Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1177/0022487105285962
Linda Darling-Hammond
Stanford University
Much of what teachers need to know to be successful is invisible to lay observers, leading to the view
that teaching requires little formal study and to frequent disdain for teacher education programs. The
weakness of traditional program models that are collections of largely unrelated courses reinforce this
low regard. This article argues that we have learned a great deal about how to create stronger, more ef-
fective teacher education programs. Three critical components of such programs include tight coher-
ence and integration among courses and between course work and clinical work in schools, extensive
and intensely supervised clinical work integrated with course work using pedagogies linking theory
and practice, and closer, proactive relationships with schools that serve diverse learners effectively
and develop and model good teaching. Also, schools of education should resist pressures to water
down preparation, which ultimately undermine the preparation of entering teachers, the reputation
of schools of education, and the strength of the profession.
The previous articles have articulated a spectac- nations, and growing evidence demonstrates
ular array of things that teachers should know that—among all educational resources—teach-
and be able to do in their work. These include ers’ abilities are especially crucial contributors
understanding many things about how people to students’ learning. Furthermore, the
learn and how to teach effectively, including as- demands on teachers are increasing. Teachers
pects of pedagogical content knowledge that in- need not only to be able to keep order and pro-
corporate language, culture, and community vide useful information to students but also to
contexts for learning. Teachers also need to un- be increasingly effective in enabling a diverse
derstand the person, the spirit, of every child group of students to learn ever more complex
and find a way to nurture that spirit. And they material. In previous decades, they were
need the skills to construct and manage class- expected to prepare only a small minority for
room activities efficiently, communicate well, ambitious intellectual work, whereas they are
use technology, and reflect on their practice to now expected to prepare virtually all students
learn from and improve it continually. for higher order thinking and performance
The importance of powerful teaching is skills once reserved to only a few.
increasingly important in contemporary soci- Given this variety of teacher education goals
ety. Standards for learning are now higher than and the realities of 21st-century schooling, the
they have ever been before, as citizens and task for this article is to consider what those of
workers need greater knowledge and skill to us in the field of teacher education might do to
survive and succeed. Education is increasingly support the kinds of learning teachers require to
important to the success of both individuals and undertake this complex job with some hope of
Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 57, No. X, Month 2006 1-15
DOI: 10.1177/0022487105285962
© 2006 by the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education
1
success. In responding to this question, I want to CONTEMPORARY DILEMMAS FOR
draw on the recently released work of the TEACHER EDUCATION
National Academy of Education Committee on
Both the apparent ease of teaching to the
Teacher Education, a group of researchers,
noninitiated and the range of things teachers
teachers, and teacher educators that worked for
really do need to know to be successful with all
4 years to summarize how what we have come
students—not just those who can learn easily on
to know about how children and adults learn
their own—are relevant to the dilemmas that
can inform the curriculum and design of teacher
teacher education programs find themselves in
education programs (Darling-Hammond &
1 today. On one hand, many lay people and a
Bransford, 2005).
large share of policy makers hold the view that
The National Academy of Education Com-
almost anyone can teach reasonably well—that
mittee’s report begins with this description:
entering teaching requires, at most, knowing
To a music lover watching a concert from the audi- something about a subject, and the rest of the
ence, it would be easy to believe that a conductor has fairly simple “tricks of the trade” can be picked
one of the easiest jobs in the world. There he stands,
waving his arms in time with the music, and the or-
up on the job.
chestra produces glorious sounds, to all appear- These notions—which derive both from a
ances quite spontaneously. Hidden from the lack of understanding of what good teachers
audience—especially from the musical novice—are actually do behind the scenes and from tacit
the conductor’s abilities to read and interpret all of standards for teaching that are far too low—
the parts at once, to play several instruments and un-
derstand the capacities of many more, to organize
lead to pressures for backdoor routes into teach-
and coordinate the disparate parts, to motivate and ing that deny teachers access to much of the
communicate with all of the orchestra members. In knowledge base for teaching and often, to the
the same way that conducting looks like hand-wav- supervised clinical practice that would provide
ing to the uninitiated, teaching looks simple from the them with models of what good teachers do and
perspective of students who see a person talking and
how they understand their work. It is tragic that
listening, handing out papers, and giving assign-
ments. Invisible in both of these performances are individuals who are likely to be seduced into
the many kinds of knowledge, unseen plans, and teaching through pathways that minimize their
backstage moves—the skunkworks, if you will, that access to knowledge are those who teach high-
allow a teacher to purposefully move a group of stu- need students in low-income urban and rural
dents from one set of understandings and skills to schools where the most sophisticated under-
quite another over the space of many months.
On a daily basis, teachers confront complex deci-
standing of teaching is needed.
sions that rely on many different kinds of knowledge On the other hand, the realities of what it
and judgment and that can involve high-stakes out- takes to teach in U.S. schools such that all chil-
comes for students’ futures. To make good decisions, dren truly have an opportunity to learn are
teachers must be aware of the many ways in which nearly overwhelming. In the classrooms most
student learning can unfold in the context of devel-
opment, learning differences, language and cultural
beginning teachers will enter, at least 25% of
influences, and individual temperaments, interests, students live in poverty and many of them lack
and approaches to learning. In addition to founda- basic food, shelter, and health care; from 10% to
tional knowledge about these areas of learning and 20% have identified learning differences; 15%
performance, teachers need to know how to take the speak a language other than English as their pri-
steps necessary to gather additional information
that will allow them to make more grounded judg-
mary language (many more in urban settings);
ments about what is going on and what strategies and about 40% are members of racial/ethnic
may be helpful. Above all, teachers need to keep “minority” groups, many of them recent immi-
what is best for the child at the center of their deci- grants from countries with different educa-
sion making. This sounds like a simple point but it is tional systems and cultural traditions.
a complex matter that has profound implications for
what happens to and for many children in school.
Not only is the kind of practice needed to
(Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005, pp. 1-2) teach students with a wide range of learning
needs an extremely complex, knowledge-
intense undertaking—demanding of extraordi-
Furthermore, the work of teaching, like that dents in different contexts. And given the wide
of other professions, is viewed as nonroutine range of learning situations posed by contem-
and reciprocally related to learning; that is, porary students—who represent many distinct
what teachers do must be continually evaluated language, cultural, and learning approaches—
and reshaped based on whether it advances teachers need a much deeper knowledge base
learning, rather than carried out largely by cur- about teaching for diverse learners than ever
riculum packages, scripts, and pacing sched- before and more highly developed diagnostic
ules as many districts currently require. This abilities to guide their decisions.
means that teachers need highly refined knowl- Finally, teachers must be able continually to
edge and skills for assessing pupil learning, and learn to address the problems of practice they
they need a wide repertoire of practice—along encounter and to meet the unpredictable learn-
with the knowledge to know when to use differ- ing needs of all of their students—and they
ent strategies for different purposes. Rather must take responsibility for contributing what
than being subject to the pendulum swings of they learn to not only their own practice but also
polarized teaching policies that rest on simplis- that of their colleagues. This means that pro-
tic ideas of best practice—“whole language” grams must help teachers develop the disposi-
versus “phonics,” for example, or inquiry learn- tion to continue to seek answers to difficult
ing versus direct instruction—teachers need to problems of teaching and learning and the skills
know how and when to use a range of practices to learn from practice (and from their col-
to accomplish their goals with different stu- leagues) as well as to learn for practice.