
event in Bangkok and said
that the organization of the
event in Thailand supported
the importance of Thailand’s
Work into replacing sulfur dioxide with environmentally friendly
enzymes in corn earns recognition for scientist
In February 2006 food tech-
nologist, David Johnston,
was honored as the United
States Department of Agri-
culture (USDA) Agriculture
Research Service (ARS)
"Outstanding Early Career
Research Scientist" for the
year 2005.
David Johnston, a research
food technologist with the
ARS Crop Conversion
Science and Engineering Re-
search Unit in Wyndmoor,
PA, USA, was one of eight
"Early Career Scientists of
the Year". He was awarded
the highest of these honors,
the Herbert L. Rothbart Out-
standing Early Career Re-
search Scientist of the Year.
MILLING AROUND
agriculture industry not just
as a major exporter but also
as a centre of excellence for
feed and food production.
The next Victam Asia will be
held again in Bangkok
during the Spring of 2008.
Visit Victam’s website
for details.
Johnston’s work has focused
on developing novel, envi-
ronmentally sustainable bio-
chemical and engineering
processes that are improving
the way corn is processed
into foods and fuels around
the world.
He started his efforts to
replace sulfur dioxide with
environmentally friendly
enzymes in the corn wet
milling process but realized In this video (6 minutes)
that ethanol production could Johnston describes his work.
also benefit.
The valuable co-products re- VIDEO (Windows Media
sulting from ethanol produc- Player required. If you don't
have it, download it for free
tion using enzymes qualify as
here
organic, contributing a valu- More about Johnston's re
able feed resource for or- search
ganic feeds. Johnston's projects
 MILLING AROUND

Slight decrease in EU feed

production in 2005 JOB OPPORTUNITIES

On the Aquafeed.com
European feed federation, stressing that it was still very JOB BOARD
FEFAC, members reported difficult to provide accurate
a total production of 143.6 estimates due to the very
million tonnes (mt) of com- volatile market situation. Animal Feed Mill Manager -
pound feed in 2005, repre- France, Italy and Hungary Oman
senting a slight decrease of may see the strongest nega- Qualified and experienced man-
0.6% in total compound feed tive impact given the relative ager for a 960 tonne/day Buhler
production compared to the importance of poultry feed animal feedmill. The successful
previous year. production in these countries applicant will be responsible for
The regression spanned and persisting negative con- overall production and manage-
ment of the mill. View/Reply
evenly over all feed catego- sumer sentiment towards
ries with the exception of poultry products. Director, Aquatic Feeds and
milk replacers (+1.3%). Since compensation effects Nutrition Department Oceanic
Among the large feed pro- between meat categories will Institute - Hawaii
ducing countries Poland be very limited, total EU The Department’s objective is to
(+7.9%), Spain (+3.7%) and compound feed output may support cost effective and sus-
the Netherlands (+2.5%) therefore shrink by up to 3 – tainable aquaculture technology
booked significant production 4% until the end of the year. development by optimizing feeds
gains whereas Belgium (- FEFAC, the European Com- and culture management prac-
tices in tropical and subtropical
5.6%), Hungary (-4.2%) and pound Feed Manufacturers
environments. View/Reply
the UK (-3.2%) faced impor- Federation (FEFAC), repre-
tant losses. Spain has over- sents 22 national Associa- Logistics Manager - N. Africa
taken Germany as the sec- tions in 21 EU Member Logistics Manager to manage a
ond largest compound feed States as well as Associations leading North African based food
producing country in the EU. from Switzerland, Norway groups raw material and finished
and Turkey with observer/ products transportation. This is a
Impact of bird flu associate member status. senior position with an excellent
The media coverage on Avian The European compound tax free ex-pat package.
View/Reply
Influenza led to an important feed industry produces more
slowdown of poultry produc- than 140 mt of compound Scientist Fish Nutrition -
tion towards the end of feed employing over 100,000 France
2005. FEFAC industry experts persons on more than 4,000 DSM Nutritional Products invites
estimated the potential AI production sites. applications for a position of
knock-on effects for the cal- Scientist in Fish Nutrition and
endar year 2006 a total re- Download the tables of Health Research View/Reply
duction of 2.5 – 5 mt of the compound feed production in
total EU poultry feed output, FEFAC member countries